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58-414: The Taylor KO factor multiplies bullet mass (measured in grains ) by muzzle velocity (measured in feet per second ) by bullet diameter (measured in inches) and then divides the product by 7,000, converting the value from grains to pounds and giving a numerical value from 0 to ~150 for normal hunting cartridges. It is proportional to the momentum at the muzzle times the diameter of the bullet. Expressed as

116-483: A barleycorn . A system of measurement is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to each other. As science progressed, a need arose to relate the measurement systems of different quantities, like length and weight and volume. The effort of attempting to relate different traditional systems between each other exposed many inconsistencies, and brought about the development of new units and systems. Systems of units vary from country to country. Some of

174-544: A comparison ‡ Developed after Taylor's writings Grain (measure) A grain is a unit of measurement of mass , and in the troy weight , avoirdupois , and apothecaries' systems , equal to exactly 64.798 91  milligrams . It is nominally based upon the mass of a single ideal seed of a cereal . From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance, the average masses of wheat and barley grains were part of

232-489: A crucial role in human endeavour from early ages up to the present. A multitude of systems of units used to be very common. Now there is a global standard, the International System of Units (SI), the modern form of the metric system . In trade, weights and measures are often a subject of governmental regulation, to ensure fairness and transparency. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)

290-727: A fraction, the Taylor KO Factor is: Using the standard 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge, the cartridge's characteristics are: The calculation is: Therefore the Taylor KO factor for the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge is 17.7. T K O F = M a s s × V e l o c i t y × D i a m e t e r 3505 , 55 {\displaystyle \mathrm {TKOF} ={\frac {Mass\times Velocity\times Diameter}{3505,55}}} 7.62×51mm NATO in metric : Note: The product of mass and velocity

348-454: A frontal head shot with the .416 Rigby and the .470 Nitro Express , two cartridges with similar muzzle energy but different bullet weights. Taylor states that the .416 Rigby will probably not knock the elephant out, but momentarily stun the animal which will recover quickly if not dispatched immediately, while the same shot delivered by the .470 Nitro Express will render the elephant unconscious for up to five minutes. Further, Taylor writes that

406-424: A quantity may be described as multiples of that of a familiar entity, which can be easier to contextualize than a value in a formal unit system. For instance, a publication may describe an area in a foreign country as a number of multiples of the area of a region local to the readership. The propensity for certain concepts to be used frequently can give rise to loosely defined "systems" of units. For most quantities

464-500: A result, units of measure could vary not only from location to location but from person to person. Units not based on the human body could be based on agriculture, as is the case with the furlong and the acre , both based on the amount of land able to be worked by a team of oxen . Metric systems of units have evolved since the adoption of the original metric system in France in 1791. The current international standard metric system

522-400: A small set of units is required. These units are taken as the base units and the other units are derived units . Thus base units are the units of the quantities which are independent of other quantities and they are the units of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and the amount of substance. Derived units are the units of the quantities which are derived from

580-433: A unit is necessary to communicate values of that physical quantity. For example, conveying to someone a particular length without using some sort of unit is impossible, because a length cannot be described without a reference used to make sense of the value given. But not all quantities require a unit of their own. Using physical laws, units of quantities can be expressed as combinations of units of other quantities. Thus only

638-431: Is "surely the most misleading thing in the world", that it is too dependent on muzzle velocity instead of bullet weight and that it is "quite useless if you are trying to compare any two rifles from the point of view of the actual punch inflicted by the bullet" which according to him is more affected by the bullet's weight. In African rifles and cartridges Taylor compares the effect of a near miss of an elephant's brain from

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696-439: Is a quantity called, in modern physics, "momentum". Conservation of momentum is a characteristic of non-deformable collisions. A bullet, hitting hard bone, would transfer most of the impulse to that bone mass. John "Pondoro" Taylor, an ivory hunter who over his career shot over 1,000 elephants along with a variety of other African game and who is renowned for writing two books about rifles and cartridges for African hunting, devised

754-485: Is central to the scientific method . A standard system of units facilitates this. Scientific systems of units are a refinement of the concept of weights and measures historically developed for commercial purposes. Science , medicine , and engineering often use larger and smaller units of measurement than those used in everyday life. The judicious selection of the units of measurement can aid researchers in problem solving (see, for example, dimensional analysis ). In

812-409: Is expressed as the product of a numerical value { Z } (a pure number) and a unit [ Z ]: For example, let Z {\displaystyle Z} be "2 metres"; then, { Z } = 2 {\displaystyle \{Z\}=2} is the numerical value and [ Z ] = m e t r e {\displaystyle [Z]=\mathrm {metre} } is the unit. Conversely,

870-526: Is generally shot at medium to long ranges, theoretical mathematical energy may possibly prove a more reliable guide" and that his formula was designed to measure a cartridge's performance against the large, thick skinned, big boned elephant. Below is a table including a number of African dangerous game hunting cartridges including their bullet mass, muzzle velocity, bullet diameter and Taylor KO factor, discussed in African rifles and cartridges . † Included as

928-425: Is measured in the dimensionless unit of parts per million ( ppm ), numerically equivalent to concentration measured in milligrams per litre. One grain per U.S. gallon is approximately 17.1 ppm . Soft water contains 1–4 gpg of calcium carbonate equivalents, while hard water contains 11–2 gpg . Though no longer recommended, in the U.S., grains are still used occasionally in medicine as part of

986-417: Is mg/ m . One grain per cubic foot is approximately 2288 mg/m . At least since antiquity , grains of wheat or barley were used by Mediterranean traders to define units of mass; along with other seeds, especially those of the carob tree. According to a longstanding tradition, one carat (the mass of a carob seed) was equivalent to the weight of four wheat grains or three barleycorns. Since

1044-467: Is now defined as exactly 0.0254  m , and the US and imperial avoirdupois pound is now defined as exactly 0.453 592 37   kg . While the above systems of units are based on arbitrary unit values, formalised as standards, natural units in physics are based on physical principle or are selected to make physical equations easier to work with. For example, atomic units (au) were designed to simplify

1102-497: Is obsolete in the United Kingdom and, like most other non-SI units, it has no basis in law and cannot be used in commerce. Grains are commonly used to measure the mass of bullets and propellants . In archery, the grain is the standard unit used to weigh arrows. In North America, the hardness of water is often measured in grains per U.S. gallon ( gpg ) of calcium carbonate equivalents. Otherwise, water hardness

1160-478: Is tasked with ensuring worldwide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI). Metrology is the science of developing nationally and internationally accepted units of measurement. In physics and metrology, units are standards for measurement of physical quantities that need clear definitions to be useful. Reproducibility of experimental results

1218-489: Is the International System of Units (abbreviated to SI). An important feature of modern systems is standardization . Each unit has a universally recognized size. Both the imperial units and US customary units derive from earlier English units . Imperial units were mostly used in the British Commonwealth and the former British Empire . US customary units are still the main system of measurement used in

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1276-514: Is the conversion of the unit of measurement in which a quantity is expressed, typically through a multiplicative conversion factor that changes the unit without changing the quantity. This is also often loosely taken to include replacement of a quantity with a corresponding quantity that describes the same physical property. One example of the importance of agreed units is the failure of the NASA Mars Climate Orbiter , which

1334-420: The .577 Nitro Express will knock an elephant unconscious for around 20 minutes, the .600 Nitro Express around half an hour. The Taylor KO factor conforms to the observations and experiences of Taylor who, along with other very successful elephant hunters such as Deaf Banks , Pete Pearson and Jim Sutherland , preferred large heavy bore rifles for elephant hunting in close country. Whilst most acknowledge

1392-884: The 4th and 3rd millennia BC among the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia , Egypt and the Indus Valley , and perhaps also Elam in Persia as well. Weights and measures are mentioned in the Bible (Leviticus 19:35–36). It is a commandment to be honest and have fair measures. In the Magna Carta of 1215 (The Great Charter) with the seal of King John , put before him by the Barons of England, King John agreed in Clause 35 "There shall be one measure of wine throughout our whole realm, and one measure of ale and one measure of corn—namely,

1450-484: The Houses of Parliament . The standard was an avoirdupois pound, the grain being defined as ⁠ 1 / 7000 ⁠ of it. The division of the carat into four grains survives in both senses well into the early twentieth century. For pearls and diamonds, weight is quoted in carats, divided into four grains. The carat was eventually set to 205 milligrams (1877), and later 200 milligrams. For touch or fineness of gold,

1508-640: The International System of Units as precisely 64.798 91   milligrams . One gram is thus approximately equivalent to 15.432 36  grains . The unit formerly used by jewellers to measure pearls, diamonds, and other precious stones, called the jeweller's grain or pearl grain , is equal to 1 ⁄ 4 carat (50 mg; 0.77 gr). The grain was also the name of a traditional French unit equal to 53.115 mg . In both British Imperial units and United States customary units , there are precisely 7,000 grains per avoirdupois pound , and 5,760 grains per troy pound or apothecaries' pound. It

1566-484: The United States outside of science, medicine, many sectors of industry, and some of government and military, and despite Congress having legally authorised metric measure on 28 July 1866. Some steps towards US metrication have been made, particularly the redefinition of basic US and imperial units to derive exactly from SI units. Since the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the US and imperial inch

1624-458: The apothecaries' system , especially in prescriptions for older medicines such as aspirin or phenobarbital . For example, the dosage of a standard 325 mg tablet of aspirin is sometimes given as 5 grains . In that example the grain is approximated to 65 mg , though the grain can also be approximated to 60 mg , depending on the medication and manufacturer. The apothecaries' system has its own system of notation, in which

1682-401: The metric system , the imperial system , and United States customary units . Historically many of the systems of measurement which had been in use were to some extent based on the dimensions of the human body. Such units, which may be called anthropic units , include the cubit , based on the length of the forearm; the pace , based on the length of a stride; and the foot and hand . As

1740-553: The social sciences , there are no standard units of measurement. A unit of measurement is a standardized quantity of a physical property, used as a factor to express occurring quantities of that property. Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans. Primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks: constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials. The earliest known uniform systems of measurement seem to have all been created sometime in

1798-512: The British Standards Commission, arrived at this value experimentally. The grain was the legal foundation of traditional English weight systems , and is the only unit that is equal throughout the troy, avoirdupois, and apothecaries' systems of mass. The unit was based on the weight of a single grain of barley which was equal to about + 4 ⁄ 3 the weight of a single grain of wheat. The fundamental unit of

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1856-626: The London quart;—and one width of dyed and russet and hauberk cloths—namely, two ells below the selvage..." As of the 21st century, the International System is predominantly used in the world. There exist other unit systems which are used in many places such as the United States Customary System and the Imperial System. The United States is the only industrialized country that has not yet at least mostly converted to

1914-483: The TKOF than the smaller bore general purpose hunting cartridges such as the .303 British and the .30-06 Springfield . For these reasons the Taylor KO factor is seen as poor measure of stopping power for cartridges used on deer sized game and smaller, it is also seen as a poor measure of the performance of handgun cartridges. Taylor himself acknowledged this, stating "in the case of soft-skinned non-dangerous game, such as

1972-471: The Taylor KO factor to place a mathematical value on the concussive effects a cartridge and bullet would have on an elephant, specifically from a shot to the head when the brain is missed, a "knock out" meaning the elephant was sufficiently stunned by the hit that it would not immediately turn on the hunter or flee. First describing the Taylor KO Factor as "knock out value" or "strike energy" in his African rifles and cartridges , Taylor wrote that muzzle energy

2030-414: The base quantities and some of the derived units are the units of speed, work, acceleration, energy, pressure etc. Different systems of units are based on different choices of a set of related units including fundamental and derived units. Following ISO 80000-1 , any value or magnitude of a physical quantity is expressed as a comparison to a unit of that quantity. The value of a physical quantity Z

2088-506: The crew confusing tower instructions (in metres) and altimeter readings (in feet). Three crew and five people on the ground were killed. Thirty-seven were injured. In 1983, a Boeing 767 (which thanks to its pilot's gliding skills landed safely and became known as the Gimli Glider ) ran out of fuel in mid-flight because of two mistakes in figuring the fuel supply of Air Canada 's first aircraft to use metric measurements. This accident

2146-468: The different systems include the centimetre–gram–second , foot–pound–second , metre–kilogram–second systems, and the International System of Units , SI. Among the different systems of units used in the world, the most widely used and internationally accepted one is SI. The base SI units are the second, metre, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela; all other SI units are derived from these base units. Systems of measurement in modern use include

2204-436: The formula. Specific criticisms of the Taylor KO Factor include the emphasis placed on bullet diameter over factors such as sectional density and bullet expansion and the formula’s failure to account for modern bullet design. These factors, along with Taylor’s dismissal of muzzle energy, allow many obsolete low powered large bore cartridges such as the .577/450 Martini-Henry and the .45-70 Government to have as much as twice

2262-404: The fraction of gold was given as a weight, the total being a solidus of 24 carats or 96 grains. Physical unit A unit of measurement , or unit of measure , is a definite magnitude of a quantity , defined and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of quantity . Any other quantity of that kind can be expressed as a multiple of

2320-534: The legal definitions of units of mass. Expressions such as "thirty-two grains of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear" appear to have been ritualistic formulas. Another source states that it was defined such that 252.458 units would balance 1 cubic inch (16 cm ) of distilled water at an ambient air-water pressure and temperature of 30 inches of mercury (100 kPa) and 62 °F (17 °C) respectively. Another book states that Captain Henry Kater , of

2378-526: The lesser but quicker balances: the bismar or auncel, the Roman balance, and the steelyard . The original mercantile pound of 25 shillings or 15 (Tower) ounces was displaced by, variously, the pound of the Hanseatic League (16 tower ounces) and by the pound of the then-important wool trade (16 ounces of 437 grains). A new pound of 7,680 grains was inadvertently created as 16 troy ounces, referring to

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2436-451: The metric system, and the use of the grain in prescriptions is now rare. In the U.S., particulate emission levels, used to monitor and regulate pollution, are sometimes measured in grains per cubic foot instead of the more usual ppm by volume. This is the same unit commonly used to measure the amount of moisture in the air, also known as the absolute humidity . The SI unit used to measure particulate emissions and absolute humidity

2494-629: The metric system. The systematic effort to develop a universally acceptable system of units dates back to 1790 when the French National Assembly charged the French Academy of Sciences to come up such a unit system. This system was the precursor to the metric system which was quickly developed in France but did not take on universal acceptance until 1875 when The Metric Convention Treaty was signed by 17 nations. After this treaty

2552-479: The new troy rather than the old troy. Eventually, the wool pound won out. The avoirdupois pound was defined in prototype, rated as 6,992 to 7,004 grains. In the Imperial Weights and Measures Act 1824 ( 5 Geo. 4 . c. 74), the avoirdupois pound was defined as 7,000 grains exactly. The Weights and Measures Act 1855 authorised Miller's new standards to replace those lost in the fire that destroyed

2610-425: The numerical value expressed in an arbitrary unit can be obtained as: Units can only be added or subtracted if they are the same type; however units can always be multiplied or divided, as George Gamow used to explain. Let Z {\displaystyle Z} be "2 metres" and W {\displaystyle W} "3 seconds", then There are certain rules that apply to units: Conversion of units

2668-444: The original sterling pennies was 22½ troy grains, or 32 "Tower grains". Physical grain weights were made and sold commercially at least as late as the early 1900s, and took various forms, from squares of sheet metal to manufactured wire shapes and coin-like weights. The troy pound was only "the pound of Pence, Spices, Confections, as of Electuaries", as such goods might be measured by a troi or small balance. The old troy standard

2726-454: The originality of the formula and Taylor's broad big-game hunting experience with a wide variety of cartridges, the Taylor KO factor is source of some debate amongst modern gun writers, some describing it as peculiar, antiquated, inaccurate and an unfounded theory, others stating it is a useful tool but stressing that should not be used in isolation when choosing a big-game hunting cartridge, whilst others still say their experiences tend to support

2784-400: The pre-1527 English weight system, known as Tower weights , was based on the wheat grain. The tower "wheat" grain was defined as exactly + 45 ⁄ 64 (≈ + 3 ⁄ 4 ) of the troy "barley" grain. Since the implementation of the international yard and pound agreement of 1 July 1959, the grain or troy grain (symbol: gr ) measure has been defined in terms of units of mass in

2842-434: The same unit for the distance between two cities and the length of a needle. Thus, historically they would develop independently. One way to make large numbers or small fractions easier to read, is to use unit prefixes . At some point in time though, the need to relate the two units might arise, and consequently the need to choose one unit as defining the other or vice versa. For example, an inch could be defined in terms of

2900-401: The unit of measurement. For example, a length is a physical quantity . The metre (symbol m) is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length. For instance, when referencing "10 metres" (or 10 m), what is actually meant is 10 times the definite predetermined length called "metre". The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played

2958-555: The units symbol or abbreviation is followed by the quantity in lower case Roman numerals . For amounts less than one, the quantity is written as a fraction, or for one half, ss (or variations such as ss., ṡṡ, or s̅s̅). Therefore, a prescription for tablets containing 325 mg of aspirin and 30 mg of codeine can be written "ASA gr. v c̄ cod. gr. ss tablets" (using the medical abbreviations ASA for acetylsalicylic acid [aspirin], c̄ for "with", and cod. for codeine). The apothecaries' system has gradually been replaced by

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3016-515: The wave equation in atomic physics . Some unusual and non-standard units may be encountered in sciences. These may include the solar mass ( 2 × 10  kg ), the megaton (the energy released by detonating one million tons of trinitrotoluene , TNT) and the electronvolt . To reduce the incidence of retail fraud, many national statutes have standard definitions of weights and measures that may be used (hence " statute measure "), and these are verified by legal officers. In informal settings,

3074-432: The weights of these seeds are highly variable, especially that of the cereals as a function of moisture, this is a convention more than an absolute law. The history of the modern British grain can be traced back to a royal decree in thirteenth century England, re-iterating decrees that go back as far as King Offa (eighth century). The Tower pound was one of many monetary pounds of 240 silver pennies . By consent of

3132-645: The whole Realm the King's Measure was made, so that an English Penny , which is called the Sterling, round without clipping, shall weigh Thirty-two Grains of Wheat dry in the midst of the Ear; Twenty pennies make an Ounce; and Twelve Ounces make a Pound. The pound in question is the Tower pound . The Tower pound, abolished in 1527, consisted of 12 ounces like the troy pound, but was 1 ⁄ 16 (≈6%) lighter. The weight of

3190-458: Was accidentally destroyed on a mission to Mars in September 1999 (instead of entering orbit) due to miscommunications about the value of forces: different computer programs used different units of measurement ( newton versus pound force ). Considerable amounts of effort, time, and money were wasted. On 15 April 1999, Korean Air cargo flight 6316 from Shanghai to Seoul was lost due to

3248-451: Was set by King Offa's currency reform , and was in full use in 1284 (Assize of Weights and Measures, King Edward I), but was restricted to currency (the pound of pennies) until it was abolished in 1527. This pound was progressively replaced by a new pound, based on the weight of 120 silver dirhems of 48 grains. The new pound used a barley-corn grain, rather than a wheat grain. Avoirdupois (goods of weight) refers to those things measured by

3306-591: Was signed, a General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) was established. The CGPM produced the current SI, which was adopted in 1954 at the 10th Conference of Weights and Measures. Currently, the United States is a dual-system society which uses both the SI and the US Customary system. The use of a single unit of measurement for some quantity has obvious drawbacks. For example, it is impractical to use

3364-560: Was the result of both confusion due to the simultaneous use of metric and Imperial measures and confusion of mass and volume measures. When planning his journey across the Atlantic Ocean in the 1480s, Columbus mistakenly assumed that the mile referred to in the Arabic estimate of ⁠56 + 2 / 3 ⁠ miles for the size of a degree was the same as the actually much shorter Italian mile of 1,480 metres. His estimate for

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