77-591: The Tabula Cortonensis (sometimes also Cortona Tablet ) is a 2200-year-old, inscribed bronze tablet in the Etruscan language , discovered in Cortona , Italy . It may record for posterity the details of an ancient legal transaction which took place in the ancient Tuscan city of Cortona , known to the Etruscans as Curtun . Its 40-line, 200-word, two-sided inscription is the third longest inscription found in
154-601: A Vinča culture site in Pločnik ( Serbia ), and believed to have been smelted from a natural tin-copper ore, stannite . Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Egypt , Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in China, Luristan (Iran), Tepe Sialk (Iran), Mundigak (Afghanistan), and Mesopotamia (Iraq). Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process could be more easily controlled, and
231-426: A Roman citizen , men call me Gaius Mucius. I came here as an enemy to kill my enemy, and I am as ready to die as I am to kill. We Romans act bravely and, when adversity strikes, we suffer bravely." He also declared that he was the first of three hundred Roman youths to volunteer for the task of assassinating Porsena at the risk of losing their own lives. "Watch", he is said to have declared, "so that you know how cheap
308-524: A copper oxide (eventually becoming copper carbonate) layer is formed, the underlying metal is protected from further corrosion . This can be seen on statues from the Hellenistic period. If copper chlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called " bronze disease " will eventually completely destroy it. Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins over a longer period. Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to
385-399: A different construction site and was deliberately concealed so that construction could be completed on time without being delayed by archaeological work. The real origin of the tablet is unknown to this day. The tablet is thought by some scholars, notably Larissa Bonfante and Nancy de Grummond, to be a notarized record of the division of an inheritance or sale of real estate . Reference
462-495: A feast in honor of the dead in "August." Wylin interprets the phrase θuχt . ceśu . tltel tɜi (20) as "deposited in the house, in that of that one (referring to pɜtruś )" thus seeing it as parallel to the earlier phrase: θuχti . cusuθuraś . suθiu . ame (19). In line 20, the form fratu-ce has a past tense verbal ending -ce , but it otherwise looks like the Umbrian and Latin word for "brother" frater in Umbrian context meaning
539-485: A form of the endonym for the Etruscan people (but also claimed to be just the generic term for "people, public"), here perhaps indicating that Etruscan measurements are being used (see Wylin's translation below). cusuθuraś and larisalisvla (3), seen in various forms throughout the text and beyond, also seem to be names. In lines 5-6, the coordinated elements pava-c traula-c seem to show up in slightly altered form in
616-665: A major influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a major source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall , which were traded as far as Phoenicia in the eastern Mediterranean . In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value and an indicator of social status. In Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes , which are documented in
693-414: A member of a holy order; so if the root was borrowed from Umbrian, this may mean something like "consulted together as brethren." Wylin proposes for the sequence sianś ./ sparzɜte . θui . salt zic . fratuce . cusuθuraś . / larisalisvla . pɜtruśc . scɜvaś . pesś . tarχian/eś \\ (20-23) the translation: "The sian ("wise one"? if related to Latin sanus ) incised ( fratu-ce ) the text ( zic ) here ( θui ) on
770-551: A sharper edge longer. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin. Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Historical "bronzes" are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap
847-416: Is a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel -base alloys. Bronzes are typically ductile alloys, considerably less brittle than cast iron. Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties . Some common examples are
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#1732781057766924-494: Is a form of Etruscan ruva "brother"). Variants of this form from other inscriptions include rauhe and ruvfe . In line 11, with regard to aulesa . vɜl , it may be noted that there is a statue also from Cortona (first century BCE) of a man described in Etruscan as aulesi vel... interpreted as "Aule, son of Vel..." a name also seen here in lines 24, 26, and 39. Also in line 11, atina may mean "maternal" from ati "mother," just as apana "paternal" < apa "father." As it
1001-450: Is also written alone on a cup (ETP 136). But atina may also be a name, or theonym. A variant (?) atana is found on another drinking cup (kylix) at ETP 212. The phrase cel atina recurs at the end of the inscription, as well, and may be a particular place, or a theonym "Mother Earth." Van der Meer offers: "The witnesses (are)": (list of 15 male names) Notes: Again, mostly names here, many of which also appear on various other (especially
1078-493: Is an alloy consisting primarily of copper , commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium , manganese , nickel , or zinc ) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus , or metalloids , such as arsenic or silicon . These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as strength , ductility , or machinability . The archaeological period in which bronze
1155-418: Is in modern times. Because historical artworks were often made of brasses (copper and zinc) and bronzes of different metallic compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older artworks increasingly use the generalized term "copper alloy" instead of the names of individual alloys. This is done (at least in part) to prevent database searches from failing merely because of errors or disagreements in
1232-527: Is likely that 'nehoshet' refers to copper and its alloys with tin, now called bronze. In the King James Version, there is no use of the word 'bronze' and 'nehoshet' was translated as 'brass'. Modern translations use 'bronze'. Bronze (nehoshet) was used widely in the Tabernacle for items such as the bronze altar (Exodus Ch.27), bronze laver (Exodus Ch.30), utensils, and mirror (Exodus Ch.38). It
1309-426: Is made on the tablet to a vineyard (cf. lines 1 and 2: vinac ), cultivated land (line 2: restm-c ), and an estate located in the territory of Lake Trasimeno (cf. lines 35 and 36: celti nɜitisś tarsminaśś ). The lake lies east of Cortona in modern-day Western Umbria . The legal document centered around the aristocratic Cusu family and Petru Scevas and his wife. Two groups of witnesses or listeners helped to certify
1386-444: Is possible that here it and spanθi (4) are locatives of span "plain." śar(-c) (2,4) is "ten" and zal is "two" (7), and the "Roman" numeral 'IIIIC'(5) had been sometimes interpreted as "400," though Etruscans generally had a different sign for "100" than C , at least early on. More recent analyses read it as SIIIIC (re-segmenting the s from raśna-s ) as "14.5." Notable is raśna(s) (5) (and in line 24 raśna-l ), perhaps
1463-543: Is possible, then, that [the Tabula Cortonensis] may well be concerned with just such an allocation of land..." Additionally, several words ( pav , clθii , zilci , atina , larz ) that appear on the tablet have been found inscribed on Etruscan plates, drinking cups, or wine jugs or jars. The tablet measures just over 8 inches wide by about 11 inches long, and is about between 2 millimetres (0.079 in) and 3 millimetres (0.12 in) thick. When discovered,
1540-453: Is used to make hammers , mallets , wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors. Bronze is used to make bronze wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would discolor oak . Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts. Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties. It can be impregnated with oil to make
1617-541: Is used to make the tone rings of many professional model banjos . The tone ring is a heavy (usually 3 lb; 1.4 kg) folded or arched metal ring attached to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is stretched – it is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble register. Bronze has also been used in coins; most "copper" coins are actually bronze, with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc. As with coins, bronze has been used in
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#17327810577661694-687: The Etruscan language , after the Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis and the Tabula Capuana , and the longest discovered in the 20th century. The tablet was brought to the police in October 1992 by someone who claimed to have found it at a construction site in September 1992. When provided to the police, the tablet had been broken into seven fragments, with the original right bottom corner missing. Investigators attempted to find
1771-560: The Etruscans were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BC, and Greek and Roman mirrors followed the same pattern. Although other materials such as speculum metal had come into use, and Western glass mirrors had largely taken over, bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan and elsewhere in the eighteenth century, and are still made on a small scale in Kerala , India. Bronze is
1848-571: The Golden Age , when men lived among the gods; the Silver age , where youth lasted a hundred years; and the Bronze Age , the era of heroes. It was first adopted for a sports event at the 1904 Summer Olympics . At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals. Bronze is the normal material for the related form of
1925-756: The Kingdom of Benin ; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures from Greek mythology ; in east Asia , Chinese ritual bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty —more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary. Tiffany Glass Studios, made famous by Louis C. Tiffany commonly referred to his product as favrile glass or " Tiffany glass ," and used bronze in their artisan work for his Tiffany lamps . The largest and most ornate bronze fountain known to be cast in
2002-512: The Liber Linteus (4.21-22) eisna . pevach . vinum . trau . pruchś , which van der Meer translates "a ritual ( eis-na ) young? ( peva-ch ) (> a new(?) ritual): wine, a pouring ( trau ) from the (wine-)jug ( pruch-ś )," pointing out that peva/pava probably means "boy, youth", but also admitting that trau may be an agent noun, like zichu "writer." C. De Simone translates traula- here as "he who libates," and he connects zacinat with
2079-409: The Tabula Capuana : ful/inus'nes (5/6). B. van der Meer thinks that it is a name of a god in the Tabula Capuana (= Fufluns?). The form uslnal in 30 and 32 is similar to uslane- in Liber Linteus (5.21) (with expected loss of the internal vowel here), which van der Meer takes to be an adjectival form of usil "Sun (god), sun, noon, midday," though here it may be part of a name. The context of
2156-550: The plaquette , normally a rectangular work of art with a scene in relief , for a collectors' market. Bronze is also associated with eighth wedding anniversaries. There are over 125 references to bronze ('nehoshet'), which appears to be the Hebrew word used for copper and any of its alloys. However, the Old Testament era Hebrews are not thought to have had the capability to manufacture zinc (needed to make brass) and so it
2233-682: The 12th-century Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège is sometimes described as bronze and sometimes as brass . In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while helmets and armor were hammered from mild bronze. Modern commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead , 40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as
2310-600: The Clusian king Lars Porsena laid siege to Rome. Gaius Mucius Cordus, with the approval of the Roman Senate , sneaked into the Etruscan camp with the intent of assassinating Porsena. Since it was the soldiers' pay day, there were two similarly dressed people, one of whom was the king, on a raised platform speaking to the troops. This caused Mucius to misidentify his target, and he killed Porsena's scribe by mistake. After being captured, he famously declared to Porsena: " I am
2387-480: The Cusu (family) (agreed to this) in the magistracy of Lart Cusu, (son) of Titina, and of Laris Salini, (son) of Aule in the land of Lake Trasimeno. (Copies of) the tablet lying in (this) house, according to custom, are deposited, as things to be placed (also in the houses) of: Velche Cusu, son of Aule; Velthur Titlni, son of Velthur; Lart Celatina, son of Apnei; and Laris Celatina, son of Pitlnei. Bronze Bronze
Tabula Cortonensis - Misplaced Pages Continue
2464-578: The Etruscan dialect spoken in Cortona where this letter exclusively appears, the letter Ǝ marks a different sound from that of the letter E. The inscription is datable to the late 3rd to early 2nd century bce, so near 200. The following transcribes the special reversed epsilon as ɜ . There are clear zigzag marks in the text (marked here by \\) that presumably end sentences or sections, and each such section will be treated separately here: Notes: The forms pɜtruiś (1)/ pɜtruś (5) (and other forms throughout
2541-550: The Etruscan word for "lake": nɜitisś (35/36) . The word celti that immediately precedes is the word for earth or land cel plus the locative -ti . The same root shows up in 39 and 40 in the phrase cɜl atinaś with the second element either being a name, or related to ati "mother" (in which case "Mother Earth"? or "land of/consecrated to the Mother"?). Or Celatina could be simply a name (see below). On sparza (36) "tablet" and θuχt "house" see above in section four. Wylin takes
2618-554: The Liber Linteus form is as follows (5.19-22): citz . vacl . nunθen . θesan . tinś . θesan / eiseraś . śeuś . unuχ . mlaχ . nunθen . θesviti / favitic . faśei . cisum . θesane . uslanec / mlaχe . luri . zeric roughly: "Three times (perform) a libation. Make an offering to θesan (Dawn) of Tin (Jupiter) (and) to θesan / of the Dark Gods (= morning and evening Venus?), for them, make an appropriate offering with oil both in
2695-452: The barrel. It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors . Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings. Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper )
2772-422: The battle of David and Goliath in I Samuel 17:5-6;38 (also see II Chron. 12:10). Gaius Mucius Scaevola Gaius Mucius Cordus , better known with his later cognomen Scaevola ( / ˈ s iː v ə l ə , ˈ s ɛ v -/ SE(E)V -ə-lə , Latin: [ˈskae̯wɔla] ), was an ancient Roman youth, possibly mythical, famous for his bravery. In 508 BC, during the war between Rome and Clusium ,
2849-453: The body is to men who have their eye on great glory". Mucius thrust his right hand into a fire which was lit for sacrifice and held it there without giving any indication of pain, thereby earning for himself and his descendants the cognomen Scaevola , meaning "left-handed". Porsena was shocked at the youth's bravery, and dismissed him from the Etruscan camp, free to return to Rome, saying "Go back, since you do more harm to yourself than me". At
2926-409: The deposit according to the rite ( rat- )(?) in the house ( θuχt ) it stays" or "when that has been done, the deposit remains in the house as is the custom" As Becker points out, it is significant and interesting that this clearly public regal document is to reside in the presumably private residence. According to C. De Simone, suθiu in line 19 means "funerary ceremony" and θuχt in 20 may refer to
3003-429: The document, along with Larth Cucrina Lausisa, zilath mechl rasnal (‘a chief magistrate of the territory of Cortona’). The document ends officially dating itself according to the two magistrates in office that year. Wallace points out that "we know that, in third- and second-century Tuscany, redistribution of land took place in which large plots were parceled up into smaller chunks to be worked by individual families. It
3080-454: The functions of a priest. Wylin proposes a translation of the whole section, building on Facchetti and Maggiani (loc. cit.): ("fundus" in the original was replaced by the English "farm" here.) More recently, van der Meer, following Maggiani's 2002 analysis, has reversed the transaction so that the land is being ceded by Petru to the Cusu family: Notes: The first part is obscure, while
3157-545: The high electrical conductivity of pure copper, low-friction properties of bearing bronze (bronze that has a high lead content— 6–8%), resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and resistance to corrosion by seawater of several bronze alloys. The melting point of bronze varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components and is about 950 °C (1,742 °F). Bronze is usually nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may have magnetic properties. Typically bronze oxidizes only superficially; once
Tabula Cortonensis - Misplaced Pages Continue
3234-699: The highest form of sculpture in Ancient Greek art , though survivals are few, as bronze was a valuable material in short supply in the Late Antique and medieval periods. Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are known through Roman copies in marble, which were more likely to survive. In India, bronze sculptures from the Kushana ( Chausa hoard ) and Gupta periods ( Brahma from Mirpur-Khas , Akota Hoard, Sultanganj Buddha ) and later periods ( Hansi Hoard) have been found. Indian Hindu artisans from
3311-471: The house of Cusuthur. The master of the house (literally 'father') has ratified this text as incised here on the tablet for the Cusu (family), sons of Laris, and for Petru Scevas from the Tarchianan estate." Notes: In line 23, male- according to R. Wallace means "oversee," related to malena "mirror." In line 25, we see the well attested word for "son" clan-c twice, and in 27 (and probably at 29-30)
3388-484: The inscriptions they carry and from other sources, the case is clear. These were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Though bronze is generally harder than wrought iron , with Vickers hardness of 60–258 vs. 30–80, the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: the population migrations of around 1200–1100 BC reduced
3465-824: The main alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications. Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of lead, which makes for improved plasticity, and was possibly used by the ancient Greeks in ship construction. Silicon bronze has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn: 1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance. Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze , phosphor bronze , manganese bronze, bell metal , arsenical bronze , speculum metal , bismuth bronze , and cymbal alloys . Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent denser than steel, although alloys using aluminum or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronze
3542-462: The manufacture of various types of medals for centuries, and " bronze medals " are known in contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting competitions and other events. The term is now often used for third place even when no actual bronze medal is awarded. The usage in part arose from the trio of gold , silver and bronze to represent the first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology:
3619-673: The massive bronze doors to the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, DC. Before it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard material for mirrors. Bronze was used for this purpose in many parts of the world, probably based on independent discoveries. Bronze mirrors survive from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–1750 BC), and China from at least c. 550 BC . In Europe,
3696-432: The missing portion and confirm the existence of the site. It was subsequently recognized that the tablet was broken in antiquity, so the missing portion may have been separated centuries ago. It was also determined that the "discoverer" of the tablet had lied about where he found it, and he was put on trial for mishandling of artifacts, but was found innocent. Local researchers believe that the tablet had actually been found on
3773-482: The morning / and in the evening (?), (and) three times (make a libation?) in the morning and at noon / for the beautiful Lur and Zer ." Van der Meer offers: "Bearing witness to and observing these matters are: Lars Cucrina, praetor of the city, and (list 15 male persons)." Notes: This section is mainly notable for seeming to identify the name of a known lake in line 36, tarsminaśś "Lake Trasimeno", leading some to conclude, as noted above, that what precedes must be
3850-650: The naming of historic copper alloys. The word bronze (1730–1740) is borrowed from Middle French bronze (1511), itself borrowed from Italian bronzo ' bell metal, brass ' (13th century, transcribed in Medieval Latin as bronzium ) from either: The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools , weapons , armor , and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper (" Chalcolithic ") predecessors. Initially, bronze
3927-581: The period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu used bronze to create intricate statues via the lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities of Hinduism . The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai . In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze. For example: in Africa, the bronze heads of
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#17327810577664004-562: The phrase in lines 36-37 sparza in θuχt ceśu . / ratm . suθiu . suθiusa to mean: "the tablet that has been deposited ( cesu ) in this house has also ( rat-m ?) been deposited (suθiu[s]) in the residences ( suθiu-sva ) of..." followed by the names of four people. The phrase zilci . larθal . cusuś / titinal. larisalc . saliniś . aulesla (34-35) probably means "In the Zilc -ship of Lart Cusu, (son) of Titina, and of Laris Salini, (son) of Aule." In full, this section roughly reads: "Aule Salini of
4081-443: The plural cleniar-c "sons" also appears. Another kinship term, papal "grandson", occurs in the partly damaged line 27. zilath (24) is a well established Etruscan word meaning 'one who governs' from the verb zil 'to rule', thought to be equivalent of a Latin praetor in function. The full phrase zilaθ meχl.raśnal probably means "magistrate of the res publica ." A form somewhat similar to fuln[folnius] (29) can be found in
4158-424: The preferred metal for bells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known as bell metal , which is typically about 23% tin. Nearly all professional cymbals are made from bronze, which gives a desirable balance of durability and timbre . Several types of bronze are used, commonly B20 bronze , which is roughly 20% tin, 80% copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from 8% tin and 92% copper. As
4235-452: The proprietary Oilite and similar material for bearings. Aluminum bronze is hard and wear-resistant, and is used for bearings and machine tool ways. The Doehler Die Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production of Brastil , a high tensile corrosion resistant bronze alloy. The Seagram Building on New York City 's Park Avenue is the "iconic glass box sheathed in bronze, designed by Mies van der Rohe ." The Seagram Building
4312-454: The ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color-matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminum is also used for the structural metal aluminum bronze. Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings , clips, electrical connectors and springs . Bronze also has low friction against dissimilar metals, making it important for cannons prior to modern tolerancing , where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in
4389-461: The rest repeats names treated above. pes (8) also repeats pes(c) (3,5) from the first section. If Wylin's conclusion is correct that pes = "farm, fundus ", perhaps then it is related to Umbrian peř-ae "(on the) ground"? Van der Meer offers: "By (the power?) of this sacred action, this (land) of Petru Scevas (is) thus the Cusu family's land." Notes: In line 8, nuθanatur (8) apparently means “a group of witnesses,” from nuθe “observes” and
4466-690: The resulting alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also, unlike those of arsenic , metallic tin and the fumes from tin refining are not toxic . Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together (exceptions include Cornwall in the United Kingdom, one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade with other regions. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had
4543-478: The shipping of tin around the Mediterranean and from Britain, limiting supplies and raising prices. As the art of working in iron improved, iron became cheaper and improved in quality. As later cultures advanced from hand- wrought iron to machine- forged iron (typically made with trip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths also learned how to make steel . Steel is stronger and harder than bronze and holds
4620-628: The suffix ‐θur/‐tur which forms nouns indicating membership. Much of the rest of this section seems to be a list of names of witnesses to the contract: lart/laris/larz ..., pɜtruni, pumpu (cf Oscan pump- "5" in Romanized names Pompeius , etc). The last word is probably related to Latin Rufus (itself of dialect origin, the native Latin cognate being ruber 'red') and Umbrian rofu also "red" (presumably describing his hair), perhaps to distinguish this "Red Petronius" from "Lefty Petronius" (unless it
4697-448: The tablet ( sparzɜte ) with the agreement ( sal-t ) of C.L. and of P.S. from the field of Tarchian." The pesś (farm?) of pɜtruśc . scɜvaś is mentioned again in line 22, followed by tarχian /eś which looks like a form of Tarchna , Tarquinia a town name and family name. Van der Meer offers: "(The names) of the participants are: (list of names). This text has been copied from this bronze tablet, which (copied) text has been placed in
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#17327810577664774-414: The tablet had been broken into multiple pieces, of which only seven have been found. The missing portion is believed by Etruscanists to contain only names and not details of the estate. The text contains thirty-four known Etruscan words and an equal number of previously unattested Etruscan words. Moreover, a new alphabetic sign Ǝ (a reversed epsilon ) is present on the tablet. This implies that, at least in
4851-637: The text) are probably forms of a name, compare Latin Petronius . As noted above, vina-c and restm-c (2) probably indicate "vineyard" and "cultivated land" (or "garden"?) respectively, the final -c meaning "and." If ɜliuntś (1) can be connected to Etr. eleivana "of oil" from the Greek *elaiwa > élaion "(olive) oil", we may be dealing with an olive orchard, a vineyard and a cultivated field or garden presumably belonging to Petronius Scaevus (compare Gaius Mucius Scaevola "lefty," legendary Roman hero who held his right hand over his captors' fire until it
4928-596: The thousands of funereal) inscriptions, but also kinship terms: cleniar-c (15) "and sons", clan (16) "son", puia (17) "wife". In lines 15 and 19, ame is a form of the copula verb am- "to be". In line 18, the phrase cen . zic . ziχuχe probably means "this document (zic) was written". The next word, sparzɜ (18), seems to mean “tablet” ( sparza ), possibly in the locative here. 18 -19 cen . zic . ziχuχe . sparzɜśtiś śazleiś in / θuχti . cusuθuraś . suθiu . ame according to H. Becker (following Facchetti 2005: 62; Maggiani 2001: 107; Wallace 2008: 213) means: "This text which
5005-469: The tin content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops. Bronze is also used for the windings of steel and nylon strings of various stringed instruments such as the double bass , piano, harpsichord , and guitar. Bronze strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile steel. Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struck idiophones around
5082-439: The unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould. The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BC) claims to have been the first to cast monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method . Bronze statues were regarded as
5159-419: The wide employment of stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings. In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary . Sculptors may prefer silicon bronze because of
5236-657: The world was by the Roman Bronze Works and General Bronze Corporation in 1952. The material used for the fountain, known as statuary bronze, is a quaternary alloy made of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, and traditionally golden brown in color. This was made for the Andrew W. Mellon Memorial Fountain in Federal Triangle in Washington, DC. Another example of the massive, ornate design projects of bronze, and attributed to General Bronze/Roman Bronze Works were
5313-710: The world, notably bells, singing bowls, gongs , cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia. Examples include Tibetan singing bowls , temple bells of many sizes and shapes, Javanese gamelan , and other bronze musical instruments . The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2 BC, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet. Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and Cambodia date back to 3600 BC. Some companies are now making saxophones from phosphor bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1% phosphorus content). Bell bronze/B20
5390-544: Was burnt off, to show how much he loved Rome). Rex Wallace considers ɜliuntś to be a title of pɜtruiś . scɜvɜś , since all three agree in case marking. Facchetti (2000) (and Wylin) has proposed that cenu is a passive verb, also found in the Cippus Perusinus, that means "is obtained"; though Maggiani (2002) takes it to mean "is ceded." The word spante (3) elsewhere seems to refer to a kind of bowl or plate (cf ETP 289) (versus sparza (18, 36) “tablet.”) But it
5467-525: Was made out of copper and arsenic or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of those metals, forming arsenic bronze . The earliest known arsenic-copper-alloy artifacts come from a Yahya Culture (Period V 3800-3400 BCE) site, at Tal-i-Iblis on the Iranian plateau , and were smelted from native arsenical copper and copper-arsenides, such as algodonite and domeykite . The earliest tin-copper-alloy artifact has been dated to c. 4650 BC , in
5544-474: Was mentioned in the account of Moses holding up a bronze snake on a pole in Numbers Ch.21. In First Kings, it is mentioned that Hiram was very skilled in working with bronze, and he made many furnishings for Solomon's Temple including pillars, capitals, stands, wheels, bowls, and plates, some of which were highly decorative (see I Kings 7:13-47). Bronze was also widely used as battle armor and helmet, as in
5621-424: Was not only the most expensive building of its time — $ 36 million — but it was the first building in the world with floor-to-ceiling glass walls. Mies van der Rohe achieved the crisp edges that were custom-made with specific detailing by General Bronze and "even the screws that hold in the fixed glass-plate windows were made of brass." Bronze is widely used for casting bronze sculptures . Common bronze alloys have
5698-481: Was on hand; the metal of the 12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic and an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The 13th-century Benin Bronzes are in fact brass, and
5775-593: Was the first time that an entire building was sheathed in bronze. The General Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds (1,600 tons) of bronze at its plant in Garden City, New York . The Seagram Building is a 38-story, 516-foot bronze-and- topaz -tinted glass building. The building looks like a "squarish 38-story tower clad in a restrained curtain wall of metal and glass." "Bronze was selected because of its color, both before and after aging, its corrosion resistance, and its extrusion properties. In 1958, it
5852-468: Was the hardest metal in widespread use is known as the Bronze Age . The beginning of the Bronze Age in western Eurasia and India is conventionally dated to the mid-4th millennium BC (~3500 BC), and to the early 2nd millennium BC in China; elsewhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, although bronze continued to be much more widely used than it
5929-519: Was written on a tablet sazle (perhaps meaning made of bronze or wood) was placed in the house ( θuχti ) of the Cusu family." But Wylin proposes: "This text has been transcribed from the original ( śazleiś ) tablet, which...."; a translation supported by the fact that the phrase sparzɜśtiś śazleiś is inflected with not only the locative -(t)i but also the ablative -s . The following phrase in 19 - 20 tal suθive / naś . rat-m . θuχt . ceśu according again to Becker, may mean "of that(?) having been done
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