123-404: The Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis ( Latin for "Linen Book of Zagreb", also known rarely as Liber Agramensis , "Book of Agram ") is the longest Etruscan text and the only extant linen book ( libri lintei ), dated to the 3rd century BC, making it arguably the oldest extant European book. (The second longest Etruscan text, Tabula Capuana , also seems to be a ritual calendar.) Much of it
246-454: A "page". Much of the first three columns is missing, and it is not known where the book begins. Closer to the end of the book the text is almost complete (there is a strip missing that runs the entire length of the book). By the end of the last page the cloth is blank and the selvage is intact, showing the definite end of the book. There are 230 lines of text, with 1330 legible words, but only about 500 distinct words or roots. Only about 60% of
369-743: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before
492-519: A moral object, three elements which we shall find again in the Divine Comedy . Francesco da Barberino , a learned lawyer who was secretary to bishops , a judge , and a notary , wrote two little allegorical poems, the Documenti d'amore and Del reggimento e dei costumi delle donne . The poems today are generally studied not as literature, but for historical context. A fourth allegorical work
615-562: A new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of
738-483: A new (partial or complete) date). Column 7 (July and/or August?) may be devoted to describing a series of funereal rites connected to the Adonia festival ritually mourning the death of Aphrodite 's lover Adonis . A variety of types of priest, cepen , (but notably not civil authorities) are mentioned, but the exact distinctions between them are not completely clear: tutin "of the village"(?); ceren , θaurχ both "of
861-430: A part of each text that probably corresponds to March (though that month is not directly named in any obvious way in either text). Column 3, strip C (There are no punctuation marks in the original beyond interpuncts between most words. Those provided here are to make it easier to match the original with the translation.) A tentative partial translation: "The sacrifice, be it funerary, [or] be it chthonic [is to be put] on
984-786: A priest in Slavonia . As he took no interest in the mummy, he donated it in 1867 to the State Institute of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia in Zagreb (the present-day Archaeological Museum in Zagreb ). Their catalogue described it as follows: The mummy and its wrappings were examined the same year by the German Egyptologist Heinrich Brugsch , who noticed the text, but believed them to be Egyptian hieroglyphs . He did not undertake any further research on
1107-513: A religious text is strengthened by recurring words and phrases that are surmised to have liturgical or dedicatory meanings. Some notable formulae on the Liber Linteus include a hymn-like repetition of ceia hia in column 7, and variations on the phrase śacnicstreś cilθś śpureśtreśc enaś , which is translated by van der Meer as "by the sacred fraternity/priesthood of cilθ , and by the civitas of enaś ". Though many of
1230-476: A remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it
1353-709: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross
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#17327659257591476-457: A strong linguistic and cultural identity, it is sometimes considered "a nation within a nation". Tuscany is the second-most-popular Italian region for travellers in Italy , after Veneto . The main tourist spots are Florence , Castiglione della Pescaia , Pisa , San Gimignano , Lucca , Grosseto and Siena . The town of Castiglione della Pescaia is the most visited seaside destination in
1599-503: A title, usually without even a formal office. These rulers presided over the Florentine Renaissance . There was a return to the republic from 1494 to 1512, when first Girolamo Savonarola then Piero Soderini oversaw the state. Cardinal Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici retook the city with Spanish forces in 1512, before going to Rome to become Pope Leo X . Florence was dominated by a series of papal proxies until 1527 when
1722-664: A tour of several countries, including Egypt . While in Alexandria , he purchased a sarcophagus containing a female mummy, as a souvenir of his travels. Barić displayed the mummy at his home in Vienna , standing it upright in the corner of his sitting room. At some point he removed the linen wrappings and put them on display in a separate glass case, though it seems he had never noticed the inscriptions or their importance. The mummy remained on display at his home until his death in 1859, when it passed into possession of his brother Ilija,
1845-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,
1968-569: Is a region in central Italy with an area of about 23,000 square kilometres (8,900 square miles) and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence ( Firenze ). Tuscany is known for its landscapes, history, artistic legacy, and its influence on high culture . It is regarded as the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance and of the foundations of the Italian language . The prestige established by
2091-420: Is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at a faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form
2214-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In
2337-584: Is also a fairly clear progression of which kinds of deities are to be propitiated in which months and seasons. Only two individual gods are set off by being preceded by the term farθan fleres , probably "the Genius (or Father?) of the spirit of/in..." These are Crap- and Neθuns , the first probably equivalent to Tin , the Etruscan Jupiter , and the second roughly equivalent to Latin Neptune . It
2460-517: Is blind to blasons but not to a good heart when it finds one: when it succeeds it is the result of the spiritual, not physical affinity between two souls. Guinizzelli's democratic view can be better understood in the light of the greater equality and freedom enjoyed by the city-states of the center-north and the rise of a middle class eager to legitimise itself in the eyes of the old nobility, still regarded with respect and admiration but dispossessed of its political power. Guinizelli's Canzoni make up
2583-660: Is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of
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#17327659257592706-613: Is indelibly connected with the name of Guido d'Arezzo , the 11th-century monk who invented modern musical notation and the do-re-mi system of naming notes of the scale; Lucca hosted possibly the greatest Italian composer of Verismo , Giacomo Puccini together with Alfredo Catalani , while Pietro Mascagni was born in Livorno ; and Siena is well known for the Accademia Musicale Chigiana , an organization that currently sponsors major musical activities such as
2829-520: Is made from Moraiolo, Leccino and Frantoiano olives. White truffles from San Miniato appear in October and November. Beef of the highest quality comes from the Chiana Valley , specifically, a breed known as Chianina used for Florentine steak . The indigenous Cinta Senese breed of pork is also produced. Wine is a famous and common produce of Tuscany. The red wine Chianti is perhaps
2952-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and
3075-417: Is notable that Crap- /Jupiter is mentioned in the first half of the text (in columns 3, 4, and 6), that is, up to June (specifically before the summer solstice on June 21), but he is not ever mentioned later in the calendar (as far as we can see in the text that is legible). On the other hand, Neθuns /Neptune does not occur (again, as far as we can see) in these earlier passages/months/seasons, but only after
3198-1011: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it
3321-459: Is untranslated because of the lack of knowledge about the Etruscan language, though the words and phrases which can be understood indicate that the text is most likely a ritual calendar . Miles Beckwith states with regard to this text that "in the last thirty or forty years, our understanding of Etruscan has increased substantially," and L. B. van der Meer has published a word-by-word analysis of
3444-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In
3567-496: The Coptic language , who expected the writing to be either Coptic, Libyan or Carian . In 1892, Krall was the first to identify the language as Etruscan and reassemble the strips. It was his work that established that the linen wrappings constituted a manuscript written in Etruscan. At first, the provenance and identity of the mummy were unknown, due to the irregular nature of its excavation and sale. This resulted in speculation that
3690-652: The Goths (Eastern - Ostrogoths and Western - Visigoths ), then was re-conquered by the revived Eastern Roman Empire (later Byzantine Empire ) under the Emperor Justinian . In the years following 572, the Lombards arrived and designated Lucca the capital of their subsequent Tuscia . Pilgrims travelling along the Via Francigena between Rome and France brought wealth and development during
3813-528: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are
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3936-502: The Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin
4059-620: The Ligurian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea , among which is the Tuscan Archipelago , of which the most significant island is Elba . Tuscany has an area of approximately 22,993 square kilometres (8,878 sq mi). Surrounded and crossed by major mountain chains and with few (but fertile) plains, the region has a relief that is dominated by hilly country used for agriculture . Hills make up nearly two-thirds (66.5%) of
4182-607: The Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar
4305-574: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by
4428-566: The Romans by the first century BCE. From the Etruscans, Tuscany took the name of Etruria, Tuscia for the Romans and subsequently Tuscania and Tuscany. While the areas of north-western Tuscany were inhabited by the ancient Ligures . In northwestern Tuscany, the area between the Arno and Magra rivers was culturally aligned with the Etruscans in the early Iron Age, and came under Ligurian control in
4551-543: The autumnal equinox on September 21 (specifically just after September 24, mentioned in 8.3, then also 8.11, 9.18 and 9.22). Similarly, on the one hand, other deities of light, such as θesan "Dawn" and Lusa are only mentioned in the earlier part of the calendar: θesan at 5.19-20 θesan tini θesan eiseraś śeuś probably "Dawn of (bright) Jupiter (and) Dawn of the Dark Deities," (probably referring to Venus as morning and evening star) and Lusa at 6.9; while, on
4674-407: The common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during
4797-804: The medieval period . The food and shelter required by these travellers fuelled the growth of communities around churches and taverns. The conflict between the Guelphs and Ghibellines , factions supporting the Papacy or the Holy Roman Empire in central and northern Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries, split the Tuscan people. The two factions gave rise to several powerful and rich medieval communes in Tuscany: Arezzo , Florence , Lucca , Pisa , and Siena . Balance between these communes
4920-686: The province of Pistoia : In the province of Prato : In the province of Siena : Apart from standard Italian , the Tuscan dialect ( dialetto toscano ) is spoken in Tuscany. The Italian language is based historically on literary Tuscan, specifically the Florentine dialect . It became the language of culture for all the people of Italy, thanks to the prestige of the masterpieces of Dante Alighieri , Petrarch , Giovanni Boccaccio , Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini . It would later become
5043-418: The 13th century, there were several major allegorical poems . One of these is by Brunetto Latini , who was a close friend of Dante. His Tesoretto is a short poem, in seven-syllable verses, rhyming in couplets, in which the author professes to be lost in a wilderness and to meet with a lady, who represents Nature, from whom he receives much instruction. We see here the vision, the allegory, the instruction with
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5166-637: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto
5289-636: The Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore,
5412-599: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,
5535-630: The Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology ,
5658-457: The Sicilians was led by Dante da Maiano , but its literary originality took another line – that of humorous and satirical poetry. The democratic form of government created a style of poetry that stood strongly against the medieval mystic and chivalrous style. Devout invocation of God or a lady came from the cloister and the castle ; in the streets of the cities everything that had gone before
5781-750: The Siena Music Week and the Alfredo Casella International Composition Competition. Other important musical centres in Tuscany include Pisa and Grosseto . Several famous writers and poets are from Tuscany, most notably Florentine author Dante Alighieri . Tuscany's literary scene particularly thrived in the 13th century and the Renaissance. In Tuscany, especially in the Middle Ages, popular love poetry existed. A school of imitators of
5904-686: The Tuscan dialect's use in literature by Dante Alighieri , Petrarch , Giovanni Boccaccio , Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini led to its subsequent elaboration as the language of culture throughout Italy. It has been home to many figures influential in the history of art and science, and contains well-known museums such as the Uffizi and the Palazzo Pitti . Tuscany is also known for its wines , including Chianti , Vino Nobile di Montepulciano , Morellino di Scansano , Brunello di Montalcino and white Vernaccia di San Gimignano . Having
6027-467: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from
6150-563: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as
6273-539: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Tuscany Tuscany ( / ˈ t ʌ s k ə n i / TUSK -ə-nee ; Italian : Toscana , Italian: [tosˈkaːna] )
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#17327659257596396-535: The beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as
6519-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin
6642-428: The bible of Dolce Stil Novo , and one in particular, "Al cor gentil" ("To a Kind Heart") is considered the manifesto of the new movement which would bloom in Florence under Cavalcanti , Dante and their followers. His poetry has some of the faults of the school of d'Arezzo. Nevertheless, he marks a great development in the history of Italian art, especially because of his close connection with Dante's lyric poetry . In
6765-409: The capital, Florence , Empoli , and Pisa . The climate is fairly mild in the coastal areas, and is harsher and rainy in the interior, with considerable fluctuations in temperature between winter and summer, giving the region a soil-building active freeze-thaw cycle, in part accounting for the region once having served as a key breadbasket of ancient Rome . The pre-Etruscan history of the area in
6888-460: The central European Urnfield culture system. Following this, at the beginning of the Iron Age , the Villanovan culture ( c. 900 – c. 700 BC), regarded as the oldest phase of Etruscan civilization , saw Tuscany, and the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms . City-states developed in the late Villanovan (paralleling Greece and the Aegean) before " Orientalization " occurred. The Etruscans (Latin: Tusci ) created
7011-542: The citizens declared the republic again, only to have it taken from them again in 1530 after a siege by an Imperial and Spanish army. At this point Pope Clement VII and Charles V appointed Alessandro de' Medici as the first formal hereditary ruler. The Sienese commune was not incorporated into Tuscany until 1555, and during the 15th century, Siena enjoyed a cultural 'Sienese Renaissance' with its own more conservative character. Lucca remained an independent republic until 1847 when it became part of Grand Duchy of Tuscany by
7134-430: The comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language" , Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in the large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained
7257-405: The country be ruled by his son. The dynasty of the Lorena ruled Tuscany until 1860, except during the Napoleonic period , when most of the country was annexed to the French Empire . After the Second Italian War of Independence , a revolution evicted the last Grand Duke, and after a plebiscite, Tuscany became part of the new Kingdom of Italy . From 1864 to 1870 Florence became the second capital of
7380-412: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for
7503-429: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains
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#17327659257597626-518: The decorated litter. [Then] say: 'The sacrifice and the dog(?) are presented as the offering.' And collect the goblets; and then present the puppy(?) and the dog(?). The libation that was poured in the [sacred area] of Saucne Persi [should be poured] just as it was poured on the decorated litter. Make the libation three times. Make the offering [as it has been] established, carry [it] out as is appropriate, [and] observe [the appropriate rituals](?)." Notes: Persi may refer to Perugia whose ancient name
7749-503: The development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through
7872-413: The earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200,
7995-458: The entire text. The fabric of the book was preserved when it was used for mummy wrappings in Ptolemaic Egypt . The mummy was bought in Alexandria in 1848 and since 1867 both the mummy and the manuscript have been kept in Zagreb , Croatia , now in a refrigerated room at the Archaeological Museum . In 1848, Mihajlo Barić (1791–1859), a low ranking Croatian official in the Hungarian Royal Chancellery, resigned his post and embarked upon
8118-445: The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite the careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature
8241-420: The first major civilization in this region, large enough to establish a transport infrastructure, to implement agriculture and mining and to produce vibrant art. The Etruscans lived in the area of Etruria well into prehistory. The civilization grew to fill the area between the Arno and Tiber from the tenth century BCE, reaching its peak during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C., finally succumbing to
8364-423: The first year." In 1630, Florence and Tuscany were once again ravaged by the plague . Tuscany, especially Florence , is regarded as the birthplace of the Renaissance . Though "Tuscany" remained a linguistic, cultural, and geographic conception rather than a political reality, in the 15th century, Florence extended its dominion in Tuscany through the annexation of Arezzo in 1384, the purchase of Pisa in 1405, and
8487-508: The gods, divine (act)") described in the text. The most frequently mentioned include vacl , probably "libation", usually of vinum "wine" (sometimes specifically "new wine") but also of oil faś and other liquids whose identities are unclear; nunθen "invoke" or possibly "offer (with an invokation)"; θez- probably "sacrifice" but possibly "to present" sacrifice(s) or offering(s) ( fler(χva) ) often of zusle(va) "piglet(s)" (or perhaps some other animal). Offerings and sacrifices were placed: on
8610-455: The historical centre of San Gimignano (1990); the historical centre of Siena (1995); the historical centre of Pienza (1996); the Val d'Orcia (2004), the Medici Villas and Gardens (2013), and Montecatini Terme as part of the Great Spa Towns of Europe (2021). Tuscany has over 120 protected nature reserves , making Tuscany and its capital Florence popular tourist destinations. In 2018, Florence alone had over 5 million arrivals, making it
8733-435: The history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to the Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In
8856-590: The introduction of aqueducts and sewers, and the construction of many buildings, both public and private. However, many of these structures have been destroyed by erosion due to weather. The Roman civilization in the West of the Roman Republic and later Roman Empire collapsed in the fifth century, and the region fell briefly to barbarians migrating through the Empire from Eastern Europe and Central Asia of
8979-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How
9102-574: The kingdom. Under Benito Mussolini , the area came under the dominance of local Fascist leaders such as Dino Perrone Compagni (from Florence), and Costanzo and Galeazzo Ciano (from Livorno ). Following the fall of Mussolini and the armistice of 8 September 1943, Tuscany became part of the Nazi-controlled Italian Social Republic and was conquered almost totally by the Anglo-American forces during
9225-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of
9348-405: The language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be a separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within
9471-550: The late Iron Age. One reason for the eventual demise of this civilization was the increasing absorption by surrounding cultures, including the adoption of the Etruscan upper class by the Romans. Soon after absorbing Etruria (to the north, northeast, east, and a strip to the south), Rome established the cities of Lucca , Pisa , Siena , and Florence , endowed the area with new technologies and development, and ensured peace. These developments included extensions of existing roads,
9594-475: The linen textile itself at 390 BC +/- 45 years). Certain local gods mentioned within the text allow the Liber Linteus 's place of production to be narrowed to a small area in the southeast of Tuscany near Lake Trasimeno , where four major Etruscan cities were located: modern day Arezzo , Perugia , Chiusi and Cortona . The book is laid out in twelve columns from right to left, each one representing
9717-450: The locations in the year of these deities' rituals correspond to the same deities' locations on the Liver of Piacenza and in other Etruscan sources that hint at how they divided the heavens or the divine realm. On the other hand, Belfiore considers Crap to be an underworld deity. There are a variety of types of ritual (the general term for which seems to be eis-na/ ais-na literally "for
9840-554: The lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of
9963-406: The main cities, such as Florence and Siena , but also in smaller villages scattered around the region, such as San Gimignano . Tuscany has a unique artistic legacy, and Florence is one of the world's most important water-colour centres, even so that it is often nicknamed the "art palace of Italy" (the region is also believed to have the largest concentration of Renaissance art and architecture in
10086-431: The meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and the classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for
10209-735: The medieval period and the Renaissance, four main Tuscan art schools competed against each other: the Florentine School , the Sienese School , the Pisan School, and the Lucchese School . In the province of Arezzo : In the province of Florence : In the Province of Grosseto : In the province of Livorno : In the province of Lucca : In the province of Massa and Carrara : In the province of Pisa : In
10332-640: The middle and late Bronze parallels that of the archaic Greeks . The Tuscan area was inhabited by peoples of the so-called Apennine culture in the second millennium BC ( c. 1400 – c. 1150 BC) who had trading relationships with the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations in the Aegean Sea , and, at the end of the Bronze Age, by peoples of the so-called Proto-Villanovan culture ( c. 1100 – c. 900 BC) part of
10455-545: The most well-known internationally. Due to the many British tourists who come to the area where Chianti wine is produced this specific area has been nicknamed " Chiantishire ". Between 1851 and 1860, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , an independent Italian state until 1859 when it joined the United Provinces of Central Italy , produced two postage stamp issues which are among the most prized classic stamp issues of
10578-602: The mummy may have had some association with either the Liber Linteus or the Etruscans . A papyrus found within her sarcophagus was identified as an Egyptian Book of the Dead , which included the details of an Egyptian woman named Nesi-hensu, the wife of Paher-hensu, a tailor from Thebes . This discovery has been used as evidence to suggest that the mummy is the Nesi-hensu mentioned on the papyrus. However, later analysis of
10701-471: The official language of all the Italian states and of the Kingdom of Italy , when it was formed. Many Tuscan terms are also common in the dialects of Umbria and some parts of Emilia Romagna . Tuscany has a rich ancient and modern musical tradition, and has produced numerous composers and musicians, including Giacomo Puccini and Pietro Mascagni . Florence is the main musical centre of Tuscany. The city
10824-629: The other hand, various terms thought or known to refer to specifically underworld deities exclusively appear later in the calendar: Satrs "Saturn/Cronos" (11.f4), Caθ- (in columns 10 and 12), Ceu- (at 7.8), Velθa (7, 10, and 11), and Veive-/Vetis = Latin Veiovis/Vedius , (described by van der Meer as an "underworld Jupiter") in 10 and 11. But some of the apparent underworld deities, such as Zer , show up in both halves (4, 5, 9), while Lur , also thought to be chthonic , only appears in columns 5 and 6. van der Meer claims that many of
10947-433: The papyrus has suggested that it postdates the mummy by nearly a century, which could suggest that the mummy is not Nesi-hensu. She was 30–40 years old at the time of her death, and wore a necklace, with traces of flowers and gold in her hair. Among the fragments of the accompanying wreath, there was a cat skull. On paleographic grounds, the manuscript is dated to approximately 250 BC (though carbon dating put manufacture of
11070-489: The prodigious expression of art and architecture in Florence. His famous descendant Catherine de' Medici married Prince Henry (later King Henry II ) of France in 1533. The Black Death epidemic hit Tuscany starting in 1348. It eventually killed 70% of the Tuscan population. According to Melissa Snell, "Florence lost a third of its population in the first six months of the plague, and from 45% to 75% of its population in
11193-519: The region's total area, covering 15,292 square kilometres (5,904 sq mi), and mountains (of which the highest are the Apennines ), a further 25%, or 5,770 square kilometres (2,230 sq mi). Plains occupy 8.4% of the total area—1,930 square kilometres (750 sq mi)—mainly around the valley of the Arno . Many of Tuscany's most significant cities lie on the banks of the Arno, including
11316-523: The region, with seaside tourism accounting for approximately 40% of tourist arrivals. The Maremma region , Siena , Lucca , the Chianti region , Versilia and Val d'Orcia are also internationally renowned and particularly popular spots among travellers. Eight Tuscan localities have been designated World Heritage Sites : the historic Centre of Florence (1982); the Cathedral square of Pisa (1987);
11439-421: The right and/or left hamΦeś leiveś (and variations thereof); on fire raχθ ; on a stone (altar?) luθt(i) ; on the ground cel-i ; or with/on a decorated (?) litter cletram śrenχve among others. They were often performed three times ci-s-um/ci-z and often happened or were concluded during the morning cla θesan (a term that seems to mark the end of rituals in this text, since blank lines follow it, followed by
11562-421: The sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to
11685-500: The specific details of the rituals are unclear, they seem to have been performed outside cities, sometimes near specific rivers, sometimes on (or at least for) hilltops/citadels, sometimes apparently in cemeteries. Based on the two unambiguous dates that survive — June 18 in 6.14 and September 24 in 8.2 — it is supposed that roughly columns 1-5 deal with rituals occurring in the months before June (probably starting in March, and perhaps there
11808-578: The styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through the later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of
11931-453: The subject matter. Both dates and the names of gods are found throughout the text, giving the impression that the book is a religious calendar. Such calendars are known from the Roman world, giving not only the dates of ceremonies and processions, but also the rituals and liturgies involved. The lost Etrusca disciplina are referred to by several Roman antiquarians. The theory that this is
12054-616: The summer of 1944. Following the end of the Social Republic and the transition from the Kingdom to the modern Italian Republic , Tuscany once more flourished as a cultural centre of Italy. Since the establishment of the regional government in 1970, Tuscany has always been ruled by centre-left governments. Tuscany has an immense cultural and artistic heritage, expressed in the region's churches, palaces, art galleries, museums, villages, and piazzas. Many of these artifacts are found in
12177-565: The suppression of a local resistance there (1406). Livorno was bought in 1421 and became the harbour of Florence. From the leading city of Florence, the republic was from 1434 onward dominated by the increasingly monarchical Medici family. Initially, under Cosimo , Piero the Gouty , Lorenzo and Piero the Unfortunate , the forms of the republic were retained and the Medici ruled without
12300-493: The text is thought to have been preserved. Black ink has been used for the main text, and red ink for lines and diacritics . In use, it would have been folded so that one page lay on top of another like a codex , rather than being wound along like a scroll . Julius Caesar is said to have folded scrolls in similar accordion fashion while on campaigns. Though the Etruscan language is not fully understood, many words and phrases can be deciphered, enough to give us an indication of
12423-532: The text, until 1877, when a chance conversation with Richard Burton about runes made him realise that the writing was not Egyptian. They realised the text was potentially important, but wrongly concluded that it was a transliteration of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in the Arabic script . In 1891, the wrappings were transported to Vienna, where they were thoroughly examined by Jakob Krall , an expert on
12546-538: The tomb"; cilθ-l/cva "of the citadel(s)/hiltop(s)". Less clear are the kinds of priest indicated by the following (if they refer to priests at all): zec, zac, sve, θe, cluctra, flanaχ, χuru ("arch-"?), snuiuΦ ("permanent"?), cnticn- ('"ad hoc"?), truθur ("omen interpreter from lightening"?), peθereni ("of the god Peθan"?), saucsaθ ([priest] or [holy area]"of the god Saucne") at 3.15 (3.15-3.17): vacl . an . ścanince . saucsaθ . persin / cletram . śrenχve . iχ . ścanince . ciz . vacl / ara roughly "The libation which
12669-615: The will of its people. Piombino and other strategic towns constituted the tiny State of the Presidi under Spanish control. In the 16th century, the Medicis , rulers of Florence, annexed the Republic of Siena , creating the Grand Duchy of Tuscany . The Medici family became extinct in 1737 with the death of Gian Gastone , and Tuscany was transferred to Francis , Duke of Lorraine and husband of Austrian Empress Maria Theresa , who let
12792-476: The work of Cecco Angiolieri of Siena, the oldest humorist we know, a far-off precursor of François Rabelais and Michel de Montaigne . Another type of poetry also began in Tuscany. Guittone d'Arezzo made art abandon chivalry and Provençal forms for national motives and Latin forms. He attempted political poetry, and although his work is often obscure, he prepared the way for the Bolognese school. Bologna
12915-542: The world's 51st most visited city . Roughly triangular in shape, Tuscany borders the regions of Liguria to the northwest, Emilia-Romagna to the north, Marche and Umbria to the east, and Lazio to the south and southeast. The comune (municipality) of Badia Tedalda , in the Tuscan Province of Arezzo , has an exclave named Ca' Raffaello within Emilia-Romagna. Tuscany has a western coastline on
13038-519: The world's most precious works of art. Such museums include the Uffizi , which keeps Botticelli's The Birth of Venus , the Palazzo Pitti , and the Bargello , to name a few. Most of the frescos, sculptures, and paintings in Tuscany are held in the region's abundant churches and cathedrals, such as Florence Cathedral , Siena Cathedral , Pisa Cathedral and the Collegiata di San Gimignano . In
13161-583: The world). Painters such as Cimabue and Giotto , the fathers of Italian painting, lived in Florence and Tuscany, as well as Arnolfo and Andrea Pisano , renewers of architecture and sculpture; Brunelleschi , Donatello and Masaccio , forefathers of the Renaissance; Ghiberti and the Della Robbias , Filippo Lippi and Angelico ; Botticelli , Paolo Uccello , and the universal genius of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo . The region contains numerous museums and art galleries, many housing some of
13284-562: The world, and include the most valuable Italian stamp. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was an independent Italian state from 1569 to 1859 but was occupied by France from 1808 to 1814. The Duchy comprised most of the present area of Tuscany, and its capital was Florence. In December 1859, the Grand Duchy officially ceased to exist, being joined to the duchies of Modena and Parma to form the United Provinces of Central Italy, which
13407-422: The written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained
13530-658: Was Perusia . The last word, male is related to the well-attested Etruscan words for "mirror": mal(e)na and malstria . Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ),
13653-783: Was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in a vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than
13776-456: Was annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia a few months later in March 1860. In 1862 it became part of Italy and joined the Italian postal system. The gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 117.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 6.7% of Italy's economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 31,400 euros or 104% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee
13899-511: Was at the heart of much of the Western musical tradition. It was there that the Florentine Camerata convened in the mid-16th century and experimented with setting tales of Greek mythology to music and staging, resulting in the first operas , fostering the further development of the operatic form, and the later developments of separate "classical" forms such as the symphony . There are numerous musical centres in Tuscany. Arezzo
14022-411: Was ensured by the assets they held: Pisa, a port; Siena, banking; and Lucca, banking and silk. But by the time of the Renaissance , Florence had become the cultural capital of Tuscany. One family that benefitted from Florence's growing wealth and power was the ruling Medici family . Its scion Lorenzo de' Medici was one of the most famous of the Medici. The legacy of his influence is visible today in
14145-491: Was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name a few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin
14268-471: Was introductory or other material here as well), column 6 with June rituals, column 7 may refer to rituals in July and possibly August, column 8 September rituals, and 9-12 concerning rites to be performed from October through February. Other numbers are mentioned which are probably also dates, but as the months aren't indicated, we cannot be sure where exactly they fall in the year. Throughout this calendar there
14391-450: Was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into
14514-529: Was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While
14637-484: Was poured to Sauc- Pers- (should be performed) with the decorated litter just as it had been poured (before); perform the libation three times." This seems to present a notable connection between the Liber Linteus and the second longest Etruscan text which happens to also be a ritual calendar, the Tabula Capuana (line 2), since the root sauc- seems to occur in both with the root vacl "libation" and also in
14760-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include
14883-517: Was the Intelligenza , which is sometimes attributed to Compagni but is probably only a translation of French poems. In the 15th century, humanist and publisher Aldus Manutius published the Tuscan poets Petrarch and Dante Alighieri ( Divine Comedy ), creating the model for what became a standard for modern Italian. Simplicity is central to Tuscan cuisine . Legumes , bread, cheese, vegetables, mushrooms, and fresh fruit are used. Olive oil
15006-428: Was the city of science, and philosophical poetry appeared there. Guido Guinizelli was the poet after the new fashion of the art. In his work, the ideas of chivalry are changed and enlarged. Only those whose heart is pure can be blessed with true love, regardless of class. He refuted the traditional credo of courtly love , for which love is a subtle philosophy only a few chosen knights and princesses could grasp. Love
15129-399: Was treated with ridicule or biting sarcasm . Folgóre da San Gimignano laughs when in his sonnets he tells a party of Sienese youths the occupations of every month in the year, or when he teaches a party of Florentine lads the pleasures of every day in the week. Cenne della Chitarra laughs when he parodies Folgore's sonnets. The sonnets of Rustico di Filippo are half-fun and half-satire, as is
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