The Exploratorium is a museum of science , technology , and arts in San Francisco , California . Founded by physicist and educator Frank Oppenheimer in 1969, the museum was originally located in the Palace of Fine Arts and was relocated in 2013 to Piers 15 and 17 on San Francisco's waterfront.
134-588: The museum has over 1,000 participatory exhibits and is divided into several galleries, mainly separated by content. Since its inception, the Exploratorium has expanded into other domains and has inspired an international network of participatory museums. The Exploratorium was conceived by Frank Oppenheimer , an experimental physicist and university professor. Oppenheimer, who worked on the Manhattan Project with his brother J. Robert Oppenheimer ,
268-672: A Guggenheim Fellowship in 1965. Three European museums, encountered during that year, served as important influences on the founding of the Exploratorium: the Palais de la Découverte , which displayed models to teach scientific concepts and employed students as demonstrators, a practice that directly inspired the Exploratorium's much-lauded High School Explainer Program; the South Kensington Museum of Science and Art, which Oppenheimer and his wife visited frequently; and
402-571: A naturalized American in 1940. He retained his formal association with GWU until 1956. During World War II, Gamow continued to teach physics at George Washington University and consulted for the US Navy. Gamow was interested in the processes of stellar evolution and the early history of the Solar System . In 1945, he co-authored a paper supporting work by German theoretical physicist Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker on planetary formation in
536-547: A $ 50,000 grant from the San Francisco Foundation , made the museum realizable. In late August 1969, the Exploratorium opened with little fanfare at the Palace of Fine Arts . Oppenheimer "simply opened the doors". Although the building needed many improvements, Oppenheimer couldn't afford to make the changes, and decided to allow the public to come and watch exhibits being built and changes being made as part of
670-572: A clockface on the hour); and Rolling Through The Bay (a sculpture made by artist Scott Weaver over the course of 37 years, utilizing over 100,000 toothpicks and depicting many of the Bay Area’s iconic landmarks, through which a ping-pong ball can roll on one of several different "tours"). Gallery 3, previously known as the Central Gallery houses many of the "classic" Exploratorium exhibits, including many of those that have been on display since
804-525: A completely independent new type of museum in San Francisco . Four years later, in 1969, the Exploratorium opened its doors, set within the north wing of the Palace of Fine Arts of San Francisco . Oppenheimer was able to fund the opening of the Exploratorium partly due to a grant from the San Francisco Foundation . The San Francisco Foundation gave a $ 50,000 grant to Oppenheimer to open
938-565: A decade as cattle ranchers. In 1957, the Red Scare had lessened to the point that Oppenheimer was allowed to teach science at a local high school. Frank taught a number of subjects within the field of science such as chemistry, physics, biology in addition to general science at the local High School in Pagosa Springs Colorado. He expressed his driving force to teach was to simply share his appreciation and skills to
1072-590: A draft design for consideration by the Academic Council of the Radium Institute, which approved it. The cyclotron was not completed until 1937. In the early 20th century, radioactive materials were known to have characteristic exponential decay rates, or half-lives. At the same time, radiation emissions were known to have certain characteristic energies. By 1928, Gamow in Göttingen had solved
1206-487: A form of "educational sightseeing" as well as the understanding of the underlying principles. The exhibits were arranged and structured to allow for free access to any part of the museum. Instead of tour guides, fifteen to twenty college students or secondary students, as well as some adults, were employed as "explainers". They demonstrate the exhibits and explain the principles involved all while circulating among visitors, rather than guiding them along. In 1977, Oppenheimer
1340-618: A grant from the National Science Foundation , which he used to build models of nearly a hundred scientific experiments. This "Library of Experiments" would become the core of the Exploratorium's exhibit collection and was the forerunner of the Exploratorium Cookbook , a manual explaining how to build these basic science exhibits. Convinced of the need for public museums to supplement science curricula at all levels, he toured Europe and studied museums on
1474-667: A larger investigation on the possible mishandling of "atomic secrets" during the war, he was called before the United States Congress House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Before the committee, he testified that he and his wife had been members of the Communist Party for about three and a half years. In 1937 they had been involved in local attempts to desegregate the Pasadena public swimming pool, which
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#17327876161161608-664: A much-expanded selection of life sciences exhibits. Many exhibits relate directly to the immediate local environment, such as the Glass Settling Plate (barnacles and other creatures are grown on a plate in the Bay, then put live under a mobile microscope to be observed from both above and below) and the Algae Chandelier (visitors can pump air to nourish overhead tanks of colorful phytoplankton). Other exhibits explore different biological systems and processes, such as
1742-443: A net-zero energy goal as part of its overall sustainability efforts. Setting this net-zero goal means that, while in operation, the Exploratorium will produce more energy on-site than it will consume on an annual basis. The museum highlights its sustainability efforts in visible ways throughout the museum as part of a stated intention to lead by example. The Exploratorium, in order to reach its net-zero energy goal, produces energy with
1876-401: A particular ingredient — an everyday item such as a plastic bag, milk carton, or nail. Contestants are currently or formerly part of the Exploratorium's Teacher Institute and compete before a live audience for the title of "Iron Science Teacher". Shows are also archived on the Exploratorium's website. Two out of three teachers applying were being turned away due to space limitations, by the time
2010-521: A planned 250-kilometer paddle over the Black Sea to Turkey , and another attempt from Murmansk to Norway . Poor weather foiled both attempts, but they had not been noticed by the authorities. In 1933, Gamow was suddenly granted permission to attend the 7th Solvay Conference on physics, in Brussels . He insisted on having his wife accompany him, even saying that he would not go alone. Eventually
2144-721: A position at the University of Colorado teaching physics. In 1969, Oppenheimer founded the Exploratorium in San Francisco, and he served as its first director until his death in 1985. Frank Friedman Oppenheimer was born in 1912 in New York City to a Jewish family. His parents were Ella (née Friedman), a painter, and Julius Seligmann Oppenheimer, a successful textile importer from Hanau in the Kingdom of Prussia . During his childhood, he studied painting. He also studied
2278-423: A rain machine that duplicates the frequency, size, and velocity of the raindrops, giving a tangible experience of NOAA research data on storms. Along the publicly accessible bridge connecting Piers 15 and 17, artist Fujiko Nakaya created an installation called Fog Bridge #72494 that creates bursts of fog for six minutes every half-hour as the first in a series of large-scale temporary installations called Over
2412-504: A range of subject areas, including human perception (such as vision, hearing, learning and cognition), the life sciences, physical phenomena (such as light, motion, electricity, waves and resonance, and magnetism), local environment (water, wind, fog, rain, sun, and other elements, as well as cityscape, landscape, and the flora and fauna of the Bay) and human behavior (such as cooperation, competition, and sharing). Gallery 1, previously known as
2546-426: A roof-mounted array of photovoltaics . There are 5,874 PV modules on the roof, totaling 78,712 square feet (7,312.6 m), with a projected year-1 yield of 1.3 MW-AC/square foot (13.9 MW-AC/m), or a total year-1 yield of 2,113,715 kWh. Any surplus energy generated is intended to be fed back into the utility grid, as the projected annual energy use for the building totals at 1,275,936 kWh. In addition to solar power,
2680-734: A scientific conference in Italy. Also in 1931, he married Lyubov Vokhmintseva ( Russian : Любовь Вохминцева ), another physicist in the Soviet Union, whom he nicknamed "Rho" after the Greek letter . Gamow and his new wife spent much of the next two years trying to leave the Soviet Union, with or without official permission. Niels Bohr and other friends invited Gamow to visit during this period, but Gamow could not get permission to leave. Gamow later said that his first two attempts to defect with his wife were in 1932 and involved trying to kayak : first
2814-471: A set of coupled differential equations describing his proposed process and assigned, as a PhD dissertation topic, his graduate student Ralph Alpher the task of solving the equations numerically. These results of Gamow and Alpher appeared in 1948 as the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper . Before his interest turned to the question of the genetic code, Gamow published about twenty papers on cosmology. The earliest
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#17327876161162948-409: A simplification and using the observed ratio of hydrogen to heavier elements, he was able to obtain the density of matter at the onset of nucleosynthesis and from this the mass and diameter of the early galaxies. In 1953 he produced similar results, but this time based on another determination of the density of matter and radiation, at the time at which they became equal. In this paper, Gamow determined
3082-409: A titanium heat exchanger , of which the building has two, where it is either used to heat or cool water that is cycled through a system of thermally activated radiant slabs. There are 27 miles (43 km) of plastic tubing in the radiant heating system in the floor, creating 82 different heating and cooling zones with distinct control systems. After the bay water passes through the heat exchangers, it
3216-488: A trip to the moon and to various planets of our solar system in a comfortable rocketship driven by atomic power." He also wrote "the ordinary chemical fuels which could be used in the motor of such a rocketship could not possibly give it the necessary velocity...". By 1965 he moderated his expectations though he re-stated his atomic-power prognostication: Whereas we may be able to study the forms of life that may have developed on Mars and Venus (the best "inhabitable" planets of
3350-770: A tutor. Gamow learned English in his college years and became fluent. Most of his early publications were in German or Russian, but he later used English both for technical papers and for the lay audience. He was educated at the Institute of Physics and Mathematics in Odessa (1922–23) and at the University of Leningrad (1923–1929). Gamow studied under Alexander Friedmann in Leningrad , until Friedmann's early death in 1925, which required him to change dissertation advisors. At
3484-456: A universe of uniform matter density and constant spatial curvature. Gamow's crucial advance would provide a physical reification of Lemaître's idea of a unique primordial quantum. Gamow did this by assuming that the early universe was dominated by radiation rather than by matter. Most of the later work in cosmology is founded in Gamow's theory. He applied his model to the question of the creation of
3618-414: A view towards opening an independent museum of their own. Oppenheimer sought funding and support for the endeavor using a grassroots approach, bringing a written proposal and some handmade exhibits with him as he visited scientists, businesses, city and school officials, relatives, and friends. Many prominent scientists and cultural figures endorsed the project, and the offers of support, in conjunction with
3752-421: A year by eliminating the need for traditional evaporative cooling towers. The Exploratorium at Pier 15 also makes use of natural light in the effort to reduce energy loads. The existing building had many clerestory windows and an overhead skylight that runs the length of the interior space. In compliance with historic preservation requirements, the building’s façade was left mostly unchanged, allowing for much of
3886-612: A “think with your hands” approach. It is housed within the museum in a dedicated space in the South Gallery, where it runs free do-it-yourself activities for museum visitors; it also shares its work with a larger audience of educators in afterschool programs, schools, museums and other learning environments. It is being cited as a prototype for similar programs across the globe, including South Korea, Canada, India, and Saudi Arabia. The Exploratorium also operates as afterschool tinkering program in partnership with San Francisco chapters of
4020-482: Is a collaboration between the Exploratorium, the University of California Santa Cruz , and King's College London . CILS studies the intersection between museums and schools as centers of informal learning with the intention of understanding how informal science learning occurs and how informal educational centers such as the Exploratorium can contribute to science education reform. The Tinkering Studio began in 2008 as an in-house program geared towards maker culture and
4154-471: Is a professional development program of the Exploratorium geared towards educators, scientists, administrators, and policymakers. The institute is a recipient of National Science Foundation funding and designs programs, materials and tools to help leaders in the science education community further the role of inquiry in elementary science education and strengthen reform efforts. It consists of workshops and an online library of resources available to participants in
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4288-657: Is also open to their view. Oppenheimer wanted visitors to be able to “smell the oil” and insisted that the usually hidden exhibit-building activities be on display as an exhibit in its own right. Exhibits in the Gallery 2 highlight a DIY aesthetic, and include Animation Stations where visitors can make their own stop-motion films . Artworks on display include the Tinkerer’s Clock (a 22-foot-high clock constructed by artist Tim Hunkin , with figurines in his noted cartoon style that can be manipulated by visitors and unfold into
4422-409: Is available online at the Exploratorium website. The Frank Oppenheimer Fellowship Fund was created at the Exploratorium to provide for the exchange of science museum personnel both nationally and internationally. Interviewed by director Jon Else , Oppenheimer appears throughout The Day After Trinity (1980), an Academy Award -nominated documentary about J. Robert Oppenheimer and the building of
4556-533: Is based on the Prisoner’s dilemma , a classic scenario centering on negotiation and trust), and the Tactile Dome , a pitch-black single-path maze environment visitors explore by touch, which was originally designed by Carl Day, August Coppola , producer . Gallery 1 also included the temporary exhibition The Changing Face of What is Normal: Mental Health , which showcased the personal artifacts of patients from
4690-605: Is returned to the San Francisco Bay as allowed by a permit issued by the California Regional Water Quality Control Board. Most of the energy savings are expected to come from using the bay water as a heat sink for the building’s cooling needs. When the temperature of the bay water is below that of the chilled water return from the radiant pipes, which is the case for most of the year in the Bay Area’s temperate climate,
4824-589: Is the only new building constructed on the Exploratorium’s campus. It holds the Seaglass restaurant on its lower level and exhibits on the upper level relating to the waterfront and the cityscape. The gallery focuses on what visitors can see in real time, including the movement of clouds and tides, the changing waterfront, the movement of ships, and interpretation of oceanographic data. The Observatory has glass walls on all four sides to facilitate observation. Many of
4958-678: Is to teach". In 1965, Oppenheimer was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to study the history of physics and to conduct bubble chamber research at University College London , where he was exposed to European science museums for the first time. Oppenheimer created a similar resource in the United States. Upon his return from Europe, he was offered a job planning a new branch of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. , but instead chose to work on setting up
5092-556: The Mr Tompkins series of books (1939–1967). Some of his books remain in print more than a half-century after their original publication. Gamow was born in Odessa , Russian Empire (now Odesa , Ukraine ). His father taught Russian language and literature in secondary schools , and his mother taught geography and history at a school for girls. In addition to Russian, Gamow learned to speak some French from his mother and German from
5226-882: The Bay Windows (visitors spin disks filled with samples of Bay mud, sand, and gravel gathered from five distinct regions of the Bay itself). The lower level of the Bay Observatory Building houses the Seaglass Restaurant, which, like the Seismic Joint Cafe, is open to unticketed members of the public. Both the Seismic Joint and Seaglass are run by Loretta Keller , chef-owner at Coco500, in partnership with Bon Appetit Management Company. The Exploratorium seeks to bring hands-on inquiry to education, including training teachers in
5360-656: The Deutsches Museum in Munich , the world's largest science museum, which had a number of interactive displays that impressed the Oppenheimers. Back in the United States, Oppenheimer was invited to do the initial planning for a new branch of the Smithsonian , but he eventually turned it down to work instead on what he called his "San Francisco project". In 1967, the Oppenheimers moved to San Francisco with
5494-702: The Ethical Culture Society . Following the advice of his older brother Robert, he became a professional physicist. In 1930 he began his studies at Johns Hopkins University , graduating three years later with a BS in physics. He then studied for a further 18 months at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge , England. While in England he earned a pilot's license. In 1935, he worked on the development of nuclear particle counters at
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5628-422: The Exploratorium . Gamow would not live to see his colleague's opening of this innovative new science museum, in late August 1969. In his 1961 book The Atom and its Nucleus , Gamow proposed representing the periodic system of the chemical elements as a continuous tape, with the elements in order of atomic number wound round in a three-dimensional helix whose diameter increased stepwise (corresponding to
5762-717: The Institute di Arcetri in Florence , Italy. While completing his PhD at the California Institute of Technology , Oppenheimer became engaged to Jacquenette Quann, an economics student at the University of California, Berkeley ; she was also active in the Young Communist League . In spite of his brother Robert's advice, Oppenheimer and Jackie were married in 1936 and they both joined the American Communist Party, also against
5896-641: The University of California Radiation Laboratory on the problem of uranium isotope separation under the direction of his brother's friend, Ernest O. Lawrence . In late 1943 he arrived at the Los Alamos Laboratory, working directly under Kenneth T. Bainbridge . His responsibilities included the instrumentation for the Trinity test site, in New Mexico. In 1945 he was sent to the enrichment facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee , to help monitor
6030-438: The University of Colorado teaching physics. While returning to particle physics research, Oppenheimer also took an increasing interest in developing improvements in science education. He was eventually awarded a grant from the National Science Foundation to develop new pedagogical methods, which resulted in a "Library of Experiments"—nearly one hundred models of classical laboratory experiments which could be used in aiding
6164-486: The University of Colorado , as the Red Scare began to fade ( J. Robert Oppenheimer was the older brother of Frank Oppenheimer, and both of them had worked on the Manhattan Project before their careers in physics were derailed by McCarthyism ). While in Colorado, Frank Oppenheimer became increasingly interested in teaching science through simple hands-on experiments, and he eventually moved to San Francisco to found
6298-495: The University of Colorado Boulder , where he remained for the rest of his career. In 1956, Gamow became one of the founding members of the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC), which later reformed teaching of high-school physics in the post- Sputnik years. In 1959, Gamow, Hans Bethe , and Victor Weisskopf publicly supported the re-entry of Frank Oppenheimer into teaching college physics at
6432-507: The double helix structure of the DNA macromolecule. Gamow attempted to solve the problem of how the ordering of four different bases ( adenine , cytosine , thymine and guanine ) in DNA chains might control the synthesis of proteins from their constituent amino acids. Crick has said that Gamow's suggestions helped him in his own thinking about the problem. As related by Crick, Gamow observed that
6566-512: The proton linear accelerator . In 1947 he took a position as assistant professor of physics at the University of Minnesota , where he participated in the discovery of heavy cosmic ray nuclei . On July 12, 1947, the Washington Times Herald reported that Oppenheimer had been a member of the Communist Party during the years 1937–1939. At first, he denied these reports, but later said they were true. In June 1949, as part of
6700-478: The " Gamow–Teller selection rule " for beta decay . During his time in Washington, Gamow would also publish major scientific papers with Mário Schenberg and Ralph Alpher . By the late 1930s, Gamow's interests had turned towards astrophysics and cosmology . In 1935, Gamow's son, Igor Gamow was born (in a 1947 book, Gamow's dedication was "To my son IGOR, Who Would Rather Be a Cowboy"). George Gamow became
6834-468: The 4 = 64 possible permutations of the four DNA bases, taken three at a time, would be reduced to 20 distinct combinations if the order was irrelevant. Gamow proposed that these 20 combinations might code for the twenty amino acids which, he suggested, might well be the sole constituents of all proteins. Gamow's contribution to solving the problem of genetic coding gave rise to important models of biological degeneracy . The specific system that Gamow
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#17327876161166968-487: The 90,000-square-foot (8,400 m ) facility. Oppenheimer served as the first director of the museum, and later continued to be involved in the museum's daily operations. He had visited the Tel Aviv Science Museum in 1965, and later used several of Ivan Moscovich 's designs and exhibits in his revolutionary Exploratorium in San Francisco. The first exhibits in the Exploratorium were constructed with
7102-593: The Arts (UNCSA) and PBS executive, Lindsay Bierman. The museum has expanded greatly since the 1980s, increasing outreach, expanding programs for educators, creating an expanded Web presence, and forming museum partnerships around the world. In April 2013, the Exploratorium relocated from the Palace of Fine Arts to Piers 15 and 17, located between the San Francisco Ferry Building and Pier 39 along
7236-516: The Bay Observatory from the Pier 15 shed and the other separating the entire pier from the land. This second joint ensures that the entire pier will move independently from the land mass in the event of an earthquake, significantly reducing the potential torsional stress. The café at the west end of the Exploratorium is named the Seismic Joint in honor of the joint that cuts through the area of
7370-533: The Bay environment, which can be seen in exhibits such as Color of Water (an installation of 32 distinct color swatches suspended below the rail surrounding the pier so that visitors can investigate the changing colors of the Bay’s water). Another notable exhibit is Remote Rains , which allows visitors to choose a past rainstorm as profiled by the Hydrometeorology Testbed, which is then recreated by
7504-570: The Bay. The Exploratorium at Pier 15 was designed by architectural firm EHDD . The General Contractor was Nibbi Brothers, and the Glazing Contractor was AGA (Architectural Glass and Aluminum) . The piers had been neglected for decades prior to the Exploratorium’s move, and extensive renovation and repair were required. Nearly two thirds of the pilings under Pier 15 were repaired, including almost every piling needed to provide structural integrity, and new pilings were sunk. The removal of
7638-925: The Boys and Girls Club. In 2012 the Exploratorium was awarded a grant to create the California Tinkering Network, in collaboration with the Community Science Workshops, Techbridge, the Discovery Science Center , the California Afterschool Network, and the California STEM Learning Network. These organizations partner with over 20 local afterschool or summer programs to provide STEM-enriched activities for children in underserved communities. The initiative
7772-703: The Exploratorium closed at its former location; following the move to the Piers, the Exploratorium has been expanding its professional development for teachers through the Teacher Institute. As of 2013, two MOOC courses were also being made available through MOOC provider Coursera . One course integrates engineering into middle and high school STEM classrooms, and the other integrates making and tinkering activities into elementary and middle school classrooms. The Exploratorium operates several programs centering on informal learning. The Institute for Inquiry (IFI)
7906-622: The Homeschool Science series (in-house classes geared specifically towards homeschooled students), the Girl’s Science Institute (multi-day workshops geared towards girls 9–11), and excursions for adults. The Exploratorium has also published a number of books, and many of the 50,000 pages on its website are hands-on activity ideas or science experiments in the museums’ signature open-ended style. The Exploratorium operates several educational outreach programs. The Community Outreach Program works with community organizations to provide exhibit-based educational activities for underserved children and families in
8040-409: The San Francisco Embarcadero. In 2004, the Piers location was identified by Goéry Delacôte and then-board chairman Van Kasper as a potential space for relocation. In 2005, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors passed a resolution exempting the museum’s lease of the piers from San Francisco’s competitive bidding process due to its unique nature as a cultural and educational institution. Groundbreaking for
8174-564: The Soviet authorities relented and issued passports for the couple. The two attended and arranged to extend their stay, with the help of Marie Curie and other physicists. Over the next year, Gamow obtained temporary work at the Curie Institute , University of London , and the University of Michigan . In 1934, Gamow and his wife moved to the United States. He became a professor at George Washington University (GWU) in 1934 and recruited physicist Edward Teller from London to join him at GWU. In 1936, Gamow and Teller published what became known as
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#17327876161168308-457: The Universe , was first published in 1952, concluding: "It took less than an hour to make all the atoms in the universe, a few hundred million years to make the stars and planets but three billion years to make man." In 1956, he was awarded the Kalinga Prize by UNESCO for his work in popularizing science with his Mr. Tompkins... series of books (1939–1967), his book One, Two, Three...Infinity , and other works. Before his death, Gamow
8442-427: The University of Minnesota. After being branded a Communist, Oppenheimer could no longer find work in physics in the United States, and he was also denied a passport, preventing him from working abroad. He and his wife eventually sold one of the Van Gogh paintings that he had inherited from his father, and with the money bought 1,500 acres (610 ha) of ranch land near Pagosa Springs, Colorado , and spent nearly
8576-445: The Water . The Fog Bridge is 150 feet (46 m) long and makes use of 800 nozzles to create the fog, which Nakaya hopes will inspire visitors to pay attention to the nature of one of San Francisco’s best-known weather patterns. Although originally slated to be temporary, it is now on permanent display. A desalination system, located in Pier 17, conditions bay water for use in the artwork. The Bay Observatory building housing Gallery 6
8710-467: The West Gallery, focuses on human behavior. Its signage and exhibits encourage visitors to play with perception; investigate memory, emotion, and judgment; and experiment with how people cooperate, compete, and share. It holds exhibits such as Poker Face (partners try to assess when someone is bluffing), Trust Fountain (an experimental exhibit from the museum’s National Science Foundation -funded Science of Sharing project, this two-person drinking fountain
8844-452: The aid of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) and the Ames Research Center (NASA). Oppenheimer had a lifelong belief in the importance of art in an equal and closely connected relationship to science. He recruited artist Bob Miller to create Sun Painting , the first major art installation at the Exploratorium. Another early work was the Tactile Dome (1971), by August Coppola (father of actor Nicolas Cage and brother of
8978-464: The atomic bomb. Garrick Hagon portrayed Oppenheimer in the 1980 BBC series, Oppenheimer . Dylan Arnold plays the role of Frank Oppenheimer in the 2023 biopic film Oppenheimer by Christopher Nolan . George Gamow George Gamow (sometimes Gammoff ; born Georgiy Antonovich Gamov ; Russian : Георгий Антонович Гамов ; 4 March 1904 – 19 August 1968) was a Soviet and American polymath , theoretical physicist and cosmologist . He
9112-434: The atomic nucleus provided the basis for his doctorate. He then worked at the Theoretical Physics Institute of the University of Copenhagen from 1928 to 1931, with a break to work with Ernest Rutherford at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge . He continued to study the atomic nucleus (proposing the "liquid drop" model ), but also worked on stellar physics with Robert Atkinson and Fritz Houtermans . In 1931, Gamow
9246-453: The building where the café is situated. The aesthetic of the project was defined as "industrial naval chic" in keeping with the pier’s history. The design aesthetic for both the Seismic Joint and Seaglass Restaurant was created by designer Olle Lundberg and based on the exhibit Color of Water . The bar at Seaglass features a specially designed version of Exploratorium artist Shawn Lani’s exhibit Icy Bodies . The Exploratorium at Pier 15 has
9380-459: The building. By integrating radiant heating and cooling and displacement ventilation, the Exploratorium has greatly reduced the portion of its HVAC system that relies on forced air. Reducing the size of a building’s forced air system has the associated benefits of both lower energy loads as well as reduced ductwork, both of which are cost-saving. The Exploratorium has multiple features designed to reduce its water consumption. Two large cisterns under
9514-544: The chemical elements and to the subsequent condensation of matter into galaxies, whose mass and diameter he was able to calculate in terms of the fundamental physical parameters, such as the speed of light c , the Newtonian constant of gravitation G , the fine-structure constant α , and the Planck constant h . Gamow's interest in cosmology arose from his earlier interest in energy generation and element production and transformation in stars. This work, in turn, evolved from his fundamental discovery of quantum tunneling as
9648-711: The colleague and only learned of her relationship to Oppenheimer when she was contacted in 2019 by Oppenheimer's son, Michael. Sarah and Michael verified their genetic relationship in 2020. A brief account of the affair can be found in Judy Oppenheimer's book From Deedle to Dr. Judy: A Memoir of Metamorphosis. Oppenheimer's papers and archives were transferred to the Bancroft Library at the University of California, Berkeley , including over 60 technical and nontechnical papers he'd authored. The bulk of this collection covers his work in physics and education in
9782-481: The common reader. Gamow himself sketched the many illustrations for his books, which added a new dimension to and complemented what he intended to convey in the text. He was unafraid to introduce mathematics wherever it was essential, but he tried to avoid deterring potential readers by including large numbers of equations that did not illustrate essential points. In 1946 Gamow was a proponent of human spaceflight propelled by atomic energy. "We may prepare ourselves for
9916-712: The course of days or years), and the Map Table (an assortment of historic and contemporary maps and atlases displaying different views and perspectives on the landscape). The Bay Observatory also houses the Wired Pier project, which consists of more than a dozen sensors on and around the Bay Observatory that stream real-time data about the surrounding environment, such as quality of air and bay water, weather, tides and pollution, and compile it into interactive visualizations. The Exploratorium campus includes 1.5 acres (0.61 ha) of publicly accessible open space. This includes
10050-464: The credit they deserved for their theoretical predictions of its existence and source. Gamow was disconcerted by the fact that the authors of a communication explaining the significance of the Penzias/Wilson observations failed to recognize and cite the previous work of Gamow and his collaborators. In 1953, Francis Crick , James Watson , Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin discovered
10184-517: The density of the relict background radiation, from which a present temperature of 7 K was predicted – a value which was slightly more than twice the presently-accepted value. In 1967, he published reminiscences and recapitulation of his own work as well as the work of Alpher and Robert Herman (both with Gamow and also independently of him). This was prompted by the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Penzias and Wilson in 1965; Gamow, Alpher, and Herman felt that they did not receive
10318-631: The early Solar System. Gamow published another paper in the British journal Nature in 1948, in which he developed equations for the mass and radius of a primordial galaxy (which typically contains about one hundred billion stars, each with a mass comparable with that of the Sun). Gamow's work led the development of the hot "big bang" theory of the expanding universe. He was the earliest to employ Alexander Friedmann 's and Georges Lemaître 's non-static solutions of Einstein's gravitational equations describing
10452-628: The equipment. Oppenheimer was involved in the founding of the Association of Los Alamos Scientists , on August 30, 1945. This organization promoted international peaceful control of nuclear power. He later also joined the Federation of American Scientists , and was a member of the American Physical Society . After the war, Oppenheimer returned to Berkeley, working with Luis Alvarez and Wolfgang Panofsky to develop
10586-465: The exhibits were developed specifically for the location, such as Oculus (a circular opening in the ceiling that allows the entire gallery to be used as a timepiece, tracking seasons, solstices, and the sun’s movement), Visualizing the Bay (a 3-D topographic map of the Bay Area that allows visitors to see real data mapped over the landscape, such as the movement of fog and the salinity of the Bay over
10720-461: The film director Francis Coppola ). This was a three-dimensional tightly convoluted passage that was completely dark inside, and which visitors had to explore relying on the sense of touch . Renewed versions of both are still on display today. In 1974, Oppenheimer established an ongoing artist-in-residence program at the Exploratorium, regularly bringing in both emerging and established artists working in art and science. The Exploratorium provided
10854-550: The flute under nationally known teacher George Barrera, becoming competent enough at the instrument to consider a career as a flautist . He was close to his brother Robert throughout their lives. Oppenheimer began his schooling at the Ethical Culture School , where he attended until seventh grade. The remainder of his high school education was completed at Fieldston School in Riverdale, a school operated by
10988-443: The glass in the observatory, which would have presented a problem in cooling the building on warm days. This was overcome by adding fritted glass to the windows in thin horizontal lines through the panes to decrease the transparency without affecting the views. The fritting also makes the reflective surfaces of the Bay Observatory safe for birds. Pier 15 incorporated two seismic joints as part of its seismic retrofit , one separating
11122-399: The great importance of Gamow's insightful initiative. However, this did not prevent him from describing this colorful personality as a "zany", card-trick playing, limerick-singing, booze-swilling, practical–joking "giant imp". Gamow worked at George Washington University from 1934 until 1954, when he became a visiting professor at the University of California, Berkeley . In 1956, he moved to
11256-502: The historic interior trusswork was mainly restored rather than removed, meaning that the upper-level staff offices had to be built around them. Other challenges to the design of the facilities were presented by the museum’s sustainability initiatives. The use of natural light whenever possible challenged exhibit designers relying on carefully controlled light levels; this was solved by using curtains and glare-reducing paint colors. Other conflicts between construction and energy use included
11390-623: The imaging station with mouse stem cells, the live cow’s eye dissections, and the Live Chicken Embryo (one of the oldest of the Living Systems exhibits, showing live chicken embryos at different stages of development). Gallery 5, previously known as the Outdoor Gallery, comprises the north, south, and east aprons of Pier 15, and extends through both ticketed and un-ticketed space. Focus is on direct interaction with
11524-583: The institute. The Institute for Inquiry partnered with the Sonoma Valley Unified School District on a program combining science education with English Language Development (ELD). Data from the two-year pilot study showed that a professional development program designed to help teachers integrate ELD strategies into science lessons had a significant, measurable impact on the achievement of students in both ELD and in science. The Center for Informal Learning and Schools (CILS)
11658-470: The interior space to benefit from the existing architecture’s ample daylight. The retrofit did include the addition of high-performance glazing to the existing windows. In January 2014, the Exploratorium was awarded LEED Platinum certification. According to the New York Times , "After a two-year post-opening shakedown period of monitoring and adjusting the systems, the Exploratorium hopes to become
11792-533: The largest net-zero-energy-use museum in the United States and possibly the world." The new site contains over 600 exhibits, 25% of which were developed specifically for the Pier 15 site. With the exception of some art installations, all exhibits are developed and made onsite. The indoor and outdoor spaces are divided into six galleries, each highlighting a specific content group. Many exhibits are mobile, however, and move among different galleries; similarly, not all exhibits fall into distinct categories. Exhibits cover
11926-456: The last few weeks of his life. He died at home in Sausalito, California , on February 3, 1985. When Oppenheimer died in 1985, he was survived by his second wife Mildred Danielson, son Michael, and daughter Judith — as well as a third child, Sarah, from a relationship he had with the wife of a friend and colleague at the University of Colorado. Sarah had been raised by her mother and
12060-533: The local community. The Exploratorium is also home to XTech, a science education program for underserved middle school students. Begun in 2006, XTech was primarily funded by a National Science Foundation grant and provided afterschool activities in science, engineering, and technology in partnership with two community-based organizations in the Bay Area. XTech serves over 100 students a year in addition to 10-15 youth facilitators. Frank Oppenheimer Frank Friedman Oppenheimer (14 August 1912 – 3 February 1985)
12194-414: The longer rows of the conventional periodic table). Gamow continued his teaching at the University of Colorado Boulder and focused increasingly on writing textbooks and books on science for the general public. After several months of ill health, surgeries on his circulatory system, diabetes, and liver problems, Gamow was dying from liver failure , which he had called the "weak link" that could not withstand
12328-518: The mechanism of nuclear alpha decay , and his application of this theory to the inverse process to calculate rates of thermonuclear reaction. At first, Gamow believed that all the elements might be produced in the very high temperature and density early stage of the universe. Later, he revised this opinion on the strength of compelling evidence advanced by Fred Hoyle and others, that elements heavier than lithium are largely produced in thermonuclear reactions in stars and in supernovae. Gamow formulated
12462-481: The museum and locations around the world annually, including a live webcast of the Mars Curiosity Rover launch and landing; and Lifelong Learning, which creates educational programming for children, teens, family groups, and adults. Lifelong Learning programs further the Exploratorium’s stated dedication to informal learning and the museum as teaching tool, and include day camps, workshops for families,
12596-408: The museum makes use of an HVAC system that takes advantage of the relatively constant, moderate temperature of the bay water under the piers, which is 50 to 65 °F (10 to 18 °C), to heat and cool the building. The bay water is filtered and sterilized before it is brought into a 4,000 US gallons (15 m) cistern below the pier, where it is held for use. When needed, the bay water is moved to
12730-426: The museum’s director until his death in 1985. Dr. Robert L. White served as director from 1987 to 1990. Dr. Goéry Delacôte served as executive director from 1991 until 2005. Dr. Dennis Bartels served as executive director of the Exploratorium from 2006 to 2016. Chris Flink served as director from June 2016 through February 2022, when he was replaced by the former Chancellor of the University of North Carolina School of
12864-491: The now-decommissioned Willard Psychiatric Center, which was on view through April 2014. The Osher Gallery also houses the Kanbar Forum, a cabaret-style theater that hosts music events, science lectures, and other programs. Gallery 2, previously known as the South Gallery, is a workshop area where visitors can engage in hands-on making , located directly across from the Exploratorium's own internal exhibit workshop, which
12998-428: The nucleus, an event that would not occur spontaneously. In quantum mechanics , however, there is a probability the particle can "tunnel through" the wall of the potential well and escape. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived from first principles a relationship between the half-life of the alpha-decay event process and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically and
13132-540: The older brother's advice. Oppenheimer and his wife were atheists. Oppenheimer received his PhD in 1939 and completed two postdoctoral years at Stanford University . During World War II , Oppenheimer's older brother Robert became the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , part of the Manhattan Project , the Allied effort to produce the first atomic weapons . From 1941 to 1945 Oppenheimer worked at
13266-586: The only science teacher at the high school in Pagosa Springs , Colorado . The field trips and experiments he did with his high school students would become a blueprint for the hands-on methods of teaching and learning he would later bring to the Exploratorium. When Oppenheimer was invited to join the University of Colorado 's physics department in 1959, he found himself less interested in traditional laboratory research and much more interested in exploring methods of provoking curiosity and inquiry. He received
13400-524: The other stresses. In a letter written to Ralph Alpher on August 18, he had written, "The pain in the abdomen is unbearable and does not stop". Prior to this, there had been a long exchange of letters with his former student, in which he was seeking a fresh understanding of some concepts used in his earlier work, with Paul Dirac. Gamow relied on Alpher for deeper understanding of mathematics. On August 19, 1968, Gamow died at age 64 in Boulder, Colorado , and
13534-424: The parking lot between the piers was done slowly over the two years of construction, and the debris from the removal was captured and recycled. Several pilings were left in the water between the piers, both for aesthetic reasons and to support future exhibits. An effort was made in the construction of the new location to preserve the historic elements of Pier 15. The Bay Observatory was the only new structure added to
13668-406: The participatory ethos of the institution. An early proposal would have erected a wall between the workshop where exhibits were being developed and the main visitor areas. Instead, Oppenheimer insisted that the workshop be placed without a wall, right next to the main entrance so that visitors could experience "the way a shop smells when you burn the wood in a saw, or smell the oil from a lathe". Above
13802-472: The piers was infilled and paved over. This infill was removed as part of the construction phase, restoring the space between the piers to public plazas, a pedestrian bridge, and open water. The Exploratorium campus comprises 330,000 sq ft (31,000 m) of indoor and outdoor exhibit space and includes 1.5 acres (0.61 ha) of freely accessible public space. The exhibits are housed in and around Pier 15, which extends over 800 ft (240 m) over
13936-606: The plaza facing on the Embarcadero, the connector bridge between Piers 15 and 17 where Fog Bridge # 72494 is installed, the south apron of Pier 17, and the east and south aprons of Pier 15. This public space overlaps Gallery 5, and includes some notable exhibits, such as the Aeolian Harp (an expanded version of the original installation by Doug Hollis on the roof of the Exploratorium at the Palace of Fine Arts, first created in collaboration with Frank Oppenheimer in 1976) and
14070-545: The profession within five years, the retention rate for teachers who go through the Teacher Institute is 85 to 90 percent. The Teacher Institute is also home to the Iron Science Teacher , a national competition that celebrates innovation and creativity in science teaching, which originated at the Exploratorium in San Francisco. Parodying the cult Japanese TV program, Iron Chef , this competition showcases science teachers as they devise classroom activities using
14204-466: The project, which required substantial construction and renovation, occurred on October 19, 2010. The Exploratorium holds a 66-year lease on the piers with the Port of San Francisco. Exhibits are only viewable at the Pier 15 campus; Pier 17 houses some staff, with the option for future expansion. Piers 15 and 17 are historic piers that were constructed in 1931 and 1912, respectively. In 1954, the area between
14338-424: The site. The east end of the pier was cleaned of lead paint , revealing historic lettering underneath; designers chose to preserve the lettering rather than paint it over. As a result, the traces of the shipping lines that originally frequented the pier can still be seen. Some of the preservation efforts presented challenges in design, however; historic windows created energy losses that had to be offset elsewhere, and
14472-447: The solar system) in the not too distant future by means of an adventuresome trip to these planets on a "nuclear power propelled space ship," the question about the possible existence and the forms of life in other stellar worlds hundreds and thousands of light-years away, will probably remain forever an unsolvable problem of science. By that time the space race was underway with conventional chemical rockets. His book, The Creation of
14606-424: The structural beams connecting the southeast pilings capture up to 338,000 US gallons (1,280 m) of rainwater and fog runoff for reuse in the facility. The plumbing is designed for water conservation, with waterless urinals and dual-flush toilets projected to save an annual million gallons of water. Additionally, the bay water heating and cooling system is estimated to save two million gallons of potable water
14740-450: The system works in waterside economizer mode. In this mode, the cooling loads are met either entirely or partially through passive heat exchange between the colder bay water and the warmer return water, greatly reducing the building’s energy needs. The Exploratorium at Pier 15 has a separate system for its ventilation needs, pairing a dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS) with displacement ventilation distribution to bring outdoor air into
14874-441: The teaching of physics to elementary and high school children. These models would later become the core of the first exhibits at the Exploratorium. Oppenheimer also worked with the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC), helping to develop a new high school physics curriculum in the immediate post- Sputnik years. In his work, Oppenheimer followed the well-known old Latin principle Docendo discimus —"the (best) way to learn
15008-542: The teaching of science. Between 1995 and 2012, an estimated 6,400 educators from 48 states and 11 countries directly participated in Exploratorium workshops. The Teacher Institute, founded in 1984, is an Exploratorium-based professional development program geared towards middle and high school science teachers. In addition to providing workshops at the museum that teach hands-on and inquiry-based teaching methods, it provides coaches and support for novice teachers. Studies have shown that while 30 to 50 percent of new teachers leave
15142-504: The theory of the alpha decay of a nucleus via tunnelling , with mathematical help from Nikolai Kochin . The problem was also solved independently by Ronald W. Gurney and Edward U. Condon . Gurney and Condon did not, however, achieve the quantitative results achieved by Gamow. Classically, the particle is confined to the nucleus because of the high energy requirement to escape the very strong nuclear potential well . Also classically, it takes an enormous amount of energy to pull apart
15276-498: The true genetic code is non-overlapping and degenerate, and changing the order of a combination of bases does change the amino acid. In 1954, Gamow and Watson co-founded the RNA Tie Club . This was a discussion group of leading scientists concerned with the problem of the genetic code, which counted among its members the physicists Edward Teller and Richard Feynman . In his autobiographical writings, Watson later acknowledged
15410-656: The university, Gamow made friends with three other students of theoretical physics, Lev Landau , Dmitri Ivanenko , and Matvey Bronshtein . The four formed a group they called the Three Musketeers , which met to discuss and analyze the ground-breaking papers on quantum mechanics published during those years. He later used the same phrase to describe the Alpher, Herman, and Gamow group. Upon graduation, he worked on quantum theory in Göttingen , where his research into
15544-477: The very earliest years of the museum. It includes a mix of new and old exhibits that investigate physics and the perception of light, color, and sound, such as Sound Bite (a demonstration of hearing with the jawbone instead of the ears) and Bright Black (a trick of perception convinces viewers that an object is white when it is almost entirely black). Gallery 4, previously known as the East Gallery, houses
15678-502: The war, Oppenheimer's earlier involvement with the American Communist Party placed him under scrutiny, and he resigned from his physics position at the University of Minnesota . Oppenheimer was a target of McCarthyism and was blacklisted from finding any physics teaching position in the United States until 1957, when he was allowed to teach science at a high school in Colorado. This rehabilitation allowed him to gain
15812-441: The workshop was a sign made by Barbara Perkins Gamow , who was the wife of George Gamow , a physicist, educator, and friend of Oppenheimer who had died just a year before the opening of the Exploratorium. "Here Is Being Created the Exploratorium a Community Museum Dedicated to Awareness" the inscription said. (Today, a copy of this motto is inscribed above the main entrance to the new Exploratorium at Pier 15.) Oppenheimer served as
15946-708: The years leading up to his founding of the Exploratorium. Also included are papers related to his investigation by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Historical archives of the Exploratorium (1957–present) are also kept at the Bancroft. The University of Minnesota holds archives covering Oppenheimer's physics work during 1946–1959. Oppenheimer considered the Exploratorium and its educational programs to be his most important accomplishment and legacy. A collection of selected Oppenheimer papers on science, art, and education
16080-487: The youth, and to prepare them for learning as if they might prepare for higher education in the field of science. Under Oppenheimer's tutelage, several students from Pagosa Springs High School took first prize at the Colorado State Science Fair. Within two years, supported by endorsements from physicists Hans Bethe , George Gamow , and Victor Weisskopf , Oppenheimer was offered a position at
16214-462: Was a well-known prankster, who delighted in practical jokes and humorous twists embedded in serious scientific publications. His most famous prank was the pioneering Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper (1948), which was serious in its style and content. However, Gamow could not resist adding his colleague Hans Bethe to the list of authors, as a pun on the first three letters of the Greek alphabet . Gamow
16348-400: Was an American particle physicist , cattle rancher, professor of physics at the University of Colorado , and the founder of the Exploratorium in San Francisco . The younger brother of renowned physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer , Frank Oppenheimer conducted research on aspects of nuclear physics during the time of the Manhattan Project , and made contributions to uranium enrichment . After
16482-444: Was an atheist. Gamow was a highly successful science writer, with several of his books still in print more than a half-century after their initial publication. As an educator, Gamow recognized and emphasized fundamental principles that were unlikely to become obsolete, even as the pace of science and technology accelerated. He also conveyed a sense of excitement with the revolution in physics and other scientific topics of interest to
16616-597: Was an early advocate and developer of Georges Lemaître 's Big Bang theory . Gamow discovered a theoretical explanation of alpha decay by quantum tunneling , invented the liquid drop model and the first mathematical model of the atomic nucleus , worked on radioactive decay , star formation , stellar nucleosynthesis , Big Bang nucleosynthesis (which he collectively called nucleocosmogenesis ), and molecular genetics . In his middle and late career, Gamow directed much of his attention to teaching and wrote popular books on science, including One Two Three... Infinity and
16750-509: Was buried there in Green Mountain Cemetery. The physics department tower at the University of Colorado at Boulder is named after him. Gamow had a son, Igor Gamow , with his first wife Rho in 1935. Their son later became a professor of microbiology at the University of Colorado , as well as an inventor. In 1956, Gamow divorced his wife Rho. In 1958 he married Barbara Perkins , an editor for one of his publishers. Gamow
16884-537: Was designed to test an adaptable model for providing tinkering activities to promote learning and development in an afterschool setting. The Exploratorium also houses a number of other educational resources. These include the Learning Commons, a library and media resource center that houses a collection of print and digital science teaching resources for use by regional educators; a webcast studio, located in Gallery 3, which produces 75 educational Webcasts from
17018-423: Was diagnosed with lymphoma , and underwent two years of successful chemotherapy . Oppenheimer's first wife Jacquenette, died in 1980. In 1982, he married Mildred "Milly" Danielson. In 1983, lung cancer was discovered (he was a heavy smoker ), and he underwent a lobectomy , in spite of which he continued to play the flute. Oppenheimer still remained active, appearing at the Exploratorium nearly daily until
17152-455: Was diverted from an academic career when he was forced to resign from his position at the University of Minnesota in 1949 as a result of an inquiry by the House Un-American Activities Committee . He was blacklisted from academic positions across the country and withdrew with his family to run a Colorado cattle ranch for almost a decade. Oppenheimer also began assisting local high school students with their science projects, eventually becoming
17286-694: Was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR at age 28 – one of the youngest in its history. During the period 1931–1933, Gamow worked in the Physical Department of the Radium Institute (Leningrad) headed by Vitaly Khlopin [ ru ] . Europe's first cyclotron was designed under the guidance and direct participation of Igor Kurchatov , Lev Mysovskii and Gamow. In 1932, Gamow and Mysovskii submitted
17420-407: Was in 1939 with Edward Teller on galaxy formation, followed in 1946 by the first description of cosmic nucleosynthesis. He also wrote many popular articles as well as academic textbooks on this and other subjects. In 1948, he published a paper dealing with an attenuated version of the coupled set of equations describing the production of the proton and the deuteron from thermal neutrons. By means of
17554-495: Was known as the Geiger–Nuttall law . Some years later, the name Gamow factor or Gamow–Sommerfeld factor was applied to the probability of incoming nuclear particles tunnelling through the electrostatic Coulomb barrier and undergoing nuclear reactions. Gamow worked at a number of Soviet establishments before deciding to flee the Soviet Union because of increased oppression. In 1931, he was officially denied permission to attend
17688-568: Was open to non-white people only on Wednesday. Oppenheimer said he and his wife had joined at a time when they sought answers to the high unemployment experienced in the United States during the later part of the Great Depression . He refused to name others he knew to be members. This caused a media sensation—that J. Robert Oppenheimer's brother was a former member of the Communist Party—and led to Oppenheimer resigning his post at
17822-399: Was proposing (called "Gamow's diamonds") proved to be incorrect. The triplets were supposed to be overlapping, so that in the sequence GGAC (for example), GGA could produce one amino acid and GAC another, and also non-degenerate (meaning that each amino acid would correspond to one combination of three bases – in any order). Later protein sequencing work proved that this could not be the case;
17956-543: Was working with Richard Blade on a textbook Basic Theories in Modern Physics , but the work was never completed or published under that title. Gamow was also writing My World Line: An Informal Autobiography , which was published posthumously in 1970. A collection of Gamow's writings was donated to The George Washington University in 1996. The materials include correspondence, articles, manuscripts and printed materials both by and about George Gamow. The collection
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