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87-409: The commune is very large in area but sparsely populated. The 2009 census recorded only 2,383 people in an area of approximately 25,000 km. The village of Essouk has only a small permanent population. The rainfall is too low for rain-fed agriculture and almost all the population in the area are nomadic pastoralists . Tadmakka lies some 500 km north-east of Timbuktu in the desert heartland of

174-581: A common-pool resource , such as grazing lands used for pastoralism, can be managed more sustainably through community groups and cooperatives than through privatization or total governmental control. Ostrom was awarded a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for her work. Pastoralists in the Sahel zone in Africa were held responsible for the depletion of resources. The depletion of resources

261-486: A wadi . The main section of the town was on the east bank and extended for 1 km by 200 m. A central section covering an area of 200 m by 100 m was built on a small island while the third section extended for 500 m by 200 m on the west bank. Associated with the town are number of cemeteries. In a cemetery lying to the southwest of the town, tombstones have been discovered that have Arabic epigraphs with 11th century dates. Rock faces on either side of

348-771: A French expedition led by Paul Flatters in 1881. Over decades of fighting, Tuareg broadswords were no match for the firearms of French troops. After numerous massacres on both sides, the Tuareg were defeated and forced to sign treaties in Mali in 1905 and Niger in 1917. In southern Algeria, the French met some of the strongest resistance from the Ahaggar Tuareg. Their Amenokal chief Moussa ag Amastan fought numerous battles, but eventually Tuareg territories were subdued under French governance. French colonial administration of

435-603: A Muslim town well before this date and speculated that al-Zuhri may have been referring to the conversion of the population from the Ibadi form of Islam to the more orthodox Maliki school of Sunni Islam . Traders in Tadmekka would have had commercial links with North African towns such as Tahert and Ouargla where there were Ibadi communities. The medieval town was spread in a north–south direction between two chains of rocky hills that run parallel to each other on either side of

522-406: A blend of pre-Islamic and Islamic practices. Patrilineal Muslim values are believed to have been superimposed upon the Tuareg's traditional matrilineal society. Other apparently newer customs include close-cousin endogamous marriages and polygyny in conformity with Islamic tenets. Polygyny, which has been witnessed among Tuareg chiefs and Islamic scholars, is in turn thought to have been contrary to

609-455: A distinct group known as izeggaghan (or hartani in Arabic). Their origins are unclear but they often speak both Tuareg dialects and Arabic, though a few communities are Songhay speakers. Traditionally, these local peasants were subservient to the warrior nobles who owned the oasis and the land. The peasants tilled these fields, whose output they gave to the nobles after keeping a fifth part of

696-429: A market economy are not excluded. The boundaries between states impact the viability of subsistence and trade relations with cultivators. Pastoralist strategies typify effective adaptation to the environment. Precipitation differences are evaluated by pastoralists. In East Africa, different animals are taken to specific regions throughout the year that corresponds to the seasonal patterns of precipitation. Transhumance

783-490: A mix of admiration and distrust. According to Rasmussen, the Tuareg castes are not only hierarchical, as each caste differs in mutual perception, food and eating behaviors. For example, she relates an explanation by a smith on why there is endogamy among Tuareg castes in Niger. The smith explained, "nobles are like rice, smiths are like millet, slaves are like corn". The people who farm oases in some Tuareg-dominated areas form

870-448: A noble, forms a confederation whose chieftain, the amănokal , is elected from among the nobles by the tribal chiefs. The chieftain is the overlord during times of war, and receives tribute and taxes from tribes as a sign of their submission to his authority. The vassal-herdsmen are the second free stratum within Tuareg society, occupying a position just below that of the nobles. They are known as ímɣad ( Imghad , singular Amghid ) in

957-838: A quarter of the total population—living on about 43 percent of the continent's total land mass." Pastoralists manage rangelands covering about a third of the Earth's terrestrial surface and are able to produce food where crop production is not possible. Pastoralism has been shown, "based on a review of many studies, to be between 2 and 10 times more productive per unit of land than the capital intensive alternatives that have been put forward". However, many of these benefits go unmeasured and are frequently squandered by policies and investments that seek to replace pastoralism with more capital intensive modes of production. They have traditionally suffered from poor understanding, marginalization and exclusion from dialogue. The Pastoralist Knowledge Hub, managed by

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1044-420: A radius of a hundred to five hundred kilometers. Pastoralists and their livestock have impacted the environment. Lands long used for pastoralism have transformed under the forces of grazing livestock and anthropogenic fire . Fire was a method of revitalizing pastureland and preventing forest regrowth. The collective environmental weights of fire and livestock browsing have transformed landscapes in many parts of

1131-408: A result of the increasing importance of both intensive agriculture and pastoralism. Both agriculture and pastoralism developed alongside each other, with continuous interactions. A different theory suggests that pastoralism evolved from the hunting and gathering . Hunters of wild goats and sheep were knowledgeable about herd mobility and the needs of the animals. Such hunters were mobile and followed

1218-558: A sustainable approach to land use. Tuareg people The Tuareg people ( / ˈ t w ɑːr ɛ ɡ / ; also spelled Twareg or Touareg ; endonym : Imuhaɣ / Imušaɣ / Imašeɣăn / Imajeɣăn ) are a large Berber ethnic group, traditionally nomadic pastoralists , who principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria , Niger , Mali , and Burkina Faso , as far as northern Nigeria . The Tuareg speak languages of

1305-454: Is a variation in genetic makeup of the farm animals driven mainly by natural and human based selection. For example, pastoralists in large parts of Sub Saharan Africa are preferring livestock breeds which are adapted to their environment and able to tolerate drought and diseases. However, in other animal production systems these breeds are discouraged and more productive exotic ones are favored. This situation could not be left unaddressed due to

1392-519: Is exacerbated by over-exploitation of resources including firewood. This has pushed some Tuareg to experiment with farming; some have been forced to abandon herding and seek jobs in towns and cities. Following the independence of Mali, a Tuareg uprising broke out in the Adrar N'Fughas mountains in the 1960s, joined by Tuareg groups from the Adrar des Iforas in northeastern Mali. The Malian Army suppressed

1479-465: Is implausible, and yet it is applied in development projects around the globe, motivating the destruction of community and other governance systems that have managed sustainable pastoral systems for thousands of years. The outcomes have often been disastrous. In her book Governing the Commons , Elinor Ostrom showed that communities were not trapped and helpless amid diminishing commons. She argued that

1566-537: Is much higher, which is evident in the East African grasslands of pastoralist populations. However, the property rights structure is only one of the many different parameters that affect the sustainability of resources, and common or private property per se, does not necessarily lead to sustainability. Some pastoralists supplement herding with hunting and gathering, fishing and/or small-scale farming or pastoral farming . Mobility allows pastoralists to adapt to

1653-481: Is practiced in different climates and environments with daily movement and seasonal migration. Pastoralists are among the most flexible populations. Pastoralist societies have had field armed men protect their livestock and their people and then to return into a disorganized pattern of foraging. The products of the herd animals are the most important resources, although the use of other resources, including domesticated and wild plants, hunted animals, and goods accessible in

1740-418: Is sometimes referred to as the "cradle of Tuareg civilization". The annual Saharan Nights festival showcases traditional Tuareg music as well as featuring various world music performers. Oral tradition holds that Boctou, foundress of Timbuktu , was originally from Essouk. Essouk is also an important archaeological site, featuring rock carvings more than eight thousand years old. The archaeological site

1827-470: Is that Tuareg is derived from Tuwariq , the plural of the Arabic exonym Tariqi . The term for a Tuareg man is Amajagh (variants: Amashegh , Amahagh ), the term for a woman Tamajaq (variants: Tamasheq , Tamahaq , Timajaghen ). Spellings of the appellation vary by Tuareg dialect. They all reflect the same linguistic root, expressing the notion of "freemen". As such, the endonym strictly refers only to

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1914-537: Is the migration of livestock and pastoralists between seasonal pastures. In the Himalayas , pastoralists have often historically and traditionally depended on rangelands lying across international borders. The Himalayas contain several international borders, such as those between India and China, India and Nepal, Bhutan and China, India and Pakistan, and Pakistan and China. With the growth of nation states in Asia since

2001-639: Is vital for creating knowledge through the networks of linked societies. Pastoralists produce food in the world's harshest environments, and pastoral production supports the livelihoods of rural populations on almost half of the world's land. Several hundred million people are pastoralists, mostly in Africa and Asia . ReliefWeb reported that "Several hundred million people practice pastoralism—the use of extensive grazing on rangelands for livestock production, in over 100 countries worldwide. The African Union estimated that Africa has about 268 million pastoralists—over

2088-848: The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb . Some researchers have tied the origin of the Tuareg ethnicity with the fall of the Garamantes who inhabited the Fezzan (Libya) from the 1st millennium BC to the 5th century AD. Tuareg people are credited with spreading Islam in North Africa and the adjacent Sahel region. Tuareg social structure has traditionally included clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. The Tuareg have controlled several trans-Saharan trade routes and have been an important party to

2175-525: The Sudan . While Timbuktu was almost unknown before the 13th century, Tadmakka was first recorded in Arabic texts in the 10th century , linked to trade with Ghana and Gao , the first historically documented West African states. The earliest mention to Tadmakka is found in Ibn Hawqal 's Kitab Surat al-ard ("The Picture of the Earth" ), written in three successive versions between 967 and 988. However

2262-637: The Tibetan plateau , the Eurasian steppes , the Andes , Patagonia , the Pampas , Australia and many other places. As of 2019 , between 200 million and 500 million people globally practiced pastoralism, and 75% of all countries had pastoral communities. Pastoral communities have different levels of mobility. The [[enclosure of common lands has led to Sedentary pastoralism becoming more common as

2349-400: The amghar . A series of tawsheten (plural of tawshet ) may bond together under an Amenokal , forming a Kel clan confederation. Tuareg self-identification is related only to their specific Kel , which means "those of". For example, Kel Dinnig (those of the east), Kel Ataram (those of the west). The position of amghar is hereditary through a matrilineal principle; it is usual for

2436-523: The biodiversity of such landscapes and prevent them from evolving into dense shrublands or forests. Grazing and browsing at the appropriate levels often can increase biodiversity in Mediterranean climate regions. Pastoralists shape ecosystems in different ways: some communities use fire to make ecosystems more suitable for grazing and browsing animals. One theory suggests that pastoralism developed from mixed farming . Bates and Lees proposed that

2523-477: The jedar sepulchres, were erected for religious and funerary practices. In 1926, one such tomb was discovered south of Casablanca . The monument was engraved with funerary inscriptions in the ancient Libyco-Berber writing script known as Tifinagh , which the Tuareg still use. During the medieval period, the Tuareg adopted Islam after its arrival with the Umayyad Caliphate in the 7th century. In

2610-531: The 12th century. It flourished under the protection and rule of a Tuareg confederation. However, modern scholars believe that there is insufficient evidence to pinpoint the exact time of origin and founders of Timbuktu, although it is archeologically clear that the city originated from local trade between the Middle Niger Delta, on the one hand, and between the pastoralists of the Sahara, long before

2697-553: The 16th century, under the tutelage of El Maghili, the Tuareg embraced the Maliki school of Sunni Islam, which they now primarily follow. The Tuareg helped spread Islam further into the Western Sudan . While Islam is the religion of the contemporary Tuareg, historical documents suggest that they initially resisted Islamization efforts in their traditional strongholds. According to the anthropologist Susan Rasmussen, after

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2784-617: The 1995 and 1996 agreements. As of 2004, sporadic fighting continued in Niger between government forces and Tuareg rebels. In 2007, a new surge in violence occurred. The development of Berberism in North Africa in the 1990s fostered a Tuareg ethnic revival. Since 1998, three different flags have been designed to represent the Tuareg. In Niger, the Tuareg people remain socially and economically marginalized, remaining poor and unrepresented in Niger's central government. On 21 March 2021, IS-GS militants attacked several villages around Tillia , Niger, killing 141 people. The main victims of

2871-449: The Commons (1968) described how common property resources, such as the land shared by pastoralists, eventually become overused and ruined. According to Hardin's paper, the pastoralist land use strategy was unstable and a cause of environmental degradation . One of Hardin's conditions for a "tragedy of the commons" is that people cannot communicate with each other or make agreements and contracts. Many scholars have pointed out that this

2958-634: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN serves as a knowledge repository on technical excellence on pastoralism as well as "a neutral forum for exchange and alliance building among pastoralists and stakeholders working on pastoralist issues". The Afar pastoralists in Ethiopia uses an indigenous communication method called dagu for information. This helps them in getting crucial information about climate and availability of pastures at various locations. There

3045-508: The Lemta and the Zarawa, along with other fellow pastoral Berbers. Further invasions of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym Arab tribes into Tuareg regions in the 11th century moved the Tuareg south into seven clans, which the oral tradition of Tuaregs claims are descendants of the same mother. Each Tuareg clan ( tawshet ) is made up of family groups constituting a tribe, each led by its chief,

3132-585: The Malian Tuareg, and 45 km from the nearest town, Kidal . Its ruins stretch over a kilometre within the Essouk valley. The town prospered between the 9th and 15th centuries as an important entrepôt for caravans —a place where they could prepare for, or recover from, the hardest stretch of the Saharan journey. For caravans travelling south, the town served as the last stopping place before entering

3219-622: The Sahel between the 7th and 17th centuries. Adherence to the faith was initially centered around this caste, but later spread to the wider Tuareg community. The marabouts have traditionally been the judges ( qadi ) and religious leaders ( imam ) of a Tuareg community. According to anthropologist Jeffrey Heath, Tuareg artisans belong to separate endogamous castes known as the Inhăḍăn ( Inadan ). These have included blacksmith, jeweler, wood worker and leather artisan castes. They produced and repaired

3306-435: The Tuareg nobility , not the artisanal client castes and the slaves. Two other Tuareg self-designations are Kel Tamasheq , meaning "speakers of Tamasheq ", and Kel Tagelmust , meaning "veiled people" in allusion to the tagelmust garment that is traditionally worn by Tuareg men. The English exonym "Blue People" is similarly derived from the indigo color of the tagelmust veils and other clothing, which sometimes stains

3393-500: The Tuareg had adopted the religion, they were reputedly lax in their prayers and observances of other Muslim precepts. Some of their ancient beliefs still exist today subtly within their culture and tradition, such as elements of pre-Islamic cosmology and rituals, particularly among Tuareg women, or the widespread "cult of the dead", which is a form of ancestor veneration . For example, Tuareg religious ceremonies contain allusions to matrilineal spirits, as well as to fertility, menstruation,

3480-432: The Tuareg language. Although the vassals were free, they did not own camels but instead kept donkeys and herds of goats, sheep and oxen. They pastured and tended their own herds as well those owned by the nobles of the confederation. The vassal strata have traditionally paid an annual tiwse , or tribute to the nobles as a part of their status obligations, and hosted any noble who was traveling through their territory. In

3567-677: The Tuareg moved southward from the Tafilalt region into the Sahel under the Tuareg founding queen Tin Hinan , who is believed to have lived between the 4th and 5th centuries. The matriarch's 1,500-year-old monumental Tin Hinan tomb is located in the Sahara at Abalessa in the Hoggar Mountains of southern Algeria. Vestiges of an inscription in Tifinagh , the Tuareg's traditional Libyco-Berber writing script, have been found on one of

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3654-414: The Tuareg was largely based on supporting the existing social hierarchy. The French concluded that Tuareg rebellions were largely the result of reform policies that undermined the traditional chiefs. The colonial authorities wished to create a protectorate operating, ideally, through single chieftains who ruled under French sovereignty, but were autonomous within their territories. Thus French rule, relying on

3741-443: The Tuareg, who kept their oral traditions . They are called Agguta by Tuareg, have been called upon to sing during ceremonies such as weddings or funerals. The origins of the artisanal castes are unclear. One theory posits a Jewish derivation, a proposal that Prasse calls "a much vexed question". Their association with fire, iron and precious metals and their reputation for being cunning tradesmen has led others to treat them with

3828-458: The ancient sepulchre's walls. External accounts of interactions with the Tuareg are available from at least the 10th century onwards. Ibn Hawkal (10th century), El-Bekri (11th century), Edrisi (12th century), Ibn Battutah (14th century), and Leo Africanus (16th century) all documented the Tuareg in some form, usually as Mulatthamin or "the veiled ones". Of the early historians, fourteenth century scholar Ibn Khaldûn probably wrote some of

3915-481: The animals in search for any available grazing-grounds—without much long-term planning. Grazing in woodlands and forests may be referred to as silvopastoralism . Those who practice pastoralism are called "pastoralists". Pastoralist herds interact with their environment, and mediate human relations with the environment as a way of turning uncultivated plants (like wild grass) into food. In many places, grazing herds on savannas and in woodlands can help maintain

4002-637: The centrality of water in pastoral life: Ceel biyo lihi ma foga A well which has water is never far Mobility was an important strategy for the Ariaal ; however with the loss of grazing land impacted by the growth in population, severe drought, the expansion of agriculture, and the expansion of commercial ranches and game parks, mobility was lost. The poorest families were driven out of pastoralism and into towns to take jobs. Few Ariaal families benefited from education, healthcare, and income earning. The flexibility of pastoralists to respond to environmental change

4089-432: The changes in market preferences and climate all over the world, which could lead to changes in livestock diseases occurrence and decline forage quality and availability. Hence pastoralists can maintain farm animal genetic resources by conserving local livestock breeds. Generally conserving farm animal genetic resources under pastoralism is advantageous in terms of reliability and associated cost. Hardin's Tragedy of

4176-574: The chief of the confederation. Historically, there have been seven major confederations. In the mid-19th century, descriptions of the Tuareg and their way of life were made by the English traveller James Richardson in his journeys across the Libyan Sahara in 1845–1846. In the late 19th century, the Tuareg resisted the French colonial invasion of their central Saharan homelands and annihilated

4263-580: The conflicts in the Saharan region during the colonial and post-colonial eras. The origins and meanings of the name Tuareg have long been debated. It would appear that Twārəg is derived from the broken plural of Tārgi , a name whose former meaning was "inhabitant of Targa ", the Tuareg name of the Libyan region commonly known as Fezzan . Targa in Berber means "(drainage) channel". Another theory

4350-562: The creation of protected areas. Some pastoralists are constantly moving, which may put them at odds with sedentary people of towns and cities. The resulting conflicts can result in war for disputed lands. These disputes are recorded in ancient times in the Middle East, as well as for East Asia. Other pastoralists are able to remain in the same location which results in longer-standing housing. Different mobility patterns can be observed: Somali pastoralists keep their animals in one of

4437-564: The desert do. They live on meat as well as on grain which the earth produces without being tilled. Sorghum and other grains are imported for them from the land of the Sūdān. The Andalusian geographer al-Zuhri , writing in the middle of the 12th century, reported that the Almoravids helped Ghana in a war against Tadmekka in 1083-4 and as a result Tadmekka became Muslim . The historian Nehemia Levtzion pointed out that Tadmekka would have been

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4524-404: The earth and ancestresses. Norris (1976) suggests that this apparent syncretism may stem from the influence of Sufi Muslim preachers on the Tuareg. The Tuaregs have been one of the influential ethnic groups in the spread of Islam and its legacy in North Africa and adjacent Sahel. Timbuktu , an important Islamic center famed for its ulama , was established by Imasheghen Tuareg at the start of

4611-442: The eastern dialect ( Tamajaq , Tawallammat ). The exact number of Tuareg speakers per territory is uncertain. The CIA estimates that the Tuareg population in Mali constitutes approximately 0.9% of the national population (~150,000), whereas about 3.5% of local inhabitants speak Tuareg (Tamasheq) as a primary language. In contrast, Imperato (2008) estimates that the Tuareg represent around 3% of Mali's population. In antiquity,

4698-402: The environment, which opens up the possibility for both fertile and infertile regions to support human existence. Important components of pastoralism include low population density, mobility, vitality, and intricate information systems. The system is transformed to fit the environment rather than adjusting the environment to support the "food production system." Mobile pastoralists can often cover

4785-546: The first hijra . Monroe asserts, based on archaeological evidence, that Timbuktu emerged from an urban-rural dynamic, that is, aiming to provide services to its immediate rural hinterland . In 1449, a Tuareg ruling house founded the Tenere Sultanate of Aïr (Sultanate of Agadez) in the city of Agadez in the Aïr Mountains . 18th century Tuareg Islamic scholars such as Jibril ibn 'Umar later preached

4872-564: The first detailed account of the town was written by the Spanish-Arab historian and geographer al-Bakri in his Book of Routes and Realms which he completed in 1068: ...across the desert plain to Tādmakka, which of all the towns in the world is the one that resembles Mecca the most. Its name means "Mecca-like". It is a large town amidst the mountains and ravines and is better built than Ghāna or Kawkaw [Gao]. The inhabitants of Tādmakka are Muslim Berbers who veil themselves as Berbers of

4959-407: The hardening of political borders, land tenures , expansion of crop farming , and construction of fences and dedicated agricultural buildings all reduce the ability to move livestock around freely, leading to the rise of pastoral farming on established grazing-zones (sometimes called " ranches "). Sedentary pastoralists may also raise crops and livestock together in the form of mixed farming , for

5046-411: The harshest environments but they have evolved over the centuries. Somalis have well developed pastoral culture where complete system of life and governance has been refined. Somali poetry depicts humans interactions, pastoral animals, beasts on the prowl, and other natural things such the rain, celestial events and historic events of significance. Wise sage Guled Haji coined a proverb that encapsulates

5133-583: The herds on their seasonal rounds. Undomesticated herds were chosen to become more controllable for the proto-pastoralist nomadic hunter and gatherer groups by taming and domesticating them. Hunter-gatherers' strategies in the past have been very diverse and contingent upon the local environmental conditions, like those of mixed farmers. Foraging strategies have included hunting or trapping big game and smaller animals, fishing, collecting shellfish or insects, and gathering wild-plant foods such as fruits, seeds, and nuts. These diverse strategies for survival amongst

5220-734: The incorporation of irrigation into farming resulted in specialization. Advantages of mixed farming include reducing risk of failure, spreading labour, and re-utilizing resources. The importance of these advantages and disadvantages to different farmers or farming societies differs according to the sociocultural preferences of the farmers and the biophysical conditions as determined by rainfall, radiation, soil type, and disease. The increased productivity of irrigation agriculture led to an increase in population and an added impact on resources. Bordering areas of land remained in use for animal breeding. This meant that large distances had to be covered by herds to collect sufficient forage. Specialization occurred as

5307-452: The island on the eastern side of the wadi. A 5 m × 5 m (16 ft × 16 ft) area was excavated to a depth of 6.5 m (21 ft) before undisturbed soil was reached. A series of 12 radiometric dates were obtained from carbon containing material. The four samples from the deepest levels produced a range of dates centred on middle of the 8th century while samples from the top levels gave 12th and 14th century dates. It

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5394-443: The land, seeking instead soldiering or intellectual work. A semi-noble stratum of the Tuareg people has been the endogamous religious clerics, the marabouts (Tuareg: Ineslemen , a loan word that means Muslim in Arabic). After the adoption of Islam, they became integral to the Tuareg social structure. According to Norris (1976), this stratum of Muslim clerics has been a sacerdotal caste, which propagated Islam in North Africa and

5481-499: The late Medieval era, states Prasse, the previously existing weapon monopoly of the nobility broke down after regional wars took a heavy toll on the noble warrior strata, and thereafter the vassals carried weapons as well and were recruited as warriors. After the start of the French colonial rule, which deprived the nobles of their powers over war and taxation, the Tuaregs belonging to the noble strata disdained tending cattle and tilling

5568-540: The loyalty of the Tuareg noble caste, did not improve the status of the slave class. When African countries achieved widespread independence in the 1960s, the traditional Tuareg territory was divided among a number of modern states: Niger, Mali, Algeria, Libya, and Burkina Faso. Political instability and competition for resources in the Sahel has since led to conflicts between the Tuareg and neighboring African groups. There have been tight restrictions placed on nomadic life because of high population growth . Desertification

5655-633: The majority ethnic group in the Kidal Region of northeastern Mali. The Tuareg traditionally speak the Tuareg languages , also known as Tamasheq, Tamajeq or Tamahaq , depending on the dialect. These languages belong to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family . According to Ethnologue , there are an estimated 1.2 million Tuareg speakers. Around half of this number consists of speakers of

5742-468: The massacres were the Tuaregs. The Tuareg traditionally adhered to the Berber mythology . Archaeological excavations of prehistoric tombs in the Maghreb have yielded skeletal remains that were painted with ochre . Although this ritual practice was known to the Iberomaurusians , the custom seems instead to have been primarily derived from the ensuing Capsian culture . Megalithic tombs, such as

5829-664: The mid-twentieth century, mobility across the international borders in these countries have tended to be more and more restricted and regulated. As a consequence, the old, customary arrangements of trans-border pastoralism have generally tended to disintegrate, and trans-border pastoralism has declined. Within these countries, pastoralism is often at conflict these days with new modes of community forestry, such as Van Panchayats ( Uttarakhand ) and Community Forest User Groups ( Nepal ), which tend to benefit settled agricultural communities more. Frictions have also tended to arise between pastoralists and development projects such as dam-building and

5916-750: The migratory herds could also provide an evolutionary route towards nomadic pastoralism . Pastoralism occurs in uncultivated areas. Wild animals eat the forage from the marginal lands and humans survive from milk, blood, and often meat of the herds and often trade by-products like wool and milk for money and food . Pastoralists do not exist at basic subsistence . Pastoralists often compile wealth and participate in international trade. Pastoralists have trade relations with agriculturalists, horticulturalists , and other groups. Pastoralists are not extensively dependent on milk, blood, and meat of their herd. McCabe noted that when common property institutions are created, in long-lived communities, resource sustainability

6003-474: The military of both countries followed, with deaths into the thousands. Negotiations initiated by France and Algeria led to peace agreements in January 1992 in Mali and in 1995 in Niger, both arranging for decentralization of national power and the integration of Tuareg resistance fighters into the countries' national armies. Major fighting between the Tuareg resistance and government security forces ended after

6090-535: The most detailed commentary on the life and people of the Sahara, though he apparently never actually met them. At the turn of the 19th century, the Tuareg territory was organised into confederations, each ruled by a supreme Chief ( Amenokal ), along with a council of elders from each tribe. These confederations were sometimes called " Drum Groups " after the Amenokal's symbol of authority, a drum. Clan ( Tewsit ) elders, called Imegharan (wisemen), were chosen to assist

6177-482: The needs of the state in reducing the autonomy and livelihoods of pastoral people. The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria , Mali , Sudan , Ethiopia and other countries in the Sahel and Horn of Africa regions have been exacerbated by climate change , land degradation , and population growth . It has also been shown that pastoralism supports human existence in harsh environments and often represents

6264-586: The nobles constitute the highest caste. They are known in the Tuareg language as imušaɣ/imuhaɣ/imajăɣăn "the proud and free". The nobles originally had a monopoly on carrying arms and owning camels, and were the warriors of the Tuareg regions. They may have achieved their social status by subjugating other Tuareg castes, keeping arms to defend their properties and vassals. They have collected tribute from their vassals. This warrior nobility has traditionally married within their caste, not to individuals in strata below their own. A collection of tribes, each led by

6351-422: The pre-Islamic monogamous tradition of the nomadic Tuareg. Tuareg society has featured caste hierarchies within each clan and political confederation. These hierarchical systems have included nobles, clerics, craftsmen and unfree strata of people including widespread slavery. Traditionally, Tuareg society is hierarchical, with nobility and vassals. The linguist Karl-Gottfried Prasse (1995) indicates that

6438-713: The produce. Their Tuareg patrons were usually responsible for supplying agricultural tools, seed and clothing. The peasants' origins are also unclear. One theory postulates that they are descendants of ancient people who lived in the Sahara before they were dominated by invading groups. In contemporary times, these peasant strata have blended in with freed slaves and farm arable lands together. The Tuareg confederations acquired slaves, often of Nilotic origin, as well as tribute-paying states in raids on surrounding communities. They also took captives as war booty or purchased slaves in markets. The slaves or servile communities are locally called Ikelan (or Iklan , Eklan ), and slavery

6525-503: The purpose of diversifying productivity, obtaining manure for organic farming , and improving pasture conditions for their livestock. Mobile pastoralism includes moving herds locally across short distances in search of fresh forage and water (something that can occur daily or even within a few hours); as well as transhumance , where herders routinely move animals between different seasonal pastures across regions; and nomadism , where nomadic pastoralists and their families move with

6612-665: The revolt, but resentment among the Tuareg fueled further uprisings. This second (or third) uprising was in May 1990. In the aftermath of a clash between government soldiers and Tuareg outside a prison in Tchin-Tabaraden , Niger, Tuareg in both Mali and Niger claimed independence for their traditional homeland: Ténéré in Niger, including their capital Agadez , and the Azawad and Kidal regions of Mali. Deadly clashes between Tuareg fighters, with leaders such as Mano Dayak , and

6699-472: The saddles, tools, household items and other items for the Tuareg community. In Niger and Mali, where the largest Tuareg populations are found, the artisan castes were attached as clients to a family of nobles or vassals, carried messages over distances for their patron family, and traditionally sacrificed animals during Islamic festivals . These social strata, like caste systems found in many parts of West Africa, included singers, musicians and story tellers of

6786-427: The same name , also known as Tamasheq , which belong to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family . They are a semi-nomadic people who mostly practice Islam , and are descended from the indigenous Berber communities of Northern Africa, whose ancestry has been described as a mosaic of local Northern African ( Taforalt ), Middle Eastern , European ( Early European Farmers ), and Sub-Saharan African , prior to

6873-555: The skin underneath giving it a blueish tint. Another term for the Tuareg is Imuhagh or Imushagh , a cognate to the northern Berber self-name Imazighen . The Tuareg today inhabit a vast area in the Sahara , stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, and the far north of Nigeria. Their combined population in these territories exceeds 2.5 million, with an estimated population in Niger of around 2 million (11% of inhabitants) and in Mali of another 0.5 million (3% of inhabitants). The Tuareg are

6960-452: The son of a sister of the incumbent chieftain to succeed to his position. The amenokal is elected in a ritual which differs between groups. The individual amghar who lead the clans making up the confederation usually have the deciding voice. The matrilineal inheritance and mythology among Tuareg clans, states Susan Rasmussen, is a cultural vestige from the pre-Islamic era of the Tuareg society. According to Rasmussen, Tuareg society exhibits

7047-402: The valley contain petroglyphs as well as inscriptions written using either the kufic or tifinagh scripts. Some of the Arabic inscriptions include 11th century dates. Archaeological excavations were carried out between January and March in 2005 by a team led by Sam Nixon. Of the three areas of the town investigated, the most complete stratigraphic sequence was obtained at a location opposite

7134-582: The value of revolutionary jihad. Inspired by these teachings, Ibn 'Umar's student Usman dan Fodio led the Sokoto jihads and established the Sokoto Caliphate . Tuareg society has traditionally featured clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. Clans have been a historic part of the Tuaregs. The 7th century invasion of North Africa from the Middle East triggered an extensive migration of Tuaregs such as

7221-417: The world, generally where environmentally effected characteristics such as aridity, poor soils, cold or hot temperatures, and lack of water make crop-growing difficult or impossible. Operating in more extreme environments with more marginal lands means that pastoral communities are very vulnerable to the effects of global warming . Pastoralism remains a way of life in many geographic areas, including Africa,

7308-554: The world. Fire has permitted pastoralists to tend the land for their livestock. Political boundaries are based on environmental boundaries. The Maquis shrublands of the Mediterranean region are dominated by pyrophytic plants that thrive under conditions of anthropogenic fire and livestock grazing. Nomadic pastoralists have a global food-producing strategy depending on the management of herd animals for meat, skin, wool, milk, blood, manure, and transport. Nomadic pastoralism

7395-418: Was actually triggered by a prior interference and punitive climate conditions. Hardin's paper suggested a solution to the problems, offering a coherent basis for privatization of land, which stimulates the transfer of land from tribal peoples to the state or to individuals. The privatized programs impact the livelihood of the pastoralist societies while weakening the environment. Settlement programs often serve

7482-700: Was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on September 8, 1999, in the Cultural category. Pastoralism Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as " livestock ") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands ( pastures ) for grazing , historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds . The animal species involved include cattle , camels , goats , yaks , llamas , reindeer , horses , and sheep . Pastoralism occurs in many variations throughout

7569-401: Was reduced by colonization. For example, mobility was limited in the Sahel region of Africa with settlement being encouraged. The population tripled and sanitation and medical treatment were improved. Pastoralists have mental maps of the value of specific environments at different times of year. Pastoralists have an understanding of ecological processes and the environment. Information sharing

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