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35-471: The New York City Teachers Union (TU) had experience conflict internally for more of the early 1930s. The opposing groups were the founders ( Henry Linville and Abraham Lefkowitz –at the time called "administrators") and "Rank and File" members (many of whom were also Communist Party members). During an August 1935 national convention, the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) voted down

70-597: A CIO union during the Great Depression. The early UFT, like its Teachers' Guild ancestor, succeeded, in large measure, as a result of the evisceration of the Teachers' Union, which had been expelled from the AFT in 1940 and effectively destroyed in the late 1950s amidst a swelling chorus of McCarthyite red-baiting , propagated in large part by TG leaders. The TG and UFT helped quell the social movement unionism of

105-613: A TU administrators' request to reorganize (100 to 79). On October 1, 1935, Linville and Lefkowitz led all officers, nearly all executive board members, and nearly 800 members (including Communist Lovestoneite members of a rival "Progressive Group") out of the TU to form the Teachers Guild (TG). On March 29, 1940, the New York State Legislature formed the " Rapp-Coudert Committee " to investigate finances (Rapp in

140-653: A government by the working class—a Workers’ Republic in America. 2. Political Action: To participate in all political activities, including electoral campaigns, in order to utilize them for the purpose of carrying our message to the masses. The elected representatives of the Workers Party will unmask the fraudulent capitalist democracy and help mobilize the workers for the final struggle against their common enemy. 3. The Labor Unions: To develop labor organizations into organs of militant struggle against capitalism, expose

175-876: The African Blood Brotherhood , the Jewish Socialist Federation and the Workers' Council of the United States . In the meantime, the underground Communist Party, with overlapping membership, conducted political agitation. By 1923, the aboveground party sought to engage the Socialist Party of America (SPA) in united front actions, but it was rebuffed. Both the WPA and the SPA engaged in separate labor party efforts, prior to

210-499: The American Student Union ). Nevertheless, Iversen concluded that communists within academia "tended to be concentrated in a few areas, leaving the schools as a whole relatively unaffected." Further, their active period was largely only the 1930s and "varied widely in the degree of their commitment and involvement in the movement." During the 1940s, graduates tended to move to the suburbs and reject communism. As for

245-544: The House Un-American Activities Committee or HUAC); members (not yet split into two rival communist parties) included: Ben Davidson , Bertram Wolfe , Jacob Lind, Rachel Ragozin, Jack Hardy (party name of Dale Zysman ), Sarah Golden, Clara Reibert, Abraham Zitron, and Isidore Begun. By 1925, they had emerged as a vociferous faction with the TU (as Linville attested to the AFT in 1935). When Joseph Stalin ousted Jay Lovestone as head of

280-759: The New Deal Work Projects Administration . In the 1930s during the Great Depression , the CPUSA began to make headway in its control as its members struggled internally with less leftist, more liberal fellow members of the Teachers Union. On October 27, 1932, the TU administration choose a Committee of Five to deliberate on five members of the "Rank and File" group ( Joseph Leboit , Clara Reiber , Alice Citron , Abraham Zitron , and Isidore Begun ) and one member of

315-810: The New York Workers School . Concurrently, the CPUSA began a campaign to gain control of the Teachers Union. In 1923, a "Research Study Group" formed, affiliated with the outside Educational Workers International , itself formed by the Red International of Labor Groups , in turn affiliated with the Communist International ("Comintern"). Heading the Research Study Group was TU secretary (and CPUSA member) Benjamin Mandel (later director of research for

350-803: The United Public Workers (UPW), affiliate of the AFL's national rival, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). After World War II , the Teachers Union found itself attacked by " Hearst press, the American Legion , and the rural-dominated state legislatures." In February 1950, the CIO expelled the UPW (thus also the TU) from membership. In 1952, the TU withdrew from the UPW. In June 1964,

385-633: The presidential election of 1924 . The SPA participated in the Conference for Progressive Political Action , which dissolved itself into the Progressive Party . The WPA succeeded in dominating the national Farmer–Labor Party , but that organization quickly returned to its constituent parts. At its 1925 convention, the group renamed itself the Workers (Communist) Party and in 1929 the Communist Party, USA. The party's youth affiliate

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420-480: The "Progressive" group ( Bertram Wolfe ). In a counter-attack, the two communist factions made their own minority report (written by Begun, Davidson, Florence Gitlin , and David M. Wittes ) on the TU's administration. On April 29, 1933, John Dewey delivered the Committee of Five's report, which called for investigation into the two groups and whether a new local might form free from communist influence. By 1935,

455-836: The AFT designated the TG as "Local 2, AFT." On December 29, 1940, the AFT voted and in May 1941 officially expelled three communist-influenced locals: the TU (Local 5, AFT), the New York College Teachers Union (Local 537, AFT), and the Philadelphia Teachers Union (Local 192, AFT). In June 1941, the AFT made the TG its "Local 5, AFT" in New York City. In 1943, the Rapp-Coudert Committee endorsed school financing policies of

490-750: The American school system. In 1985, the University of the State of New York noted: Teachers' unions, including the New York City Teachers Union , founded in 1916, and its successor in the American Federation of Teachers, worked not only to improve wages and benefits, but also to promote measures they believed would benefit schools and pupils. It was not until the 1960s, however, that teacher unions generally attained

525-554: The CPUSA, Lovestone's followers in the TU formed a "Progressive Group" against a "Rank and File Group" that remained loyal to the CPUSA. Progressive Group members included Mandel, Davidson, and Wolfe. With the Great Depression , however, CPUSA membership grew, reflected in TU membership by 1932. Another split occurred when leadership strove to keep TU membership limited to full-time public school teachers, while other members began advocating to open membership to substitute teachers, private school teachers, and (after 1929) teachers in

560-748: The New York State Assembly) and subversive activities (Coudert in the New York State Senate). From September 1940 through December 1941, Coudert investigated more than 500 people regarding their affiliation with the Communist Party USA . Coudert's subcommittee focused on the TU Local 5 as well as a college professors union Local 537. Former TU leaders who had helped found the TG, Henry Linville and Benjamin Mandel , testified against TU members. On June 20, 1941,

595-588: The State of New York. In the mid-1920s, political factions appeared within the TU, of which the most prominent were communist factions. During the 1920s, under the legal name Workers Party of America , the CPUSA became active in education. (The Communists split several times during the 1920s, e.g., Communist Party (Majority Group) , until it received full alignment with the Comintern in 1929.) First, it addressed adult education (largely for non-native speaker) with workers' schools, focused on New York City with

630-579: The TG. (Forthcoming) In March 1960, the TG and Committee of Action Through Unity (CATU) merged into the United Federation of Teachers (Local 2, AFT). In August 1960, New York's Board of Education and the UFT conducted initial collective bargaining. The TU was a client of Harold I. Cammer . All TG presidents were former members of the TU: In 2015, Nicholas Toloudis attributed the demise of

665-539: The TU agreed to dissolve during an annual convention. In his 1959 book The Communists & the Schools , Robert W. Iversen noted that the Great Depression had caused impoverished families to send their children to "free municipal colleges" (e.g., City College of New York ), where the Young Communist League of America worked to recruit them or steer them toward YCL-CPUSA-controlled fronts (e.g.,

700-437: The TU created a "unique type of unionism that was in the forefront for civil rights and academic freedom." In 2018, Stephen Brier assessed: The union that later became the United Federation of Teachers (UFT) would literally grow out of the shell of the older Teachers' Guild (TG), a social-democratic split off from the more radical New York Teachers' Union (TU), which Communist Party activists had helped reorganize as

735-446: The TU not only to Red Scares in the 1940s and 1950s but also to competition with other city teachers associations. In particular, the TG was "accommodating to the government, while the radical Union was confrontational" and "consistently sacrificed its commitment to academic freedom by collaborating with public authorities" to reveal TU ties to the CPUSA. Teachers Union The New York City Teachers Union or "TU" (1916–1964)

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770-498: The TU to form the New York City Teachers Guild . In 1936, leadership of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), parent of the American Federation of Teachers (AFL) (parent to the TU), recommended that the AFL revoke the TU's charter as Local 5, AFT. The AFT (whose president was then Jerome Davis ) disregarded the AFL's recommendation. In 1937, Abe Meeropol published the poem " Strange Fruit " under

805-512: The TU were: 1) recognition for teachers as professionals, 2) better salaries for teachers, 3) respect for teachers by administrators, and 4) academic freedom (including protection from loyalty oaths ). In 1919, AFT and TU leaders resisted the Red Scare that targeted teachers and union organizers. In the 1920s, the TU sought to gain increases in teacher salaries and pensions, smaller sizes for classroom, tenure for teachers, and more aid from

840-415: The TU. The TU published New York Teacher . The TU was a client of Harold I. Cammer . Workers Party of America The Workers Party of America ( WPA ) was the name of the legal party organization used by the Communist Party USA from the last days of 1921 until the middle of 1929. As a legal political party , the Workers Party accepted affiliation from independent socialist groups such as

875-403: The committee had determined that the TU was helpless to rid itself of communist factions; it could not muster the votes needed. By 1935, thanks in part to the " United Front " policy of the Comintern , the CPUSA gained control of the Teachers Union, which it held through 1938. The CPUSA then tried to gain control of its parent, the American Federation of Teachers (whose president at that time

910-593: The interest of teachers, or did the union act independently of the Communist Party? Taylor's response is that both viewpoints are "too simplistic." Instead, he argues, there is a need to appreciate the TU's advocacy for "social movement unionism," which manifested itself in the TU's alliances with unions, parents, civil rights organizations, and political parties. The TU's primary objectives were to overcome barriers to education, which include racial discrimination and poverty – in addition to higher salaries and better working conditions for teachers. Ultimately, he concludes,

945-542: The late 1920s into the Communist Party USA. The convention for the establishment of the party took place on December 23–26, 1921 at the Labor Temple on East 84th Street, New York with 150 delegates. Accompanying the convention call was a statement of principles which read: 1. The Workers’ Republic: To lead the working masses in the struggle for the abolition of capitalism through the establishment of

980-594: The reactionary labor bureaucrats, and educate the workers to militant unionism. 4. A Fighting Party: It shall be a party of militant, class conscious workers, bound by discipline and organized on the basis of democratic centralism, with full power in the hands of the Central Executive Committee between conventions. The Central Executive Committee of the Party shall have control over all activities of public officials. It shall also co-ordinate and direct

1015-480: The status of collective bargaining agents. In his 2013 book Reds at the Blackboard , Clarence Taylor distinguishes between "anti-Communist" and "revisionist" histories of the TU. He questions: The evidence is clear that members of the TU, especially those in the Communist Party, supported Communist Party policies. But does the evidence show that the TU was a tool of the Communist Party, unconcerned with

1050-628: The title "Bitter Fruit" in 1937 in The New York Teacher , a union magazine of the Teachers Union. On March 15, 1938, the Greater New York Centra Trades and Labor Council suspended to the TU's membership, while the Joint Committee of Teachers Organizations (JCTO) of New York City expelled the TU. In August 1941, the AFT revoked the TU's charter as Local 5, AFT. The TU then became Local 555 of

1085-515: The vehemence of the 1940s and 1950s attacks on the Teachers Union, Iversen ascribes such to "a bewildering web of persistent patriots who have made careers of dossier-building" at home in reaction to the spread of Communist nations abroad (e.g., Soviet atomic capability and the victory of the Chinese Communist Party, both in 1949). Ultimately, Iversen concluded that American students were not communist "products" of indoctrination in

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1120-400: The work of the Party members in the trade unions. 5. Party Press: The Party’s press shall be owned by the Party, and all its activities shall be under the control of the Central Executive Committee. Before the party established its own publishing house for books (International Publishers) and pamphlets (Workers Library Publishers), the Workers Party and Workers (Communist) Party published

1155-424: Was Jerome Davis , later involved in a sensational libel suit). At the same time, the CPUSA tried to mobilize Teachers Union members into joined various United Front-style group, including: During an August 1935 national convention of the AFT, the TU administration asked for a referendum to reorganize, voted down 100 to 79. As a result, TU co-founders Linville and Lefkowitz led some 800 of some 2,000 members out of

1190-556: Was named the Young Workers League , Young Workers (Communist) League and Young Communist League in tandem with the parent organization. As the Communist International entered the Third Period , the principle of a leftist united front was abandoned in favor of a single above-ground Communist Party. The above-ground Workers Party and underground party were thus gradually merged in a series of party conferences in

1225-839: Was the first New York labor union for teachers, formed as "AFT Local 5" of the American Federation of Teachers , which found itself hounded throughout its history due largely to co-membership of many of its members in the Communist Party USA (CPUSA). In 1916, the New York City Teachers Union formed. That same year, it received a charter to join the American Federation of Teachers as "AFT Local 5" (often cited simply as "Local 5"). Its principal co-founders were Henry Linville (a Harvard -educated, Socialist , pacifist biology teacher) and Abraham Lefkowitz (a New York University -educated academic). From 1916 to 1935, Linville served as president and Lefkowitz as vice president and legislative expert. Their top agenda for

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