77-593: The Second Industrial Revolution , also known as the Technological Revolution , was a phase of rapid scientific discovery , standardisation , mass production and industrialisation from the late 19th century into the early 20th century. The First Industrial Revolution , which ended in the middle of the 19th century, was punctuated by a slowdown in important inventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. Though
154-474: A conductor carrying a direct current , Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices were the foundation of the practical use of electricity in technology. In 1881, Sir Joseph Swan , inventor of the first feasible incandescent light bulb , supplied about 1,200 Swan incandescent lamps to the Savoy Theatre in
231-582: A Bachelor of Science in applied science, an online completion Bachelor of Science in applied science, and a Master of Applied Science. Coursework is centered on science, agriculture, and natural resources with a wide range of options, including ecology, food genetics, entrepreneurship, economics, policy, animal science, and plant science. In New York City, the Bloomberg administration awarded the consortium of Cornell-Technion $ 100 million in City capital to construct
308-408: A four-stroke engine of his own design between the rear wheels, with a very advanced coil ignition and evaporative cooling rather than a radiator. Power was transmitted by means of two roller chains to the rear axle. It was the first automobile entirely designed as such to generate its own power, not simply a motorized-stage coach or horse carriage. Benz began to sell the vehicle, advertising it as
385-741: A guideline for developmentally appropriate instruction. Teachers are also observed by administrators to ensure that classroom environments are positive. One of the tools used by teachers is the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) tool. Informed by findings emerging from the use of this tool, "over 150 research studies prove that students in classrooms with high-CLASS scores have better academic and social outcomes." This tool focuses on encouraging positive classroom environments, regard for students' perspectives, behavior management skills, quality of feedback, and language modeling. Administrators rate each of ten categories on
462-482: A key role in discovery; discoveries are often made due to questions. Some discoveries lead to the invention of objects, processes, or techniques. Within scientific disciplines, discovery is the observation of new phenomena , actions, or events that helps explain the knowledge gathered through previously acquired scientific evidence . Discovery is made by providing observational evidence and attempts to develop an initial, rough understanding of some phenomenon. Within
539-562: A number of its events can be traced to earlier innovations in manufacturing, such as the establishment of a machine tool industry, the development of methods for manufacturing interchangeable parts , as well as the invention of the Bessemer process and open hearth furnace to produce steel, later developments heralded the Second Industrial Revolution, which is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 (the beginning of World War I ). Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled
616-402: A practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry. Highly efficient multiple expansion steam engines began being used on ships, allowing them to carry less coal than freight. The oscillating engine was first built by Aaron Manby and Joseph Maudslay in the 1820s as
693-415: A provisional close-to-the-problem and close-to-the-data orientation, it may also use a more provisional conceptual framework , such as working hypotheses or pillar questions. The OECD 's Frascati Manual describes applied research as one of the three forms of research, along with basic research & experimental development . Due to its practical focus, applied research information will be found in
770-511: A scale of one to seven, one being the lowest score and seven being the highest score that a teacher may receive. Western culture has used the term "discovery" in their histories to lay claims over lands and people as "discovery" through discovery doctrines and subtly emphasize the importance of " exploration " in the history of the world, such as in the " Age of Discovery ", the New World and any frontierist endeavour even into space as
847-499: A substance resembling paraffin wax. In 1850 Young built the first truly commercial oil-works and oil refinery in the world at Bathgate , using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite , shale, and bituminous coal to manufacture naphtha and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold till 1856. Cable tool drilling was developed in ancient China and was used for drilling brine wells. The salt domes also held natural gas, which some wells produced and which
SECTION 10
#1732766130490924-414: A type of direct-acting engine that was designed to achieve further reductions in engine size and weight. Oscillating engines had the piston rods connected directly to the crankshaft, dispensing with the need for connecting rods. To achieve this aim, the engine cylinders were not immobile as in most engines, but secured in the middle by trunnions which allowed the cylinders themselves to pivot back and forth as
1001-599: Is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering , civil engineering , electrical engineering , and mechanical engineering . Some scientific subfields used by engineers include thermodynamics , heat transfer , fluid mechanics , statics , dynamics , mechanics of materials , kinematics , electromagnetism , materials science , earth sciences , and engineering physics . Medical sciences , such as medical microbiology , pharmaceutical research , and clinical virology , are applied sciences that apply biology and chemistry to medicine. In Canada,
1078-420: Is often contrasted with basic science , which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena. There are applied natural sciences, as well as applied formal and social sciences. Applied science examples include genetic epidemiology which applies statistics and probability theory , and applied psychology , including criminology . Applied research
1155-683: Is shown by the fact that production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools, most of which were powered by electricity. Henry Ford is quoted as saying that mass production would not have been possible without electricity because it allowed placement of machine tools and other equipment in the order of the work flow. The first paper making machine was the Fourdrinier machine , built by Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier , stationers in London. In 1800, Matthias Koops , working in London, investigated
1232-420: Is the practice of using natural science , mathematics , and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering , each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics , applied science, and types of application. Engineering
1309-532: Is the use of empirical methods to collect data for practical purposes. It accesses and uses accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques for a specific state , business , or client-driven purpose. In contrast to engineering, applied research does not include analyses or optimization of business, economics, and costs. Applied research can be better understood in any area when contrasting it with basic or pure research. Basic geographical research strives to create new theories and methods that aid in explaining
1386-941: The First Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe. It came to an end with the start of the World War I . While the First Revolution was driven by limited use of steam engines , interchangeable parts and mass production , and was largely water-powered, especially in the United States, the Second was characterized by the build-out of railroads, large-scale iron and steel production, widespread use of machinery in manufacturing, greatly increased use of steam power, widespread use of
1463-524: The bike boom of the 1890s. Road networks improved greatly in the period, using the Macadam method pioneered by Scottish engineer John Loudon McAdam , and hard surfaced roads were built around the time of the bicycle craze of the 1890s. Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley in 1901. German inventor Karl Benz patented the world's first automobile in 1886. It featured wire wheels (unlike carriages' wooden ones) with
1540-572: The clerk , or writer, ceased to be a high-status job. By the 1880s chemical processes for paper manufacture were in use, becoming dominant by 1900. The petroleum industry , both production and refining , began in 1848 with the first oil works in Scotland. The chemist James Young set up a tiny business refining the crude oil in 1848. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into
1617-619: The telegraph , use of petroleum and the beginning of electrification . It also was the period during which modern organizational methods for operating large-scale businesses over vast areas came into use. The concept was introduced by Patrick Geddes , Cities in Evolution (1910), and was being used by economists such as Erich Zimmermann (1951), but David Landes ' use of the term in a 1966 essay and in The Unbound Prometheus (1972) standardized scholarly definitions of
SECTION 20
#17327661304901694-409: The " New Frontier ". In the course of this discovery, it has been used to describe the first incursions of peoples from one culture into the geographical and cultural environment of others. However, calling it "discovery" has been rejected by many indigenous peoples , from whose perspective it was not a discovery but a first contact , and consider the term "discovery" to perpetuate colonialism , as for
1771-490: The 1860s meant that railways could finally be made from steel at a competitive cost. Being a much more durable material, steel steadily replaced iron as the standard for railway rail, and due to its greater strength, longer lengths of rails could now be rolled. Wrought iron was soft and contained flaws caused by included dross . Iron rails could also not support heavy locomotives and were damaged by hammer blow . The first to make durable rails of steel rather than wrought iron
1848-467: The 1890s and for households during the 1920s. Gasoline was an unwanted byproduct of oil refining until automobiles were mass-produced after 1914, and gasoline shortages appeared during World War I. The invention of the Burton process for thermal cracking doubled the yield of gasoline, which helped alleviate the shortages. Synthetic dye was discovered by English chemist William Henry Perkin in 1856. At
1925-770: The 20th century with early factory electrification and the production line ; it ended at the beginning of World War I. Starting in 1947, the Information Age is sometimes also called the Third Industrial Revolution. The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial development, primarily in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States, but also in France, the Low Countries , Italy and Japan. It followed on from
2002-503: The Benz Patent Motorwagen, in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history. Discovery (observation) Discovery is the act of detecting something new, or something previously unrecognized as meaningful. In sciences and academic disciplines , discovery is the observation of new phenomena , new actions, or new events and involves providing new reasoning to explain
2079-482: The City of Westminster, London, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity. Swan's lightbulb had already been used in 1879 to light Mosley Street, in Newcastle upon Tyne , the first electrical street lighting installation in the world. This set the stage for the electrification of industry and the home. The first large scale central distribution supply plant
2156-695: The GNVQ qualifications offered up to 2005. These courses regularly come under scrutiny and are due for review following the Wolf Report 2011; however, their merits are argued elsewhere. In the United States, The College of William & Mary offers an undergraduate minor as well as Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in "applied science". Courses and research cover varied fields, including neuroscience , optics , materials science and engineering , nondestructive testing , and nuclear magnetic resonance . University of Nebraska–Lincoln offers
2233-594: The Netherlands, and other places, the Bachelor of Applied Science (BASc) is sometimes equivalent to the Bachelor of Engineering and is classified as a professional degree. This is based on the age of the school where applied science used to include boiler making, surveying, and engineering. There are also Bachelor of Applied Science degrees in Child Studies. The BASc tends to focus more on the application of
2310-491: The U. S. The first primary product was kerosene for lamps and heaters. Similar developments around Baku fed the European market. Kerosene lighting was much more efficient and less expensive than vegetable oils, tallow and whale oil. Although town gas lighting was available in some cities, kerosene produced a brighter light until the invention of the gas mantle . Both were replaced by electricity for street lighting following
2387-682: The basis for the accelerated construction of railways throughout the world in the late nineteenth century. The first commercially available steel rails in the US were manufactured in 1867 at the Cambria Iron Works in Johnstown, Pennsylvania . Steel rails lasted over ten times longer than did iron, and with the falling cost of steel, heavier weight rails were used. This allowed the use of more powerful locomotives, which could pull longer trains, and longer rail cars, all of which greatly increased
Second Industrial Revolution - Misplaced Pages Continue
2464-450: The birth of the modern ship as disparate technological advances came together. The screw propeller was introduced in 1835 by Francis Pettit Smith who discovered a new way of building propellers by accident. Up to that time, propellers were literally screws, of considerable length. But during the testing of a boat propelled by one, the screw snapped off, leaving a fragment shaped much like a modern boat propeller. The boat moved faster with
2541-498: The blast furnace as it greatly reduced the fuel consumption for making pig iron, and was one of the most important technologies developed during the Industrial Revolution . Falling costs for producing wrought iron coincided with the emergence of the railway in the 1830s. The early technique of hot blast used iron for the regenerative heating medium. Iron caused problems with expansion and contraction, which stressed
2618-399: The broken propeller. The superiority of screw against paddles was taken up by navies. Trials with Smith's SS Archimedes , the first steam driven screw, led to the famous tug-of-war competition in 1845 between the screw-driven HMS Rattler and the paddle steamer HMS Alecto ; the former pulling the latter backward at 2.5 knots (4.6 km/h). The first seagoing iron steamboat
2695-532: The crankshaft rotated, hence the term oscillating . It was John Penn , engineer for the Royal Navy who perfected the oscillating engine. One of his earliest engines was the grasshopper beam engine . In 1844 he replaced the engines of the Admiralty yacht, HMS Black Eagle with oscillating engines of double the power, without increasing either the weight or space occupied, an achievement which broke
2772-422: The day in the classroom. These observations can be informal or formal, and often involve the use of checklists, anecdotal notes, videos, interviews, written work, assessments, etc. By completing these observations, teachers can evaluate at what 'level' a student is understanding the lessons. Observations allow teachers to make necessary adaptations for the students in the classroom. These observations can also provide
2849-480: The discovery doctrine and frontierist concepts like terra nullius . Discovery and the age of discovery have been alternatively, particularly regionally, referred to through the terms contact, Age of Contact or Contact Period . Applied science Applied science is the application of the scientific method and scientific knowledge to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines, such as engineering and medicine . Applied science
2926-571: The engineering sciences. In Australia and New Zealand, this degree is awarded in various fields of study and is considered a highly specialized professional degree. In the United Kingdom's educational system , Applied Science refers to a suite of "vocational" science qualifications that run alongside "traditional" General Certificate of Secondary Education or A-Level Sciences. Applied Science courses generally contain more coursework (also known as portfolio or internally assessed work) compared to their traditional counterparts. These are an evolution of
3003-550: The field of particle physics , there is an accepted requirement for defining a discovery: a five-sigma level of certainty. This level defines how statistically unlikely it is that an experimental result is due to chance . The combination of a five-sigma level of certainty, and independent confirmation by other experiments, turn findings into accepted discoveries. Within the field of education, discovery occurs through observations. These observations are common and come in various forms. They can be observations of students done by
3080-476: The first mass-produced, high-pressure and high-revolution marine engines. The revolution in naval design led to the first modern battleships in the 1870s, evolved from the ironclad design of the 1860s. The Devastation -class turret ships were built for the British Royal Navy as the first class of ocean-going capital ship that did not carry sails , and the first whose entire main armament
3157-555: The foundation for strong relationships between teachers and students. When students have such relationships with teachers, they feel safer and more comfortable in the classroom and are more willing and eager to learn. Through observations, teachers identify the most developmentally appropriate practices to implement in their classrooms. These encourage and promote healthier learning styles and positive classroom atmospheres. With an educational system, government officials set different academic standards that teachers are expected to follow as
Second Industrial Revolution - Misplaced Pages Continue
3234-454: The heat and pollution caused by gas lighting, and reducing the fire hazard to the extent that the cost of electricity for lighting was often offset by the reduction in fire insurance premiums. Frank J. Sprague developed the first successful DC motor in 1886. By 1889 110 electric street railways were either using his equipment or in planning. The electric street railway became a major infrastructure before 1920. The AC motor ( Induction motor )
3311-554: The idea of using wood to make paper, and began his printing business a year later. However, his enterprise was unsuccessful due to the prohibitive cost at the time. It was in the 1840s, that Charles Fenerty in Nova Scotia and Friedrich Gottlob Keller in Saxony both invented a successful machine which extracted the fibres from wood (as with rags) and from it, made paper. This started a new era for paper making , and, together with
3388-505: The invention of the fountain pen and the mass-produced pencil of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary printing press , wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also allowed keeping personal diaries or writing letters and so, by 1850,
3465-526: The iron and caused failure. Edward Alfred Cowper developed the Cowper stove in 1857. This stove used firebrick as a storage medium, solving the expansion and cracking problem. The Cowper stove was also capable of producing high heat, which resulted in very high throughput of blast furnaces. The Cowper stove is still used in today's blast furnaces. With the greatly reduced cost of producing pig iron with coke using hot blast, demand grew dramatically and so did
3542-525: The keel's strength. In addition to its steam-powered paddle wheels , the ship carried four masts for sails. Brunel followed this up with the Great Britain , launched in 1843 and considered the first modern ship built of metal rather than wood, powered by an engine rather than wind or oars, and driven by propeller rather than paddle wheel. Brunel's vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, propeller-driven, all-metal steamships
3619-547: The knowledge gathered through such observations, using knowledge previously acquired through abstract thought and from everyday experiences. Some discoveries represent a radical breakthrough in knowledge or technology. Others are based on earlier discoveries, collaborations or ideas. In such cases, the process of discovery requires at least the awareness that an existing concept or method could be modified or transformed. New discoveries are made using various senses , and are usually added to pre-existing knowledge . Questioning plays
3696-477: The knowledge obtained from applied research, studies are conducted on criminals alongside their behavior to apprehend them. Moreover, the research extends to criminal investigations. Under this category, research methods demonstrate an understanding of the scientific method and social research designs used in criminological research. These reach more branches along the procedure towards the investigations, alongside laws, policy, and criminological theory. Engineering
3773-422: The laying of 75,000 miles of track in the U.S. in the 1880s, the largest amount anywhere in world history. The hot blast technique, in which the hot flue gas from a blast furnace is used to preheat combustion air blown into a blast furnace , was invented and patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 at Wilsontown Ironworks in Scotland. Hot blast was the single most important advance in fuel efficiency of
3850-643: The leading steel making process by the early 20th century. The availability of cheap steel allowed building larger bridges, railroads, skyscrapers, and ships. Other important steel products—also made using the open hearth process—were steel cable , steel rod and sheet steel which enabled large, high-pressure boilers and high-tensile strength steel for machinery which enabled much more powerful engines, gears and axles than were previously possible. With large amounts of steel it became possible to build much more powerful guns and carriages, tanks, armored fighting vehicles and naval ships. The increase in steel production from
3927-413: The literature associated with individual disciplines. Applied research is a method of problem-solving and is also practical in areas of science, such as its presence in applied psychology. Applied psychology uses human behavior to grab information to locate a main focus in an area that can contribute to finding a resolution. More specifically, this study is applied in the area of criminal psychology. With
SECTION 50
#17327661304904004-442: The messy real world, strict research protocols may need to be relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use a random sample . Thus, transparency in the methodology is crucial. Implications for the interpretation of results brought about by relaxing an otherwise strict canon of methodology should also be considered. Moreover, this type of research method applies natural sciences to human conditions: Since applied research has
4081-519: The modern screw-cutting lathe made interchangeable V-thread machine screws a practical commodity. In 1841, Joseph Whitworth created a design that, through its adoption by many British railway companies, became the world's first national machine tool standard called British Standard Whitworth . During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was often used in the United States and Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra- and inter-company standards. The importance of machine tools to mass production
4158-406: The naval supply dominance of Boulton & Watt and Maudslay, Son & Field . Penn also introduced the trunk engine for driving screw propellers in vessels of war. HMS Encounter (1846) and HMS Arrogant (1848) were the first ships to be fitted with such engines and such was their efficacy that by the time of Penn's death in 1878, the engines had been fitted in 230 ships and were
4235-406: The need to stop to clean them on long sea journeys. The Great Western , built by engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was the longest ship in the world at 236 ft (72 m) with a 250-foot (76 m) keel and was the first to prove that transatlantic steamship services were viable. The ship was constructed mainly from wood, but Brunel added bolts and iron diagonal reinforcements to maintain
4312-516: The new " mauveine ", and commercialized it as the world's first synthetic dye. After the discovery of mauveine, many new aniline dyes appeared (some discovered by Perkin himself), and factories producing them were constructed across Europe. Towards the end of the century, Perkin and other British companies found their research and development efforts increasingly eclipsed by the German chemical industry which became world dominant by 1914. This era saw
4389-625: The onset of the First Industrial Revolution . The increase in mechanization required more metal parts, which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron —and hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process. One of the first machine tools was John Wilkinson 's boring machine, that bored a precise hole in James Watt 's first steam engine in 1774. Advances in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to Henry Maudslay and refined by Joseph Whitworth . Standardization of screw threads began with Henry Maudslay around 1800, when
4466-517: The period from 1867 to 1914, during which most of the great innovations were developed, "The Age of Synergy " since the inventions and innovations were engineering and science-based . A synergy between iron and steel, railroads and coal developed at the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution. Railroads allowed cheap transportation of materials and products, which in turn led to cheap rails to build more roads. Railroads also benefited from cheap coal for their steam locomotives. This synergy led to
4543-586: The processes that shape the spatial structure of physical or human environments. Instead, applied research utilizes existing geographical theories and methods to comprehend and address particular empirical issues. Applied research usually has specific commercial objectives related to products, procedures, or services. The comparison of pure research and applied research provides a basic framework and direction for businesses to follow. Applied research deals with solving practical problems and generally employs empirical methodologies. Because applied research resides in
4620-403: The productivity of railroads. Rail became the dominant form of transport infrastructure throughout the industrialized world, producing a steady decrease in the cost of shipping seen for the rest of the century. The theoretical and practical basis for the harnessing of electric power was laid by the scientist and experimentalist Michael Faraday . Through his research on the magnetic field around
4697-404: The size of blast furnaces. The Bessemer process , invented by Sir Henry Bessemer , allowed the mass-production of steel, increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital material, and decreasing the labor requirements. The key principle was the removal of excess carbon and other impurities from pig iron by oxidation with air blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises
SECTION 60
#17327661304904774-413: The teacher or observations of teachers done by other professionals. Student observations help teachers identify where the students are developmentally and cognitively in the course of their studies. Teacher observations are used by administrators to hold teachers accountable for staying on target with their goals, in terms of how they teach and how they treat students. Teachers observe students throughout
4851-594: The temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. The "acid" Bessemer process had a serious limitation in that it required relatively scarce hematite ore which is low in phosphorus. Sidney Gilchrist Thomas developed a more sophisticated process to eliminate the phosphorus from iron. Collaborating with his cousin, Percy Gilchrist a chemist at the Blaenavon Ironworks , Wales , he patented his process in 1878; Bolckow Vaughan & Co. in Yorkshire
4928-435: The term, which was most intensely promoted by Alfred Chandler (1918–2007). However, some continue to express reservations about its use. In 2003, Landes stressed the importance of new technologies, especially the internal combustion engine , petroleum, new materials and substances, including alloys and chemicals , electricity and communication technologies, such as the telegraph , telephone, and radio. One author has called
5005-411: The time, chemistry was still in a quite primitive state; it was still a difficult proposition to determine the arrangement of the elements in compounds and chemical industry was still in its infancy. Perkin's accidental discovery was that aniline could be partly transformed into a crude mixture which when extracted with alcohol produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He scaled up production of
5082-558: The tyre's first ever races in Ireland and then England. Dunlop's development of the pneumatic tyre arrived at a crucial time in the development of road transport and commercial production began in late 1890. The modern bicycle was designed by the English engineer Harry John Lawson in 1876, although it was John Kemp Starley who produced the first commercially successful safety bicycle a few years later. Its popularity soon grew, causing
5159-529: The widespread adoption of technological systems such as telegraph and railroad networks, gas and water supply , and sewage systems , which had earlier been limited to a few select cities. The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, which culminated in a new wave of globalization . In the same time period, new technological systems were introduced, most significantly electrical power and telephones. The Second Industrial Revolution continued into
5236-506: Was Robert Forester Mushet at the Darkhill Ironworks , Gloucestershire in 1857. The first of Mushet's steel rails was sent to Derby Midland railway station . The rails were laid at part of the station approach where the iron rails had to be renewed at least every six months, and occasionally every three. Six years later, in 1863, the rail seemed as perfect as ever, although some 700 trains had passed over it daily. This provided
5313-580: Was built by Horseley Ironworks and named the Aaron Manby . It also used an innovative oscillating engine for power. The boat was built at Tipton using temporary bolts, disassembled for transportation to London, and reassembled on the Thames in 1822, this time using permanent rivets. Other technological developments followed, including the invention of the surface condenser , which allowed boilers to run on purified water rather than salt water, eliminating
5390-443: Was developed in the 1890s and soon began to be used in the electrification of industry. Household electrification did not become common until the 1920s, and then only in cities. Fluorescent lighting was commercially introduced at the 1939 World's Fair . Electrification also allowed the inexpensive production of electro-chemicals , such as aluminium, chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and magnesium. The use of machine tools began with
5467-510: Was mounted on top of the hull rather than inside it. The vulcanization of rubber, by American Charles Goodyear and Englishman Thomas Hancock in the 1840s paved the way for a growing rubber industry, especially the manufacture of rubber tyres John Boyd Dunlop developed the first practical pneumatic tyre in 1887 in South Belfast. Willie Hume demonstrated the supremacy of Dunlop's newly invented pneumatic tyres in 1889, winning
5544-525: Was opened at Holborn Viaduct in London in 1882 and later at Pearl Street Station in New York City. The first modern power station in the world was built by the English electrical engineer Sebastian de Ferranti at Deptford . Built on an unprecedented scale and pioneering the use of high voltage (10,000V) alternating current , it generated 800 kilowatts and supplied central London. On its completion in 1891 it supplied high-voltage AC power that
5621-554: Was the Siemens–Martin process . Sir Charles William Siemens developed his regenerative furnace in the 1850s, for which he claimed in 1857 to able to recover enough heat to save 70–80% of the fuel. The furnace operated at a high temperature by using regenerative preheating of fuel and air for combustion . Through this method, an open-hearth furnace can reach temperatures high enough to melt steel, but Siemens did not initially use it in that manner. French engineer Pierre-Émile Martin
5698-615: Was the first company to use his patented process. His process was especially valuable on the continent of Europe, where the proportion of phosphoric iron was much greater than in England, and both in Belgium and in Germany the name of the inventor became more widely known than in his own country. In America, although non-phosphoric iron largely predominated, an immense interest was taken in the invention. The next great advance in steel making
5775-581: Was the first to take out a license for the Siemens furnace and apply it to the production of steel in 1865. The Siemens–Martin process complemented rather than replaced the Bessemer process . Its main advantages were that it did not expose the steel to excessive nitrogen (which would cause the steel to become brittle), it was easier to control, and that it permitted the melting and refining of large amounts of scrap steel, lowering steel production costs and recycling an otherwise troublesome waste material. It became
5852-525: Was then "stepped down" with transformers for consumer use on each street. Electrification allowed the final major developments in manufacturing methods of the Second Industrial Revolution, namely the assembly line and mass production . Electrification was called "the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century" by the National Academy of Engineering . Electric lighting in factories greatly improved working conditions, eliminating
5929-476: Was used for evaporation of the brine. Chinese well drilling technology was introduced to Europe in 1828. Although there were many efforts in the mid-19th century to drill for oil, Edwin Drake 's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is considered the first "modern oil well". Drake's well touched off a major boom in oil production in the United States. Drake learned of cable tool drilling from Chinese laborers in
#489510