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109-735: Tehuelche or Tehuelches may refer to: the Tehuelche people of Patagonia the Tehuelche language , an extinct language once spoken by the Tehuelche people. Tehuelche (motorcycle) , produced in Argentina from 1957 to 1964 IA 51 Tehuelche single engined light utility aircraft, developed in the late 1950s in Argentina El Tehuelche Airport , Chubut province, Argentina, served by two commercial airlines and base of

218-529: A bride who was an accomplished weaver. In addition, the Mapuche used their textiles as an important surplus and an exchange trading good. Numerous sixteenth-century accounts describe their bartering the textiles with other indigenous peoples, and with colonists in newly developed settlements. Such trading enabled the Mapuche to obtain those goods that they did not produce or held in high esteem, such as horses. Tissue volumes made by Aboriginal women and marketed in

327-466: A broad sense to group together indigenous peoples from Patagonia and the Pampas . Several specialists, missionaries and travelers have proposed grouping them together on account of the similarities in their cultural traits, geographic vicinity and languages, even though the languages they spoke amongst themselves were not related to each other and their geographic distributions were extensive. According to

436-504: A certain El Lal was sent. Also, within Tehuelche myth, through the god Temauckel, Erral created humans and taught them how to use bows and arrows. The Tehuelche culture embraced the presence of evil spirits called guarichos. Gualicho . The ancestors of the Tehuelche are probably responsible for the creation of the rock art of Cueva de las Manos , created from about 13,000 to 9,000 years ago up until around 700 A.D. Six thousand years ago

545-424: A chief known as Pitioche and his wife and child were captured. Reports of these shocking facts form part of Christian Báez and Peter Mason's book Zoológicos humanos ( Human Zoos ). Anthropologist Robert Lehmann-Nitsche was also criticized for having studied members of the Tehuelche people who had been abducted and were exhibited in circuses. By decree of President José Evaristo Uriburu on 11 January 1898,

654-429: A chronicle of 1673. Among the Mapuche, "the spirits are interested in machi's gendered discourses and performances, not in the sex under the machi's clothes". In attracting the filew (possessing spirit), "Both male and female machi become spiritual brides who seduce and call their filew – at once husband and master – to possess their heads ... The ritual transvestism of male machi ... draws attention to

763-466: A closer relationship with the languages from Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (southern Chonan) and a more distant relationship with the language of the Gününa küne indigenous group (northern Chonan). Escalada considered the idea that the entire Tehuelche complex had a common linguistic core, called Ken ('people'). Until the 19th century the following languages were recognized: In central Patagonia there

872-574: A conservation group, has led an international campaign for preservation, resulting in the Home Depot chain and other leading wood importers agreeing to revise their purchasing policies to "provide for the protection of native forests in Chile". Some Mapuche leaders want stronger protections for the forests. In recent years , the crimes committed by Mapuche armed insurgents have been prosecuted under counter-terrorism legislation, originally introduced by

981-526: A definitive interpretation of the ethnological panorama of Patagonia and the adjacent Northern area ) (1965); Un nuevo panorama etnológico del area pan-pampeana y patagónica adyacente (A new ethnological panorama of the Pan-Pampas and adjacent Patagonian area) (1969); and Bosquejo de una etnología de la provincia de Río Negro (Outline of an ethnology of the Río Negro province) (1985), reaffirming

1090-707: A great many subdivisions, as the Leuvuches, or People of the River, and Calille-Het, or People of the Mountains; amongst whom are the Chulilau-cunnees, Sehuau-cunnees, and Yacana-cunnees. All these, except those of the River, are called by the Moluches, Vucha-Huilliches. In 1936 Milcíades Vignati published Las culturas indígenas de la Pampa y Las culturas indígenas de la Patagonia (The Indigenous Cultures of

1199-474: A machi sacrificed a young boy, throwing him into the water after an earthquake and a tsunami . The Mapuche have incorporated the remembered history of their long independence and resistance from 1540 (Spanish and then Chileans and Argentines) and of the treaty with the Chilean and Argentine governments in the 1870s. Memories, stories, and beliefs, often very local and particularized, are a significant part of

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1308-645: A morphosyntactic projection in Clarificación lingüística de las relaciones interculturales e interétnicas en la región pampeano-patagónica ( Linguistic Clarification of Intercultural and Inter-ethnic Relations in the Pampas-Patagonian Region ), and in 2005 he developed a phonological description in Voces en el viento ( Voices in the Wind ). Puelche is a dead language . Casamiquela released

1417-544: A mother language called "Ken". He grouped them together geographically into "dry land" and "islanders", denying the existence of a separate "Pampa" group. The names used by Escalada, which he obtained from Mapuche-speaking informants, were: Argentine historian and paleontologist Rodolfo Casamiquela reviewed Escalada's classifications in his books Rectificaciones y ratificaciones hacia una interpretación definitiva del panorama etnológico de la Patagonia y área septentrional adyacente ( Rectifications and ratifications towards

1526-472: A mythical tribe of Patagonian giants . Prior to meeting the Tehuelche groups in person, the explorers had been amazed by the size of their footprints. Enlarged by the animal furs they used as footwear, their feet appeared much larger than those of the Europeans at the time. During the 16th century, the average male height of Europeans at around 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) would have been shorter than

1635-588: A nomadic people, the lands of the Tehuelche were colonized in the 19th century by Argentina and Chile, gradually disrupting their traditional economies. The establishment of large sheep farming estates in Patagonia was particularly detrimental to the Tehuelche. Contact with outsiders also brought in infectious diseases ushering deadly epidemics among Tehuelche tribes. Most existing members of the group currently reside in cities and towns of Argentine Patagonia. The name "Tehuelche complex" has been used by researchers in

1744-410: A principle part of the Tehuelche diet, leaving guanacos in second place. The Selk'nam from Tierra del Fuego did not develop a comparable dependency on horses. Welsh settlers arrived in the Tehuelche lands of the lower Chubut Valley in 1865. Relations were mostly amicable and have been described as mutual feelings of "trust and admiration". Paternalistic attitudes toward the Tehuelche were common among

1853-411: A special sign of distinction carried by tribal chiefs. Many kinds of clubs are known. This is an object associated with masculine power. It consists of a disk with an attached handle; the edge of the disc usually has a semicircular recess. In many cases, the face portrayed on the disc carries incised designs. The handle is cylindrical, generally with a larger diameter at its connection to the disk. In

1962-484: A state structure, the Tehuelche did not possess an organized religious system (liturgy and vertical structure). However, like all the Pampas and Patagonian peoples, they had a corpus of beliefs based on their own myths and rituals, which were narrated and updated by the shamans who also practiced medicine with the help of the spirits invoked in themselves. The Tehuelche people believed in diverse Earth spirits, along with

2071-484: A supreme deity who created the world but does not intervene in it. One of the cosmological versions of the creation myth is one in which the deity, known as Kóoch, brought order to the world's chaos, creating distinct elements. Similarly, the Selk'nam people from Tierra del Fuego in Argentina, narrated a similar myth where the world creator, a deity known as Kénos' (a variant of Kóoch through a common root). According to this,

2180-736: A writing system. Since that time, a writing system for Mapudungun was developed, and Mapuche writings in both Spanish and Mapudungun have flourished. Contemporary Mapuche literature can be said to be composed of an oral tradition and Spanish-Mapudungun bilingual writings. Notable Mapuche poets include Sebastián Queupul, Pedro Alonzo, Elicura Chihuailaf , and Leonel Lienlaf. Among the Mapuche in La Araucanía, in addition to heterosexual female machi shamanesses, there are homosexual male machi weye shamans, who wear female clothing. These machi weye were first described in Spanish in

2289-821: A young man, and a young woman. They believe in worlds known as the Wenu Mapu and Minche Mapu . Also, Mapuche cosmology is informed by complex notions of spirits that coexist with humans and animals in the natural world, and daily circumstances can dictate spiritual practices. The most well-known Mapuche ritual ceremony is the Ngillatun , which loosely translates as "to pray" or "general prayer". These ceremonies are often major communal events that are of extreme spiritual and social importance. Many other ceremonies are practiced, and not all are for public or communal participation but are sometimes limited to family. The main groups of deities and/or spirits in Mapuche mythology are

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2398-484: Is also present in the subsequent cultural developments of the Tehuelche people. From this time and until the European arrival (early 16th century) the Tehuelche people were hunter-gatherers who utilized seasonal mobility, moving towards guanaco herds. During the winter they were in the low areas (meadows, wetlands, shores, lake shores, etc.), and during the summer they moved up to the central plateaus of Patagonia or to

2507-545: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Language and nationality disambiguation pages Tehuelche people The Tehuelche people , also called the Aónikenk , are an Indigenous people from eastern Patagonia in South America. In the 18th and 19th centuries the Tehuelche were influenced by Mapuche people, and many adopted a horseriding lifestyle. Once

2616-508: Is known about Tehuelche culture before the use of the horse, although their socioeconomic organization resembled that of the Ona people from Tierra del Fuego. The introduction of the horse by the Spaniards, which they became acquainted with as of 1570, transformed the social organization of Tehuelche people: the introduction caused groups to develop dependencies on horses in their daily lives. Like

2725-665: The Pillan and Wangulen (ancestral spirits), the Ngen (spirits in nature), and the wekufe (evil spirits). Central to Mapuche belief is the role of the machi (shaman). It is usually filled by a woman, following an apprenticeship with an older machi, and has many of the characteristics typical of shamans . The machi performs ceremonies for curing diseases, warding off evil, influencing weather, harvests, social interactions, and dreamwork . Machis often have extensive knowledge of regional medicinal herbs . As biodiversity in

2834-481: The Battle of Marihueñu he defeated Governor Villagra and devastated the city. In 1555 Lautaro went to the city of Angol and destroyed it, he also returned to Concepción, rebuilt by the Spanish and destroyed it again. In 1557 Lautaro headed with his army to destroy Santiago, fighting numerous battles with the Spanish along the way, but he and his army were devastated in the Battle of Mataquito . From 1558 to 1598 war

2943-765: The Chonan languages and the Het languages. The available evidence distinguishes between six languages in the Tehuelche complex: the Chon group (Teushen, Aoenek'enk, Selk'nam and Haush), the language of the Gününa küne indigenous group and the language of the Querandí people. The language of the Aonekkenk people appears more closely related to the language of the Teushen people (central eastern Chonan). These languages in turn maintain

3052-601: The Chubut river separated the two largest subdivisions: the "Southern Tehuelche" and "Northern Tehuelche". The first subdivision stretched towards the south to the Strait of Magellan , whereas the second group extended towards the north to the Colorado River (Argentina) and Rio Negro (Argentina) . The presence, or lack thereof, Tehuelche people in the Pampas has led to disagreements among researchers, who have not agreed on

3161-612: The Maipo River , or somewhere between Santiago and the Maule River. Thus the bulk of the Mapuche escaped Inca rule. Through their contact with Incan invaders Mapuches would have for the first time met people with state organizations . Their contact with the Incas gave them a collective awareness distinguishing between them and the invaders and uniting them into loose geo-political units despite their lack of state organization. At

3270-515: The Mapuche term chewel che, which would mean "brave people", "rugged people", or "barren land people". Another version suggests that it could be derived from one of their factions, the Tueshens, plus the Mapuche word "che" meaning 'people' or 'peoples'. The classification of indigenous groups that lived in the Pampas and Patagonia is confusing due to the different terms that were used to refer to

3379-581: The Picunche , mingled with the Spanish during the colonial period, forming a mestizo population that lost its indigenous identity. But Mapuche society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until the late nineteenth century, when Chile occupied Araucanía and Argentina conquered Puelmapu . Since then the Mapuche have become subjects, and later nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many Mapuche and Chilean communities are engaged in

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3488-618: The Poya and Pehuenche . At about the same time, ethnic groups of the Pampa regions, the Puelche , Ranquel , and northern Aonikenk , made contact with Mapuche groups. The Tehuelche adopted the Mapuche language and some of their culture, in what came to be called Araucanization , during which Patagonia came under effective Mapuche suzerainty. Mapuche in the Spanish-ruled areas, especially

3597-771: The military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet to control political dissidents. The law allows prosecutors to withhold evidence from the defense for up to six months and to conceal the identity of witnesses, who may give evidence in court behind screens. Insurgent groups, such as the Coordinadora Arauco Malleco , use multiple tactics with the more extreme occurrences such as the burning of homes, churches, vehicles, structures, and pastures, which at times included causing deaths and threats to specific targets. As of 2005, protesters from Mapuche communities have used these tactics against properties of both multinational forestry corporations and private individuals. In 2010

3706-761: The "Peénken" (people of the North), the "Háunikenk" (people of the South), and the "Aónikenk" (the people of the West). In his 1949 piece El complejo tehuelche. Estudio de etnografía patagónica ( The Tehuelche Complex. An Ethnographic study of Patagonians ), the military doctor Federico A. Escalada classified the Tehuelche people from historic periods, on the basis of the Estudio de la realidad humana y de la bibliografía ( Study of Human Reality and Bibliography ), into five simple categories, each with their own language derived from

3815-621: The 16th to the 19th centuries due to their large stature and physical strength. Since the 18th century, there was important commercial activity and product exchanges among the native inhabitants of the Pampas plains and the Sierras of the current Buenos Aires Province , the inhabitants of Northern Patagonia, and those of both edges of the Andes . There were two very important trade fairs in Cayrú and Chapaleofú. These trade fairs, called "Poncho fairs" by

3924-514: The Andes mountains where they had, among other sacred sites, Mount Fitz Roy . On 31 March 1520 the Spanish expedition, under the command of Fernando de Magallanes , landed in San Julián Bay to spend the winter there. Here, they made contact with Tehuelche indigenous groups, who they referred to as "Patagones", as told by the scribe, Antonio Pigafetta . Pigaffetta described these people as

4033-555: The Aonekken ("people of the South") people speak the language commonly known as the Tehuelche language or Tshoneka or Aonekkenk, which constitutes the language currently most studied from the group and the only language that continues to be used. There is a group of people who try to recover the language through a program called "Kkomshkn e wine awkkoi 'a'ien" ("I am not ashamed of speaking Tehuelche"). The organization focuses on spreading

4142-653: The Araucanía and the north of Patagonia Argentina were considerable and constituted a vital economic resource for indigenous families. The production of fabrics in the time before European settlement was intended for uses beyond domestic consumption. At present, the fabrics woven by the Mapuche continue to be used for domestic purposes, as well as for gift, sale, or barter. Most Mapuche women and their families now wear garments with foreign designs and tailored with materials of industrial origin, but they continue to weave ponchos, blankets, bands, and belts for regular use. Many of

4251-593: The Argentine government. His sons, Chiefs Papón and Mulato, ended up on a reserve in southern Chile. The Tehuelche people had to live with Welsh immigrants who, since the second half of the 19th century, began to settle in Chubut: the relations were generally harmonious between the two groups. In 1869, Chief Biguá recognized the need to defend the Welsh against a potential attack from Chief Calfucurá. Little information

4360-527: The Argentinean and Chilean states aimed for territorial continuity, and second it remained the sole place for Argentinean livestock to expand and Chilean agriculture to expand. Between 1861 and 1879 Argentina and Chile incorporated several Mapuche territories in Wallmapu. In January 1881, having Chile decisively defeated Peru in the battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores , Chile and Argentina resumed

4469-581: The Camusu Aike reservation was created for the "gathering of Tehuelche tribes". The reservation is located in the Santa Cruz Province of Argentina. In 1922, President Hipólito Yrigoyen created the following reserves by decree: Lago Viedma (Lots 119–117) between 20,000 and 25,000 hectares (200–250 km ; 77–97 sq mi), Lago Cardiel (Lot 6) and Lago Cardiel (Lot 28 bis). The first two were stripped of their status in 1966 and

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4578-556: The Chilean countryside has declined due to commercial agriculture and forestry, the dissemination of such knowledge has also declined, but the Mapuche people are reviving it in their communities. Machis have an extensive knowledge of sacred stones and sacred animals. Like many cultures, the Mapuche have a deluge myth ( epeu ) of a major flood in which the world is destroyed and recreated. The myth involves two opposing forces: Kai Kai (water, which brings death through floods) and Tren Tren (dry earth, which brings sunshine). In

4687-482: The Commission for Historical Truth and New Treatments issued a report to defuse tensions calling for drastic changes in Chile's treatment of its indigenous people, more than 80% of whom are Mapuche. The recommendations included the formal recognition of political and "territorial" rights for indigenous peoples, as well as efforts to promote their cultural identities. Though Japanese and Swiss interests are active in

4796-462: The Gennakenk people of Neuquén, the upper valley of Río Negro and the so-called 'country of Strawberries', or Chulilaw (the region approximately bounded to the north by Lake Nahuel Huapi, to the east by the low mountains and morraines called Patagónides, to the west by the high summits of the Andes and to the south by Lake Buenos Aires/General Carrera). The horse, or more precisely, the mare, became

4905-771: The Inca governor Quilicanta. It would be the same Michimalonco who would lead the Picunche resistance against the Spanish between 1541 and 1545. His most famous stain is the Destruction of Santiago . In 1550, Pedro de Valdivia, who aimed to control all of Chile to the Straits of Magellan , campaigned in south-central Chile to conquer more Mapuche territory . Between 1550 and 1553, the Spanish founded several cities in Mapuche lands including Concepción , Valdivia , Imperial , Villarrica , and Angol . The Spanish also established

5014-579: The Jesuits at the time who recorded their existence (such as Thomas Falkner ), were places for the exchange of various types of products: from livestock and agricultural products to garments, such as ponchos. Cayrú was located in the most western part of the Tandilia system (in the current territory of the Olavarría Partido ). Chapaleofú refers to the homonymic water stream vicinity, situated in

5123-484: The Mapuche Territory (Wallmapu) left in the hands of Argentina, the loss of land by Mapuches following the occupation caused severe erosion since Mapuches continued to practice a massive livestock herding in limited areas. Land disputes and violent confrontations continue in some Mapuche areas, particularly in the northern sections of the Araucanía region between and around Traiguén and Lumaco . In 2003,

5232-744: The Mapuche differ from the adjacent indigenous peoples of Patagonia. This suggests a "different origin or long-lasting separation of Mapuche and Patagonian populations". Troops of the Inca Empire are reported to have reached the Maule River and had a battle with the Mapuche between the Maule and the Itata Rivers there. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to have been situated between Santiago and

5341-483: The Mapuche frequently laid siege to Spanish settlements in Araucanía . In 1553, the Mapuches held a council at which they resolved to make war. They chose as their " toqui " (wartime chief) a strong man called Caupolicán and as his vice toqui Lautaro , because he had served as an auxiliary to the Spanish cavalry; he created the first Mapuche cavalry corps. With six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked

5450-578: The Mapuche launched many hunger strikes in attempts to effect change in the anti-terrorism legislation. As of 2019, the Chilean government committed human rights abuses against the Mapuche based on Israeli military techniques and surveillance according to the French website Orin21. Oil exploitation and fracking in the Vaca Muerta site in Neuquen, one of the biggest shale-oil and shale-gas deposits in

5559-505: The Mapuche traditional culture. To varying degrees, this history of resistance continues to this day amongst the Mapuche. At the same time, a large majority of Mapuche in Chile identify with the state as Chilean, similar to a large majority in Argentina identifying as Argentines. We Tripantu is the Mapuche New Year celebration. One of the best-known arts of the Mapuche is their textiles . The oldest data on textiles in

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5668-709: The Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía. However, Mapuche is a relatively recent endonym meaning "People of the Earth" or "Children of the Land", with mapu meaning "earth" or "land", and che meaning "person". It is preferred as a term when referring to the people after the Arauco War. The Mapuche identify by the geography of their territories, such as: Archaeological finds have shown that Mapuche culture existed in Chile and Argentina as early as 600 to 500 BC. Genetically

5777-500: The Pampas and central and North of Patagonia, producing the Araucanization of a large part of the ancient inhabitants. Finally, the subsequent Conquest of the Desert carried out by the Argentine Army led to the near extinction of these indigenous communities. This historic overview has led to the disagreement among researchers. In the 19th century, explorers such as Ramón Lista and George Chaworth Musters named them "tsóneka", "tsónik" or "chonik". The majority of experts agree that

5886-425: The Pampas and the Indigenous Cultures of Patagonia) in which he proposed that between the 16th and 19th centuries the "Gününa-küne" or "Tuelches" lived from the southern half of the province of Rio Negro to the boundary between the present Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces. The "Serranos" were to the North of them and the "Aônükün'k" or "Patagones" were located to the South. These peoples were divided between three groups:

5995-412: The Patagones and Pehuenches on the banks of the Senguerr River; other combat occurred at Barrancas Blancas and Shótel Káike. By 1828, the Pincheira Royalist army attacked the Tehuelche group in the Bahía Blanca and Carmen de Patagones area. The Tehuelche people south of the Río Negro had a female chief: María la Grande . Her successor, Casimiro Biguá , was the first Tehuelche chief to make treaties with

6104-440: The Patagonian men whose height reportedly averaged above 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) by some accounts and around 183 centimetres (6 ft) by other accounts. Thus the Europeans may have considered them to be "Patones" ('large footed') or the Patagonians may have reminded the explorers of the giant Pathoagón from the knighthood novel Primaleón . The Patagonians' large craniometry made them famous in European literature from

6213-555: The Spaniards died, save a cleric named Bartolomé Pérez, who was taken prisoner, and a soldier named Bernardo de Pereda. The Mapuche then initiated a general uprising that destroyed all the cities in their homeland south of the Biobío River. In the years following the Battle of Curalaba , a general uprising developed among the Mapuches and Huilliches led to the Destruction of the Seven Cities . The Spanish cities of Angol, Imperial, Osorno , Santa Cruz de Oñez , Valdivia , and Villarrica were either destroyed or abandoned. The city of Castro

6322-409: The Strait of Magellan: The Tehuelhets, who in Europe are known by the name of Patagons, have been, through ignorance of their idiom, called Tehuelchus; for chu signifies country of abode, and not people; which is expressed by the word het, and, more to the south, by the word kunnee or kunny. These and the Chechehets are known to the Spaniards by the name of Serranos, or Mountaineers. They are split into

6431-443: The Study of the Gününa küne Indian ), claiming that they called their language Gününa yájitch or Pampa. During the 1950s, Casamiquela collected vocabulary, songs and prayers from various elders, outlining a morphosyntactic analysis. In 1960, Ana Gerzenstein made a phonetic and phonological classification in her Fonología de la lengua gününa-këna ( Phonology of the Gününa-këna Language ). In 1991, José Pedro Viegas Barros outlined

6540-429: The Tehuelche and Ranquel peoples adopted many of the Mapuche customs and their language, while the Mapuches adopted parts of the Tehuelche way of life (such as living in tolderías) and thereby, the differences between the two groups were blurred to the point that their descendants refer to themselves as Mapuche-Tehuelche people. During the first half of the 18th century, Chief Cacapol and his son, Chief Cangapol , were

6649-410: The Toldense industry emerged, consisting primarily of goods such as two-sided sub-triangular projectile points, lateral and terminal scrapers, bifacial knives and tools made from bone. Later, between 7000 and 4000 B.C., the Casapedrense industry appeared, characterized by a greater proportion of stone tools made in sheets, which was most likely a demonstration of a specialization in guanaco hunting, which

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6758-480: The Welsh. There was a widespread critical view of the Argentine militaries' treatment of the Tehuelche and of traders who provided Tehuelches with alcohol and weaponry. Tehuelches were reportedly seen as uncivilized, savage and childlike by the Welsh. As early as the second half of the 19th century, Tehuelche groups were abducted and displayed against their will in countries such as Belgium , Switzerland , (Germany), France and England. More specific data shows that

6867-455: The apprentice receives explicit instructions or help from their instructors. Knowledge is transmitted as the fabric is woven, the weaving and transmission of knowledge go together. There is a traditional stone hand club used by the Mapuche which has been called a clava (Spanish for club). It has a long flat body. Another name is clava mere okewa ; in Spanish, it may also be called a clava cefalomorfa . It has some ritual importance as

6976-465: The coast of the Pacific Ocean. This was the start of cultural exchanges and migratory movements, between distinct groups such as the Tehuelche, Ranquel and Mapuche people. Although Mapuche trade started as a means of fostering commerce and alliances, it was completed by generating a large cultural influence on the Tehuelche and other groups, to the point that it is referred to as the "Mapuchization" or " Araucanization of Patagonia ". A large portion of

7085-490: The conquest of Wallmapu. The conquest of Wallmapu caused numerous Mapuches to be displaced and forced to roam in search of shelter and food. Scholar Pablo Miramán claims the introduction of state education during the Occupation of Wallmapu had detrimental effects on traditional Mapuche education. In the years following the occupation the economy of Araucanía changed from being based on sheep and cattle herding to one based on agriculture and wood extraction . About 70% of

7194-404: The current Tandil Partido . Both municipalities, or partidos, are located in the interior of the current Buenos Aires Province . The movements of people to participate in the exchanging of products generated certain cultural exchanges between different groups living anywhere from the humid Pampas, the northern Patagonia, the immediate area near the Andes (both on its western and eastern edges), to

7303-401: The data collected by Hunziker and Claraz to create a comparative vocabulary of Tehuelche languages: El grupo lingüístico tschon de los territorios magallánicos ( The Chonan Linguistic Groups of the Magellanic Territories ). In 1925, Harrington gathered words from bilingual Tehuelche speakers which he published in 1946 in Contribución al estudio del indio gününa küne ( A Contribution to

7412-403: The dawn of the equestrian complex, longitudinal movements (from south to north and vice versa) were very important in establishing extensive exchange networks. In the mid-19th century the Aonikenk exchanged their skins and mollusks for cholilas (strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, Magellan barberry , Chilean pine tree seeds, Cyttaria , buds and Chilean bamboo buds, etc.) and apples with

7521-419: The deluge almost all humanity is drowned; the few not drowned survive through cannibalism . At last, only one couple is left. A machi tells them that they must give their only child to the waters, which they do, and this restores order to the world. Part of the Mapuche ritual is prayer and animal sacrifice, required to maintain the cosmic balance. This belief has continued to current times. In 1960, for example,

7630-522: The economy of Araucanía ( Ngulu Mapu ), the two chief forestry companies are Chilean-owned. In the past, the firms have planted hundreds of thousands of hectares with non-native species such as Monterey pine , Douglas firs , and eucalyptus trees, sometimes replacing native Valdivian forests , although such substitution and replacement is now forgotten. Chile exports wood to the United States, almost all of which comes from this southern region, with an annual value of around $ 600 million. Stand.earth ,

7739-450: The educational system. In recent years, it has started to be taught in rural schools of Bío-Bío, Araucanía, and Los Lagos Regions. Mapuche speakers of Chilean Spanish who also speak Mapudungun tend to use more impersonal pronouns when speaking Spanish. Central to Mapuche cosmology is the idea of a creator called ngenechen , who is embodied in four components: an older man ( fucha/futra/cha chau ), an older woman ( kude/kuse ),

7848-414: The existence of a Tehuelche complex. Casamiquela proposed the following classification for the continental area circa 1700: The different ethnic groups that are recognized under the broad term "Tehuelche" spoke languages whose exact quantity and relationships have been subject to different opinions. For Roberto Lehmann Nitsche, the languages stemming from the Pampas and Patagonia divided in to two groups,

7957-614: The existence of a separate subdivision called the "Pampas", nor what their relationship and borders were with the Mapuches. One of the primary classifications was from English Jesuit Thomas Falkner in his 1774 work A description of Patagonia and the adjoining parts of South America , which introduced the ethnic name ' Het peoples ' for the Puelche people, which included the Tehuelche: The Puelches, or Eastern Peoples ... They bear different denominations, according to

8066-463: The fabrics are woven for trade, and in many cases, are an important source of income for families. Glazed pots are used to dye the wool. Many Mapuche women continue to weave fabrics according to the customs of their ancestors and transmit their knowledge in the same way: within domestic life, from mother to daughter, and from grandmothers to granddaughters. This form of learning is based on gestural imitation, and only rarely, and when strictly necessary,

8175-427: The first and last name of the last Puelche speaker: José María Cual, who died in 1960 at the age of 90. Although mobile, Tehuelche groups tended to move in specific circuits, predominantly from west to east and vice versa. During each season, the groups had places where they would set up camps, known as aik or aiken among themselves, and referred to as tolderías by the Spanish and Creoles . Each Tehuelche group

8284-414: The fort at Tucapel . The Spanish garrison was unable to withstand the assault and retreated to Purén. Lautaro seized and burned the fort and prepared his army certain that the Spaniards would attempt to retake Tucapel. Valdivia mounted a counter-attack, but he was quickly surrounded. He and his army was massacred by the Mapuches in the Battle of Tucapel . In 1554 Lautaro went to destroy Concepción where in

8393-487: The forts of Arauco , Purén , and Tucapel . Further efforts by the Spanish to gain more territory engaged them in the Arauco War against the Mapuche, a sporadic conflict that lasted nearly 350 years. Hostility towards the conquerors was compounded by the lack of a tradition of forced labor akin to the Inca mit'a among the Mapuche, who largely refused to serve the Spanish. From their establishment in 1550 to 1598,

8502-478: The groups. In other cases, the seasonal migrations that they practiced which involved traveling long distances made Europeans that observed them overestimate the number of people from a group or the distribution range of a language. In conjunction with all of these factors, the intrusion of the Mapuches , or Araucans, from the west deeply transformed their cultural reality, intermixing and absorbing ethnic groups from

8611-589: The historian Antonio Pigafetta from Ferdinand Magellan 's expedition in 1520, he referred to the indigenous people he came across in the San Julian Bay as the "Patagoni". In 1535 the historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés explained in his Historia general y natural de las Indias (General and Natural History of the Indies), that "We Spaniards call them the Patagones for their big feet", which

8720-425: The historian Francisco López de Gómara agreed with in 1552. Based on these accounts, the first name the Spanish used to refer to the Tehuelche people was the Patagones. However, some researchers speculate, without verifiable bases, that Magellan could have been inspired by the dog-headed monster from the 1512 novel Primaleón known as "Pathogan". According to the most widespread view, the word Tehuelche comes from

8829-522: The indigenous groups in the North American Great Plains, the Tehuelche also worked the thicket steppes of Patagonia, living mainly off of guanaco and rhea meat (ñandú or choique), followed by South Andean deer , deer , Patagonian mara and even puma and jaguar meat, in addition to certain plants (although late, they learned how to cultivate the land). As for fish and shellfish, there were certain cases where their consumption

8938-524: The language and culture. In 1864, Hunziker recorded a vocabulary and a collection of phrases from a language called Genakenn in the Viedma region. In 1865, the explorer Jorge Claraz traveled from south of Buenos Aires to Chubut being guided by individuals who spoke Gününa iajëch, collecting the names of places, words and sentences in his Diario de viaje de exploración al Chubut ( Chubut exploration travel diary ) (1865–1866). In 1913, Lehmann Nitsche used

9047-495: The large and widely dispersed quantity of Spanish, Argentine, and Chilean silver coins. Mapuche also made headdresses with coins , which were called trarilonko, etc. Mapuche languages are spoken in Chile and Argentina. The two living branches are Huilliche and Mapudungun . Although not genetically related, lexical influence has been discerned from Quechua . Linguists estimate that only about 200,000 full-fluency speakers remain in Chile. The language receives only token support in

9156-436: The late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, Mapuche silversmithing activity and artistic diversity reached its climax. All important Mapuche chiefs of the nineteenth century are supposed to have had at least one silversmith. By 1984 Mapuche scholar Carlos Aldunate noted that there were no silversmiths alive among contemporary Mapuches. The Mapuche culture of the sixteenth century had an oral tradition and lacked

9265-766: The later half of the eighteenth century, Mapuche silversmiths began to produce large amounts of silver finery. The surge of silversmithing activity may be related to the 1726 parliament of Negrete that decreased hostilities between Spaniards and Mapuches and allowed trade to increase between colonial Chile and the free Mapuches. In this context of increasing trade Mapuches began in the late eighteenth century to accept payments in silver coins for their products, usually cattle or horses. These coins and silver coins obtained in political negotiations served as raw material for Mapuche metalsmiths ( Mapudungun : rüxafe ). Old Mapuche silver pendants often included unmelted silver coins, something that has helped modern researchers to date

9374-650: The local flying club Tehuelches Department , Chubut Province, Argentina Villa Tehuelches , a village in Magallanes Province, Chile Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Tehuelche . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tehuelche&oldid=1030065710 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

9483-416: The locality was usually transmitted within the family, with mothers, grandmothers, and aunts teaching a girl the skills they had learned from their elders. Women who excelled in the textile arts were highly honored for their accomplishments and contributed economically and culturally to their kinship group. A measure of the importance of weaving is evident in the expectation that a man gives a larger dowry for

9592-863: The most important chiefs in the regions extending from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Oceans, and from the Río Negro to the Salado River . Cangapol had a seat in the government in the Sierra de la Ventana region, and their people were known as the "Mountain Pampas". The Pampas knew how to align themselves with the Mapuches from the west, to attack the Buenos Aires Campaign in 1740. In this process there were also inter-ethnic struggles and by 1820 heavy combat erupted between

9701-408: The native population groups from these regions. There are various causes that have prevented the establishment of one unique and complete classification. Among these circumstances, the extinction of some of these groups, coupled with the vast amount of land on which these groups were distributed, which inhibited Spanish explorers who first identified certain Tehuelche peoples from making contact with all

9810-794: The nineteenth century, Argentina and Chile experienced a fast territorial expansion. Argentina established a colony at the Falkland Islands in 1820, settled Chubut with Welsh immigrants in 1865 and conquered Formosa, Misiones and Chaco from Paraguay in 1870. Later Argentina would also annex the Puna de Atacama in 1898. Chile on the other hand, established a colony at the Strait of Magellan in 1843, settled Valdivia , Osorno , and Llanquihue with German immigrants , and conquered land from Peru and Bolivia . Later Chile would also annex Easter Island . In this context, Wallmapu began to be conquered by Argentina and Chile due to two reasons. First,

9919-591: The objects. The bulk of the Spanish silver coins originated from mining in Potosí in Upper Peru . The great diversity in silver finery designs is because designs were made to be identified with different reynma (families), lof mapu (lands) as well as specific lonkos and machis . Mapuche silver finery was also subject to changes in fashion albeit designs associated with philosophical and spiritual concepts have not undergone major changes. In

10028-443: The relational gender categories of spirit husband and machi wife as a couple ( kurewen )." As concerning "co-gendered identities" of " machi as co-gender specialists", it has been speculated that "female berdaches " may have formerly existed among the Mapuche. Following the independence of Chile in the 1810s, the Mapuche began to be perceived as Chilean by other Chileans, contrasting with previous perceptions of them as

10137-430: The resources from their territories; a violation of this rule led to war. The Tehuelche had a very organized family unit, in which men were the authoritative figures and women were subordinate. In most family contexts, the father would offer his daughter for marriage in exchange for various goods. Each man could have two or three wives, depending on his status. As in the case of other ethnic groups that did not develop

10246-640: The situation of their respective countries, of because they were originally of different nations. Those toward the north are called Taluhets; to the west and south of these are the Diuihets; to the south east, the Chechehets; and to the south of these last is the country of the Tehuelhets ... or Falkner the "Tehuelhets" or "Patagones" were the Tehuelche people who lived from the banks of the Rio Negro to

10355-420: The so-called Mapuche conflict over land and indigenous rights in both Argentina and Chile. Historically, the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to the Mapuche people as Araucanians ( / ˌ æ r ɔː ˈ k eɪ n i ə n z / ARR -aw- KAY -nee-ənz ; Spanish : araucanos ). This term is now considered pejorative by some people. For others, the importance of the term Araucanian lies in

10464-893: The southernmost areas of the American continent (southern Chile and Argentina today) are found in some archaeological excavations, such as those of Pitrén Cemetery near the city of Temuco , and the Alboyanco site in the Biobío Region , both of Chile; and the Rebolledo Arriba Cemetery in Neuquén Province (Argentina). researchers have found evidence of fabrics made with complex techniques and designs, dated between AD 1300–1350. The Mapuche women were responsible for spinning and weaving. Knowledge of both weaving techniques and textile patterns particular to

10573-413: The third in 1990. Mapuche The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organization consists of extended families, under the direction of a lonko or chief. In times of war, the Mapuche would unite in larger groupings and elect a toki (meaning "axe" or "axe-bearer") to lead them. Mapuche material culture is known for its textiles and silverwork . At

10682-734: The time of Spanish arrival , the Picunche inhabited the valleys between the Choapa and Itata , Araucanian Mapuche inhabited the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers, south of there, the Huilliche and the Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago . In the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and Pampas , conquering, fusing and establishing relationships with

10791-488: The time of the arrival of the first Spaniards to Chile, the largest indigenous population concentration was in the area spanning from the Itata River to Chiloé Island  – that is the Mapuche heartland. The Mapuche population between Itata River and Reloncaví Sound has been estimated at 705,000–900,000 in the mid-sixteenth century by historian José Bengoa . The Spanish expansion into Mapuche territory

10900-467: The universality of the epic work La Araucana , written by Alonso de Ercilla , and the feats of that people in their long and interminable war against the Spanish Empire. The name is probably derived from the placename rag ko (Spanish Arauco ), meaning "clayey water". The Quechua word awqa , meaning "rebel, enemy", is probably not the root of araucano . Scholars believe that

11009-487: The use of cavalry in war from the Spaniards , along with the cultivation of wheat and sheep . In the 300-year co-existence between the Spanish colonies and the relatively well-delineated autonomous Mapuche regions, the Mapuche also developed a strong tradition of trading with Spaniards, Argentines, and Chileans. Such trade lies at the heart of the Mapuche silver-working tradition, for Mapuche wrought their jewelry from

11118-420: The various Mapuche groups ( Moluche , Huilliche, Picunche, etc.) called themselves Reche during the early Spanish colonial period, due to what they referred to as their pure native blood, derived from re meaning "pure" and che meaning "people". The name Mapuche is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche, Huilliche, and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía , at other times, exclusively to

11227-606: The world, has produced waste dumps of sludge waste, polluting the environment close to the town of Añelo , which is about 1,200km south of Buenos Aires. In 2018, the Mapuche were suing Exxon, French company TotalEnergies and Pan American Energy . At the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Mapuche organized and constructed a network of forts and defensive buildings. Ancient Mapuche also built ceremonial constructions such as some earthwork mounds discovered near Purén. Mapuche quickly adopted iron metal-working ( Picunches already worked copper ) Mapuche learned horse riding and

11336-521: Was also an ancient transition language between the Penkkenk and the Aonekkenk languages, called Tehuesh (Tewsün, Téushenkenk or Teushen), which was gradually replaced by the Aonekkenk language. However, a large portion of the current names of places in the central plateau retain their Tewsün roots today; for example, the name of the Chubut Province is derived from the term " chupat" . Finally,

11445-715: Was an offshoot of the conquest of Peru . In 1536, Diego de Almagro set out to conquer Chile, after crossing the Itata River they were intercepted by a numerous contingent of Araucanian Mapuche armed with many bows and pikes in the Battle of Reynogüelén . Discouraged by the ferocity of the Mapuches, and the apparent lack of gold and silver in these lands, Almagro decided its full retreat the following year to Peru. In 1541, Pedro de Valdivia reached Chile from Cuzco and founded Santiago . The northern Mapuche tribes, known as Picunches had recently gained independence from Inca rule, being commanded by Michimalonco , who had defeated

11554-410: Was banned: for example, some groups had prohibited the consumption of fish. Their groups used to consist of between 50 and 100 members. The adoption of the horse meant an extensive social change in Tehuelche culture: the new mobility altered their ancestral territories and greatly affected their movement patterns. Before the 17th century east–west movements prevailed in pursuit of guanacos; however, as of

11663-411: Was composed of various kinship and they had specific territories for hunting and gathering. The boundaries of these territories were defined through ancestry by markers with unknown significance: a hill, a trough, a hollow, or important tree. In cases where a group could not satisfy their needs in their own territory, they had to ask for the permission of neighboring people from the same ethnic group to use

11772-595: Was mostly a low-intensity conflict . Mapuche numbers decreased significantly following contact with the Spanish invaders; wars and epidemics decimated the population. Others died in Spanish-owned gold mines. In 1598 a party of warriors from Purén led by Pelantaro , who were returning south from a raid in the Chillán area, ambushed Governor Martín García Óñez de Loyola and his troops while they rested without taking any precautions against attack. Almost all

11881-538: Was taken by a Dutch-Mapuche alliance in 1599, but reconquered by the Spanish in 1600. Only Chillán and Concepción resisted Mapuche sieges and raids. Except for the Chiloé Archipelago , all Chilean territory south of the Bíobío River was freed from Spanish rule. In this period the Mapuche Nation crossed the Andes to conquer the present Argentine provinces of Chubut, Neuquen, La Pampa, and Río Negro. In

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