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130-458: Although the term commonly refers to wireless data transfer mechanisms (e.g., using radio , ultrasonic, or infrared systems), it also encompasses data transferred over other media such as a telephone or computer network , optical link or other wired communications like power line carriers. Many modern telemetry systems take advantage of the low cost and ubiquity of GSM networks by using SMS to receive and transmit telemetry data. A telemeter

260-462: A mobile VPN to handle the multiple connections as a secure, single virtual network . Supporting technologies include: Wireless data communications are used to span a distance beyond the capabilities of typical cabling in point-to-point communication and point-to-multipoint communication , to provide a backup communications link in case of normal network failure, to link portable or temporary workstations, to overcome situations where normal cabling

390-595: A twenty-five-year war against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , Sweden, and Denmark. Despite first successes, Ivan's army was pushed back, and the nation failed to secure a coveted position on the Baltic Sea. Hoping to make profit from Russia's concentration on Livonian affairs, Devlet I Giray of Crimea , accompanied by as many as 120,000 horsemen, repeatedly devastated the Moscow region , until

520-485: A base station. Telemetry hardware is useful for tracking persons and property in law enforcement. An ankle collar worn by convicts on probation can warn authorities if a person violates the terms of his or her parole , such as by straying from authorized boundaries or visiting an unauthorized location. Telemetry has also enabled bait cars , where law enforcement can rig a car with cameras and tracking equipment and leave it somewhere they expect it to be stolen. When stolen

650-565: A boyar, Vasily Shuysky , was proclaimed tsar in 1606. In his attempt to retain the throne, Shuysky allied himself with the Swedes, unleashing the Ingrian War with Sweden. False Dmitry II , allied with the Poles, appeared under the walls of Moscow and set up a mock court in the village of Tushino . In 1609, Poland intervened into Russian affairs officially , captured Shuisky , and occupied

780-576: A broad view of what had been a rarely visited and poorly reported state. In the 1630s, the Russian Tsardom was visited by Adam Olearius , whose lively and well-informed writings were soon translated into all the major languages of Europe. Further information about Russia was circulated by English and Dutch merchants . One of them, Richard Chancellor , sailed to the White Sea in 1553 and continued overland to Moscow. Upon his return to England,

910-448: A communication format since they seemed, at the time, to be a short-range phenomenon. Marconi soon developed a system that was transmitting signals way beyond distances anyone could have predicted (due in part to the signals bouncing off the then unknown ionosphere ). Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun were awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics for their contribution to this form of wireless telegraphy. Millimetre wave communication

1040-509: A conflict with each other, which provided Russia with the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617. The Polish–Muscovite War was ended with the Truce of Deulino in 1618, restoring temporarily Polish and Lithuanian rule over some territories, including Smolensk , lost by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1509. The early Romanovs were weak rulers. Under Mikhail, state affairs were in

1170-558: A decade of terror in Russia that culminated in the Massacre of Novgorod (1570). As a result of the policies of the oprichnina , Ivan broke the economic and political power of the leading boyar families, thereby destroying precisely those persons who had built up Russia and were the most capable of administering it. Trade diminished, and peasants, faced with mounting taxes and threats of violence, began to leave Russia. Efforts to curtail

1300-429: A decimeter band and PPM on a centimeter band. Telemetry has been used by weather balloons for transmitting meteorological data since 1920. Telemetry is used to transmit drilling mechanics and formation evaluation information uphole, in real time, as a well is drilled. These services are known as Measurement while drilling and Logging while drilling . Information acquired thousands of feet below ground, while drilling,

1430-422: A detailed description of L'Empire de Russie of the early 17th century that was presented to King Henry IV , stated that foreigners make "a mistake when they call them Muscovites and not Russians. When they are asked what nation they are, they respond 'Russac', which means 'Russians', and when they are asked what place they are from, the answer is Moscow, Vologda , Ryasan and other cities". The closest analogue of

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1560-808: A distance. In 1906 a set of seismic stations were built with telemetering to the Pulkovo Observatory in Russia. In 1912, Commonwealth Edison developed a system of telemetry to monitor electrical loads on its power grid. The Panama Canal (completed 1913–1914) used extensive telemetry systems to monitor locks and water levels. Wireless telemetry made early appearances in the radiosonde , developed concurrently in 1930 by Robert Bureau in France and Pavel Molchanov in Russia . Molchanov's system modulated temperature and pressure measurements by converting them to wireless Morse code . The German V-2 rocket used

1690-719: A few meters for Bluetooth , or as far as millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications . It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable applications, including two-way radios , cellular telephones , personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking . Other examples of applications of radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers , wireless computer mouse , keyboards and headsets , headphones , radio receivers , satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones . Somewhat less common methods of achieving wireless communications involve other electromagnetic phenomena, such as light and magnetic or electric fields, or

1820-415: A fixed frame . The beginning of industrial telemetry lies in the steam age , although the sensor was not called telemeter at that time. Examples are James Watt 's (1736-1819) additions to his steam engines for monitoring from a (near) distance such as the mercury pressure gauge and the fly-ball governor . Although the original telemeter referred to a ranging device (the rangefinding telemeter ), by

1950-560: A hostility toward his advisers, the government, and the boyars . Historians have not determined whether policy differences, personal animosities, or mental imbalance caused his wrath. In 1565, he divided Russia into two parts: his private domain (or oprichnina ) and the public realm (or zemshchina ). For his private domain, Ivan chose some of the most prosperous and important districts of Russia. In these areas, Ivan's agents attacked boyars, merchants, and even common people, summarily executing some and confiscating land and possessions. Thus began

2080-507: A major role in disease prevention and precision irrigation. These stations transmit parameters necessary for decision-making to a base station: air temperature and relative humidity , precipitation and leaf wetness (for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed (to calculate evapotranspiration ), water deficit stress (WDS) leaf sensors and soil moisture (crucial to irrigation decisions). Because local micro-climates can vary significantly, such data needs to come from within

2210-574: A new law code, revamped the military, and reorganized local government. These reforms undoubtedly were intended to strengthen the state in the face of continuous warfare. The key documents prepared by the so-called Select Council of advisors and promulgated during this period are as follows: Muscovy remained a fairly unknown society in Western Europe until Baron Sigismund von Herberstein published his Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii (literally Notes on Muscovite Affairs ) in 1549. This provided

2340-470: A period of social struggle and civil war, the Time of Troubles ( Smutnoye vremya , 1598–1613). Ivan IV was succeeded by his son Feodor , who was uninterested in ruling and possibly mentally deficient. Actual power went to Feodor's brother-in-law, the boyar Boris Godunov (who is credited with abolishing Yuri's Day , the only time of the year when serfs were free to move from one landowner to another). Perhaps

2470-465: A place where a physical connection is not possible, leaving radio or other electromagnetic waves (such as infrared lasers) as the only viable option for telemetry. During crewed space missions it is used to monitor not only parameters of the vehicle, but also the health and life support of the astronauts. During the Cold War telemetry found uses in espionage. US intelligence found that they could monitor

2600-429: A principal object of constant commercial telemetry. This typically includes monitoring of tank farms in gasoline refineries and chemical plants—and distributed or remote tanks, which must be replenished when empty (as with gas station storage tanks, home heating oil tanks, or ag-chemical tanks at farms), or emptied when full (as with production from oil wells, accumulated waste products, and newly produced fluids). Telemetry

2730-743: A public resource and are regulated by organizations such as the American Federal Communications Commission , Ofcom in the United Kingdom, the international ITU-R or the European ETSI . Their regulations determine which frequency ranges can be used for what purpose and by whom. In the absence of such control or alternative arrangements such as a privatized electromagnetic spectrum, chaos might result if, for example, airlines did not have specific frequencies to work under and an amateur radio operator

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2860-454: A result, False Dmitriy I entered Moscow and was crowned tsar that year, following the murder of Tsar Feodor II , Godunov's son. Subsequently, Russia entered a period of continuous chaos, known as The Time of Troubles (Смутное Время). Despite the Tsar's persecution of the boyars, the townspeople's dissatisfaction, and the gradual enserfment of the peasantry, efforts at restricting the power of

2990-464: A route truck or to a headquarters. This data could be used for a variety of purposes, such as eliminating the need for drivers to make a first trip to see which items needed to be restocked before delivering the inventory. Retailers also use RFID tags to track inventory and prevent shoplifting. Most of these tags passively respond to RFID readers (e.g., at the cashier), but active RFID tags are available which periodically transmit location information to

3120-468: A social revolution, and a paradigm shift from wired to wireless technology, including the proliferation of commercial wireless technologies such as cell phones , mobile telephony , pagers , wireless computer networks , cellular networks , the wireless Internet , and laptop and handheld computers with wireless connections. The wireless revolution has been driven by advances in radio frequency (RF), microelectronics , and microwave engineering , and

3250-593: A system of primitive multiplexed radio signals called "Messina" to report four rocket parameters, but it was so unreliable that Wernher von Braun once claimed it was more useful to watch the rocket through binoculars. In the US and the USSR, the Messina system was quickly replaced with better systems; in both cases, based on pulse-position modulation (PPM). Early Soviet missile and space telemetry systems which were developed in

3380-405: Is a physical device used in telemetry. It consists of a sensor , a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital . Other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic and optical. Telemetry may be commutated to allow the transmission of multiple data streams in

3510-581: Is a somewhat archaic translation. The Russian word grozny reflects the older English usage of terrible as in "inspiring fear or terror; dangerous; powerful; formidable". It does not convey the more modern connotations of English terrible , such as "defective" or "evil". Vladimir Dal defined grozny specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "Courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience". Other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars. Ivan IV became Grand Prince of Moscow in 1533 at

3640-459: Is also recorded so the team can assess driver performance and (in case of an accident) the FIA can determine or rule out driver error as a possible cause. Later developments include two-way telemetry which allows engineers to update calibrations on the car in real time (even while it is out on the track). In Formula One, two-way telemetry surfaced in the early 1990s and consisted of a message display on

3770-555: Is also used for the remote monitoring of substations and their equipment. For data transmission, phase line carrier systems operating on frequencies between 30 and 400 kHz are sometimes used. In falconry , "telemetry" means a small radio transmitter carried by a bird of prey that will allow the bird's owner to track it when it is out of sight. Telemetry is used in testing hostile environments which are dangerous to humans. Examples include munitions storage facilities, radioactive sites, volcanoes, deep sea, and outer space. Telemetry

3900-676: Is difficult or financially impractical, or to remotely connect mobile users or networks. Peripheral devices in computing can also be connected wirelessly, as part of a Wi-Fi network or directly via an optical or radio-frequency (RF) peripheral interface. Originally these units used bulky, highly local transceivers to mediate between a computer and a keyboard and mouse; however, more recent generations have used smaller, higher-performance devices. Radio-frequency interfaces, such as Bluetooth or Wireless USB , provide greater ranges of efficient use, usually up to 10 feet, but distance, physical obstacles, competing signals, and even human bodies can all degrade

4030-518: Is especially useful when the clinical examination is limited. Telemetry is used to study wildlife, and has been useful for monitoring threatened species at the individual level. Animals under study can be outfitted with instrumentation tags, which include sensors that measure temperature, diving depth and duration (for marine animals), speed and location (using GPS or Argos packages). Telemetry tags can give researchers information about animal behavior, functions, and their environment. This information

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4160-548: Is known as Wireless Powered Communication. In 2015, researchers at the University of Washington demonstrated far-field energy transfer using Wi-Fi signals to power cameras. New wireless technologies, such as mobile body area networks (MBAN), have the capability to monitor blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen level, and body temperature. The MBAN works by sending low-powered wireless signals to receivers that feed into nursing stations or monitoring sites. This technology helps with

4290-510: Is reported like individual window metrics, counts of used features, and individual function timings. Wireless Wireless communication (or just wireless , when the context allows) is the transfer of information ( telecommunication ) between two or more points without the use of an electrical conductor , optical fiber or other continuous guided medium for the transfer. The most common wireless technologies use radio waves . With radio waves, intended distances can be short, such as

4420-430: Is sent through the drilling hole to the surface sensors and the demodulation software. The pressure wave (sana) is translated into useful information after DSP and noise filters. This information is used for Formation evaluation , Drilling Optimization, and Geosteering . Telemetry is a key factor in modern motor racing, allowing race engineers to interpret data collected during a test or race and use it to properly tune

4550-651: Is the primary source of real-time measurement and status information transmitted during the testing of crewed and uncrewed aircraft. Intercepted telemetry was an important source of intelligence for the United States and UK when Soviet missiles were tested; for this purpose, the United States operated a listening post in Iran . Eventually, the Russians discovered the United States intelligence-gathering network and encrypted their missile-test telemetry signals. Telemetry

4680-477: Is then either stored (with archival tags) or the tags can send (or transmit) their information to a satellite or handheld receiving device. Capturing and marking wild animals can put them at some risk, so it is important to minimize these impacts. At a 2005 workshop in Las Vegas , a seminar noted the introduction of telemetry equipment which would allow vending machines to communicate sales and inventory data to

4810-410: Is used by crewed or uncrewed spacecraft for data transmission. Distances of more than 10 billion kilometres have been covered, e.g., by Voyager 1 . In rocketry, telemetry equipment forms an integral part of the rocket range assets used to monitor the position and health of a launch vehicle to determine range safety flight termination criteria (Range purpose is for public safety). Problems include

4940-542: Is used by the railway industry for measuring the health of trackage . This permits optimized and focused predictive and preventative maintenance. Typically this is done with specialized trains, such as the New Measurement Train used in the United Kingdom by Network Rail , which can check for track defects, such as problems with gauge , and deformations in the rail. Japan uses similar, but quicker trains, nicknamed Doctor Yellow . Such trains, besides checking

5070-412: Is used for patients ( biotelemetry ) who are at risk of abnormal heart activity, generally in a coronary care unit . Telemetry specialists are sometimes used to monitor many patients within a hospital. Such patients are outfitted with measuring, recording and transmitting devices. A data log can be useful in diagnosis of the patient's condition by doctors . An alerting function can alert nurses if

5200-574: Is used in many battery operated wireless systems to inform monitoring personnel when the battery power is reaching a low point and the end item needs fresh batteries. In the mining industry, telemetry serves two main purposes: the measurement of key parameters from mining equipment and the monitoring of safety practices. The information provided by the collection and analysis of key parameters allows for root-cause identification of inefficient operations, unsafe practices and incorrect equipment usage for maximizing productivity and safety. Further applications of

5330-825: Is used to communicate the variable measurements of flow and tank level sensors detecting fluid movements and/or volumes by pneumatic , hydrostatic , or differential pressure; tank-confined ultrasonic , radar or Doppler effect echoes; or mechanical or magnetic sensors. Telemetry of bulk solids is common for tracking and reporting the volume status and condition of grain and livestock feed bins, powdered or granular food, powders and pellets for manufacturing, sand and gravel, and other granular bulk solids. While technology associated with fluid tank monitoring also applies, in part, to granular bulk solids, reporting of overall container weight, or other gross characteristics and conditions, are sometimes required, owing to bulk solids' more complex and variable physical characteristics. Telemetry

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5460-653: The Battle of Molodi put a stop to such northward incursions. But for decades to come, the southern borderland was annually pillaged by the Nogai Horde and the Crimean Khanate , who took local inhabitants with them as slaves. Tens of thousands of soldiers protected the Great Abatis Belt – a burden for a state whose social and economic development was stagnating. During the late 1550s, Ivan developed

5590-479: The Eastern Orthodox Church . The Sobornoye Ulozheniye , a comprehensive legal code introduced in 1649, illustrates the extent of state control over Russian society. By that time, the boyars had largely merged with the new elite, who were obligatory servitors of the state, to form a new nobility , the dvoryanstvo . The state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in

5720-532: The European Space Agency (ESA), and other agencies use telemetry and/or telecommand systems to collect data from spacecraft and satellites. Telemetry is vital in the development of missiles, satellites and aircraft because the system might be destroyed during or after the test. Engineers need critical system parameters to analyze (and improve) the performance of the system. In the absence of telemetry, this data would often be unavailable. Telemetry

5850-678: The Holy Roman Emperor in Russia, used both Russia and Moscovia in his work on the Russian tsardom and noted: "The majority believes that Russia is a changed name of Roxolania . Muscovites ("Russians" in the German version) refute this, saying that their country was originally called Russia (Rosseia)". Pointing to the difference between Latin and Russian names, French captain Jacques Margeret , who served in Russia and left

5980-594: The Kremlin . A group of Russian boyars signed in 1610 a treaty of peace, recognising Ladislaus IV of Poland , son of Polish king Sigismund III Vasa , as tsar. In 1611, False Dmitry III appeared in the Swedish-occupied territories, but was soon apprehended and executed. The Polish presence led to a patriotic revival among the Russians, and a volunteer army, financed by the Stroganov merchants and blessed by

6110-527: The Muscovy Company was formed by himself, Sebastian Cabot , Sir Hugh Willoughby , and several London merchants. Ivan IV used these merchants to exchange letters with Elizabeth I . Despite the domestic turmoil of the 1530s and 1540s, Russia continued to wage wars and to expand. It grew from 2.8 to 5.4 million square kilometers from 1533 to 1584. Ivan defeated and annexed the Khanate of Kazan on

6240-718: The Treaty of Nerchinsk , Russia ceded its claims to the Amur Valley, but it gained access to the region east of Lake Baikal and the trade route to Beijing . Peace with China strengthened the initial breakthrough to the Pacific that had been made in the middle of the century. Peter the Great (1672–1725), who became ruler in his own right in 1696, brought the Tsardom of Russia, which had little prior contact with Western Europe, into

6370-462: The boyar faction controlling the throne. In the 17th century, the bureaucracy expanded dramatically. The number of government departments ( prikazy ; sing., prikaz ) increased from twenty-two in 1613 to eighty by mid-century. Although the departments often had overlapping and conflicting jurisdictions , the central government, through provincial governors, was able to control and regulate all social groups, as well as trade, manufacturing, and even

6500-427: The coronation document, by Constantinople Patriarch Jeremiah II , and in numerous official texts. The formula in manuscripts "to all his state of Great Russia" later replaced those found in other manuscripts – "to all the Russian realm" ( vo vse Rossisskoe tsarstvo ); the former is more typical of the 17th century, when the usage of the term " Great Russia " ( Velikaya Rossiya ) became widely established. By

6630-537: The photophone , a telephone that sent audio over a beam of light. The photophone required sunlight to operate, and a clear line of sight between the transmitter and receiver, which greatly decreased the viability of the photophone in any practical use. It would be several decades before the photophone's principles found their first practical applications in military communications and later in fiber-optic communications . A number of wireless electrical signaling schemes including sending electric currents through water and

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6760-804: The upheavals of the transition from the Rurik to the Romanov dynasties, wars with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , Sweden , and the Ottoman Empire , and the Russian conquest of Siberia , to the reign of Peter the Great, who took power in 1689 and transformed the tsardom into an empire. During the Great Northern War , he implemented substantial reforms and proclaimed the Russian Empire after victory over Sweden in 1721. While

6890-595: The 16th century, it was known both as Russia and Muscovy. Such notable Englishmen as Giles Fletcher , author of the book Of the Russe Common Wealth (1591), and Samuel Collins , author of The Present State of Russia (1668), both of whom visited Russia, were familiar with the term Russia and used it in their works. So did numerous other authors, including John Milton , who wrote A brief history of Moscovia and of other less-known countries lying eastward of Russia , published posthumously, starting it with

7020-577: The 16th century, the Russian ruler had emerged as a powerful, autocratic figure, a Tsar . By assuming that title, the sovereign of Moscow tried to emphasize that he was a major ruler or emperor ( tsar ( царь ) represents the Slavic adaptation of the Roman Imperial title/name Caesar ) on a par with the Byzantine emperor . Indeed, after Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina , the niece of

7150-620: The 17th century, the form Rossiya replaced Rus' to describe the extent of the tsar's imperial authority in chiny , with Feodor III using the term "Great Russian Tsardom" ( Velikorossisskoe tsarstvie ) to denote an imperial and absolutist state, subordinating both Russian and non-Russian territories. The old name Rus' was replaced in official documents, though the names Rus ' and Russian land were still common and synonymous to it. The Russian state partly remained referred to as Moscovia (English: Muscovy ) throughout Europe, predominantly in its Catholic part, though this Latin term

7280-589: The 17th century. In the southwest, it claimed the Wild Fields (modern day Eastern Ukraine and South-Western Russia), which had been under Polish–Lithuanian rule and sought assistance from Russia to leave the rule of the Commonwealth. The Zaporozhian Cossacks , warriors organized in military formations, lived in the frontier areas bordering Poland, the Crimean Tatar lands. Although part of them

7410-461: The 1930s use of electrical telemeters grew rapidly. The electrical strain gauge was widely used in rocket and aviation research and the radiosonde was invented for meteorological measurements. The advent of World War II gave an impetus to industrial development and henceforth many of these telemeters became commercially viable. Carrying on from rocket research, radio telemetry was used routinely as space exploration got underway. Spacecraft are in

7540-507: The 1960s. The term wireless was revived in the 1980s and 1990s mainly to distinguish digital devices that communicate without wires, such as the examples listed in the previous paragraph, from those that require wires or cables. This became its primary usage in the 2000s, due to the advent of technologies such as mobile broadband , Wi-Fi , and Bluetooth . Wireless operations permit services, such as mobile and interplanetary communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with

7670-540: The 19th century. One of the first data-transmission circuits was developed in 1845 between the Russian Tsar 's Winter Palace and army headquarters. In 1874, French engineers built a system of weather and snow-depth sensors on Mont Blanc that transmitted real-time information to Paris . In 1901 the American inventor C. Michalke patented the selsyn , a circuit for sending synchronized rotation information over

7800-657: The Cossack Academy in Kiev , Russia gained links to Polish and Central European influences and to the wider Orthodox world. Although the Zaporozhian Cossack link induced creativity in many areas, it also weakened traditional Russian religious practices and culture. The Russian Orthodox Church discovered that its isolation from Constantinople had caused variations to appear between their liturgical books and practices. The Russian Orthodox patriarch, Nikon ,

7930-628: The Grand Duke Ivan IV was crowned Tsar and thus was recognized – at least by the Russian Orthodox Church – as Emperor. Notably, the hegumen Philotheus of Pskov claimed in 1510 that after Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Russian tsar remained the only legitimate Orthodox ruler, and that Moscow was the Third Rome , becoming the final lineal successor to Rome and Constantinople ; these were

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8060-570: The Hetmanate ( Cossack Hetmanate ) as a participating party of the agreement ended the war in 1667. Cossacks considered it as a Moscow betrayal. As a result, it split Cossack territory along the Dnieper River , reuniting the western sector (or Right-bank Ukraine ) with Poland and leaving the eastern sector ( Left-bank Ukraine ) self-governing under the sovereignty of the tsar. However, the self-government did not last long and Cossack territory

8190-499: The Kremlin in Moscow, prompting many to accept Tsarist autocracy as a necessary means to restoring order and unity in Russia. The Time of Troubles included a civil war in which a struggle over the throne was complicated by the machinations of rival boyar factions, the intervention of regional powers Poland and Sweden, and intense popular discontent, led by Ivan Bolotnikov . False Dmitriy I and his Polish garrison were overthrown, and

8320-481: The Latin term Moscovia in Russia was "Tsardom of Moscow", or "Moscow Tsardom" ( Московское царство , Moskovskoye tsarstvo ), which was used along with the name "Russia", sometimes in one sentence, as in the name of the 17th century Russian work On the Great and Glorious Russian Moscow State ( О великом и славном Российском Московском государстве , O velikom i slavnom Rossiyskom Moskovskom gosudarstve ). By

8450-824: The Ob River to the Yenisey River , then on to the Lena River and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In 1648, Cossack Semyon Dezhnyov opened the passage between America and Asia. By the middle of the 17th century, Russians had reached the Amur River and the outskirts of the Chinese Empire . After a period of Sino-Russian border conflicts with the Qing dynasty , Russia made peace with China in 1689. By

8580-532: The Orthodox Church, was formed in Nizhny Novgorod and, led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Kuzma Minin , drove the Poles out of the Kremlin. In 1613, a zemsky Sobor proclaimed the boyar Mikhail Romanov as tsar, beginning the 300-year reign of the Romanov family. The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore order. However, Russia's major enemies, Poland and Sweden, were engaged in

8710-698: The Poles convinced the Tartars to switch sides, the Zaporozhian Cossacks needed military help to maintain their position. In 1648, the Hetman (leader) of the Zaporozhian Host , Bohdan Khmelnytsky , offered to ally with the Russian tsar , Aleksey I . Aleksey's acceptance of this offer, which was ratified in the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654, led to a protracted war between Poland and Russia . The Truce of Andrusovo , which did not involve

8840-403: The Tsar were only halfhearted. Finding no institutional alternative to the autocracy, discontented Russians rallied behind various pretenders to the throne. During that period, the goal of political activity was to gain influence over the sitting autocrat or to place one's own candidate on the throne. The boyars fought among themselves, the lower classes revolted blindly, and foreign armies occupied

8970-468: The West opened as international trade increased and more foreigners came to Russia. The Tsar's court was interested in the West's more advanced technology, particularly when military applications were involved. By the end of the 17th century, Little Russian, Polish, and West European penetration had weakened the Russian cultural synthesis – at least among the elite – and had prepared

9100-461: The age of three. The Shuysky and Belsky factions of the boyars competed for control of the regency until Ivan assumed the throne in 1547. Reflecting Moscow's new imperial claims, Ivan's coronation as Tsar was a ritual modeled after those of the Byzantine emperors. With the continuing assistance of a group of boyars, Ivan began his reign with a series of useful reforms. In the 1550s, he declared

9230-445: The antenna until they eventually reach the antenna of a receiver, which induces an electric current in the receiving antenna. This current can be detected and demodulated to recreate the information sent by the transmitter. Free-space optical communication (FSO) is an optical communication technology that uses light propagating in free space to transmit wireless data for telecommunications or computer networking . "Free space" means

9360-412: The car for optimum performance. Systems used in series such as Formula One have become advanced to the point where the potential lap time of the car can be calculated, and this time is what the driver is expected to meet. Examples of measurements on a race car include accelerations ( G forces ) in three axes, temperature readings, wheel speed, and suspension displacement. In Formula One, driver input

9490-507: The church and the state. The chief opposition figure, the protopope Avvakum , was burned at the stake. The split afterwards became permanent, and many merchants and peasants joined the Old Believers. The tsar's court also felt the impact of Little Russia and the West. Kiev was a major transmitter of new ideas and insight through the famed scholarly academy that Metropolitan Mohyla founded there in 1631. Other more direct channels to

9620-412: The cost of running cable through the building and under the street would be prohibitive. Another widely used example is consumer IR devices such as remote controls and IrDA ( Infrared Data Association ) networking, which is used as an alternative to WiFi networking to allow laptops, PDAs, printers, and digital cameras to exchange data. Sonic, especially ultrasonic short-range communication involves

9750-552: The crop. Monitoring stations usually transmit data back by terrestrial radio , although occasionally satellite systems are used. Solar power is often employed to make the station independent of the power grid. Telemetry is important in water management , including water quality and stream gauging functions. Major applications include AMR ( automatic meter reading ), groundwater monitoring, leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance. Having data available in almost real time allows quick reactions to events in

9880-656: The dashboard which the team could update. Its development continued until May 2001, when it was first allowed on the cars. By 2002, teams were able to change engine mapping and deactivate engine sensors from the pit while the car was on the track. For the 2003 season, the FIA banned two-way telemetry from Formula One; however, the technology may be used in other types of racing or on road cars. One way telemetry system has also been applied in R/C racing car to get information by car's sensors like: engine RPM, voltage, temperatures, throttle. In

10010-544: The decision. Widespread crop failures caused the Russian famine of 1601–1603 , and during the ensuing discontent, a man emerged who claimed to be Tsarevich Demetrius , Ivan IV's son who had died in 1591. This pretender to the throne, who came to be known as False Dmitriy I , gained support in Poland and marched to Moscow, gathering followers among the boyars and other elements as he went. Historians speculate that Godunov would have weathered this crisis had he not died in 1605. As

10140-710: The epilepsy monitoring unit, neuro ICU, pediatric ICU and newborn ICU. Due to the labor-intensive nature of continuous EEG monitoring NT is typically done in the larger academic teaching hospitals using in-house programs that include R.EEG Technologists, IT support staff, neurologist and neurophysiologist and monitoring support personnel. Modern microprocessor speeds, software algorithms and video data compression allow hospitals to centrally record and monitor continuous digital EEGs of multiple critically ill patients simultaneously. Neurotelemetry and continuous EEG monitoring provides dynamic information about brain function that permits early detection of changes in neurologic status, which

10270-477: The extreme environment (temperature, acceleration and vibration), the energy supply , antenna alignment and (at long distances, e.g., in spaceflight ) signal travel time . Today nearly every type of aircraft , missiles , or spacecraft carries a wireless telemetry system as it is tested. Aeronautical mobile telemetry is used for the safety of the pilots and persons on the ground during flight tests. Telemetry from an on-board flight test instrumentation system

10400-516: The field. Telemetry control allows engineers to intervene with assets such as pumps and by remotely switching pumps on or off depending on the circumstances. Watershed telemetry is an excellent strategy of how to implement a water management system. Telemetry is used in complex systems such as missiles, RPVs, spacecraft , oil rigs , and chemical plants since it allows the automatic monitoring, alerting, and record-keeping necessary for efficient and safe operation. Space agencies such as NASA , ISRO ,

10530-530: The ground using electrostatic and electromagnetic induction were investigated for telegraphy in the late 19th century before practical radio systems became available. These included a patented induction system by Thomas Edison allowing a telegraph on a running train to connect with telegraph wires running parallel to the tracks, a William Preece induction telegraph system for sending messages across bodies of water, and several operational and proposed telegraphy and voice earth conduction systems. The Edison system

10660-606: The hands of the tsar's father, Filaret , who in 1619 became Patriarch of Moscow. Later, Mikhail's son Aleksey (r. 1645–1676) relied on a boyar, Boris Morozov , to run his government. Morozov abused his position by exploiting the populace, and in 1648 Aleksey dismissed him in the wake of the Salt Riot in Moscow. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain Smolensk from Poland in 1632, Russia made peace with Poland in 1634. Polish king Władysław IV Vasa , whose father and predecessor

10790-540: The immense human suffering that accompanied many of his projects, such as the construction of Saint Petersburg , led many pious Russians to believe that he was the Antichrist . The Great Northern War against Sweden consumed much of Peter's attention for years; however, the Swedes were eventually defeated, and peace was agreed to in 1721. Russia annexed the Baltic coast from Sweden and parts of Finland, which would become

10920-623: The intentional and unintentional risk of infection or disconnection that arise from wired connections. Tsardom of Russia The Tsardom of Russia , also known as the Tsardom of Moscow , was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of tsar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721. From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew by an average of 35,000 square kilometres (14,000 sq mi) per year. The period includes

11050-586: The item, its package, or (for large items and bulk shipments) affixed to its shipping container or vehicle. This facilitates knowledge of their location, and can record their status and disposition, as when merchandise with barcode labels is scanned through a checkout reader at point-of-sale systems in a retail store. Stationary or hand-held barcode RFID scanners or Optical reader with remote communications, can be used to expedite inventory tracking and counting in stores, warehouses, shipping terminals, transportation carriers and factories. Fluids stored in tanks are

11180-457: The land they farmed. Middle-class urban tradesmen and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and, like the serfs, they were forbidden to change residence. All segments of the population were subject to military levy and to special taxes. By chaining much of Russian society to specific domiciles, the legal code of 1649 curtailed movement and subordinated the people to the interests of the state. Under this code, increased state taxes and regulations altered

11310-584: The late 1940s used either PPM (e.g., the Tral telemetry system developed by OKB-MEI) or pulse-duration modulation (e.g., the RTS-5 system developed by NII-885). In the United States, early work employed similar systems, but were later replaced by pulse-code modulation (PCM) (for example, in the Mars probe Mariner 4 ). Later Soviet interplanetary probes used redundant radio systems, transmitting telemetry by PCM on

11440-417: The late 19th century the same term had been in wide use by electrical engineers applying it refer to electrically operated devices measuring many other quantities besides distance (for instance, in the patent of an "Electric Telemeter Transmitter"). General telemeters included such sensors as the thermocouple (from the work of Thomas Johann Seebeck ), the resistance thermometer (by William Siemens based on

11570-425: The late Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos , in 1472, the Moscow court adopted Byzantine terms, rituals, titles, and emblems such as the double-headed eagle , which survives in the coat of arms of Russia . At first, the Byzantine term autokrator expressed only the literal meaning of an independent ruler, but in the reign of Ivan IV (1533–1584) it came to imply unlimited ( autocratic ) rule. In 1547

11700-461: The light beams travel through the open air or outer space. This contrasts with other communication technologies that use light beams traveling through transmission lines such as optical fiber or dielectric "light pipes". The technology is useful where physical connections are impractical due to high costs or other considerations. For example, free space optical links are used in cities between office buildings that are not wired for networking, where

11830-399: The mainstream of European culture and politics. After suppressing numerous rebellions with considerable bloodshed, Peter embarked on an incognito tour of Western Europe . He became impressed with what he saw and was awakened. Peter began requiring the nobility to wear Western European clothing and shave off their beards, an action that the boyars protested bitterly. Arranged marriages among

11960-687: The middle Volga in 1552 and later the Astrakhan Khanate , where the Volga meets the Caspian Sea . These victories transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state, which it continues to be today. The tsar now controlled the entire Volga River and gained access to Central Asia. Expanding to the northwest toward the Baltic Sea proved to be much more difficult. In 1558, Ivan invaded Livonia , eventually involving himself in

12090-685: The military because of permanent warfare on southern and western borders and attacks of nomads . In return, the nobility received land and peasants . In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one landlord to another; the 1649 code officially attached peasants to their home . The state fully sanctioned serfdom , and runaway peasants became state fugitives . Landlords had complete power over their peasants. Peasants living on state-owned land, however, were not considered serfs. They were organized into communes , which were responsible for taxes and other obligations. Like serfs, however, state peasants were attached to

12220-414: The mobility of the peasants by tying them to their land brought Russia closer to legal serfdom . In 1572, Ivan finally abandoned the practices of the oprichnina. According to a popular theory, the oprichnina was started by Ivan in order to mobilize resources for the wars and to quell opposition. Regardless of the reason, Ivan's domestic and foreign policies had a devastating effect on Russia and led to

12350-716: The most efficient use of energy. Such systems also facilitate predictive maintenance . Many resources need to be distributed over wide areas. Telemetry is useful in these cases, since it allows the logistics system to channel resources where they are needed, as well as provide security for those assets; principal examples of this are dry goods, fluids, and granular bulk solids. Dry goods, such as packaged merchandise, may be tracked and remotely monitored, tracked and inventoried by RFID sensing systems, barcode reader , optical character recognition (OCR) reader, or other sensing devices—coupled to telemetry devices, to detect RFID tags , barcode labels or other identifying markers affixed to

12480-607: The most important event of Feodor's reign was the proclamation of the Patriarchate of Moscow in 1589. The creation of the patriarchate climaxed the evolution of a separate and totally independent Russian Orthodox Church . In 1598, Feodor died without an heir, ending the Rurik Dynasty. Boris Godunov then convened a Zemsky Sobor , a national assembly of boyars, church officials, and commoners, which proclaimed him tsar, although various boyar factions refused to recognize

12610-701: The name "Росиа" ( Rosia ), and Medovartsev also mentions the sceptre "of Russian lordship" ( Росийскаго господства , Rosiyskago gospodstva ). In the following century, the new forms co-existed with Rus' and appeared in an inscription on the western portal of the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery in Yaroslavl (1515), on the icon case of the Theotokos of Vladimir (1514), in

12740-463: The nobility were banned, and the Orthodox Church was brought under state control. Military academies were established to create a modern Western European-style army and officer corps. These changes did not win Peter many friends, and in fact caused great political division in the country. These, along with his notorious cruelties (such as the torture murder of his own son for plotting a rebellion) and

12870-492: The oldest endonyms of the Grand Duchy of Moscow used in its documents were "Rus'" ( Русь ) and the "Russian land" ( Русская земля , Russkaya zemlya ), a new form of its name in Russian became common by the 15th century. The vernacular Rus ' was transformed into Rus(s)iya or Ros(s)iya (based on the Greek name for Rus'). In the 1480s, Russian state scribes Ivan Cherny and Mikhail Medovartsev mention Russia under

13000-430: The patient is suffering from an acute (or dangerous) condition. Systems are available in medical-surgical nursing for monitoring to rule out a heart condition, or to monitor a response to antiarrhythmic medications such as amiodarone . A new and emerging application for telemetry is in the field of neurophysiology, or neurotelemetry. Neurophysiology is the study of the central and peripheral nervous systems through

13130-529: The range of the mobile telephone site used to house the equipment required to transmit and receive the radio signals from these instruments. Wireless data communications allow wireless networking between desktop computers , laptops, tablet computers , cell phones, and other related devices. The various available technologies differ in local availability, coverage range, and performance, and in some circumstances, users employ multiple connection types and switch between them using connection manager software or

13260-469: The recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated. In neurotelemetry (NT) the electroencephalogram (EEG) of a patient is monitored remotely by a registered EEG technologist using advanced communication software. The goal of neurotelemetry is to recognize a decline in a patient's condition before physical signs and symptoms are present. Neurotelemetry is synonymous with real-time continuous video EEG monitoring and has application in

13390-484: The region and escaped serfs seeking free land. The unexpected uprising swept up the Volga River valley and even threatened Moscow. Tsarist troops finally defeated the rebels after they had occupied major cities along the Volga in an operation whose panache captured the imaginations of later generations of Russians. Razin was publicly tortured and executed. The Tsardom of Russia continued its territorial growth through

13520-764: The signal quality. Concerns about the security of wireless keyboards arose at the end of 2007 when it was revealed that Microsoft's implementation of encryption in some of its 27 MHz models were highly insecure. Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting wires. There are two different fundamental methods for wireless energy transfer. Energy can be transferred using either far-field methods that involve beaming power/lasers, radio or microwave transmissions, or near-field using electromagnetic induction. Wireless energy transfer may be combined with wireless information transmission in what

13650-535: The site of the new Russian capital, Saint Petersburg. The Russian victory in the Great Northern War marked a watershed in European politics, as it not only brought about the eclipse of Sweden as a great power , but also Russia's decisive emergence as a permanent European great power. The Russian colonization of Siberia also continued, and war with Persia brought about the acquisition of territory in

13780-708: The social discontent that had been simmering since the Time of Troubles. In the 1650s and 1660s, the number of peasant escapes increased dramatically. A favourite refuge was the Don River region, domain of the Don Cossacks . A major uprising occurred in the Volga region in 1670 and 1671. Stenka Razin , a Cossack who was from the Don River region, led a revolt that drew together wealthy Cossacks who were well established in

13910-414: The technology allow for sharing knowledge and best practices across the organization. In software, telemetry is used to gather data on the use and performance of applications and application components, e.g. how often certain features are used, measurements of start-up time and processing time, hardware, application crashes, and general usage statistics and/or user behavior. In some cases, very detailed data

14040-426: The telemetry equipment reports the location of the vehicle, enabling law enforcement to deactivate the engine and lock the doors when it is stopped by responding officers. In some countries, telemetry is used to measure the amount of electrical energy consumed. The electricity meter communicates with a concentrator , and the latter sends the information through GPRS or GSM to the energy provider's server. Telemetry

14170-562: The telemetry from Soviet missile tests by building a telemeter of their own to intercept the radio signals and hence learn a great deal about Soviet capabilities. Telemeters are the physical devices used in telemetry. It consists of a sensor , a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital . Other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic and optical. Telemetering information over wire had its origins in

14300-588: The tracks, can also verify whether or not there are any problems with the overhead power supply (catenary), where it is installed. Dedicated rail inspection companies, such as Sperry Rail , have their own customized rail cars and rail-wheel equipped trucks, that use a variety of methods, including lasers, ultrasound, and induction (measuring resulting magnetic fields from running electricity into rails) to find any defects. Most activities related to healthy crops and good yields depend on timely availability of weather and soil data. Therefore, wireless weather stations play

14430-547: The transition from analog to digital RF technology, which enabled a substantial increase in voice traffic along with the delivery of digital data such as text messaging, images and streaming media . Wireless communications can be via: Radio and microwave communication carry information by modulating properties of electromagnetic waves transmitted through space. Specifically, the transmitter generates artificial electromagnetic waves by applying time-varying electric currents to its antenna . The waves travel away from

14560-476: The transmission and reception of sound. Electromagnetic induction only allows short-range communication and power transmission. It has been used in biomedical situations such as pacemakers, as well as for short-range RFID tags. Common examples of wireless equipment include: AM and FM radios and other electronic devices make use of the electromagnetic spectrum . The frequencies of the radio spectrum that are available for use for communication are treated as

14690-429: The transportation industry, telemetry provides meaningful information about a vehicle or driver's performance by collecting data from sensors within the vehicle. This is undertaken for various reasons ranging from staff compliance monitoring, insurance rating to predictive maintenance. Telemetry is used to link traffic counter devices to data recorders to measure traffic flows and vehicle lengths and weights. Telemetry

14820-554: The two centers of Christianity and of the Roman empires ( Western and Eastern ) of earlier periods. The "Third Rome" concept would resonate in the self-image of the Russian people in future centuries. The development of the Tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of Ivan IV, and he gained the sobriquet "Grozny". The English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word grozny in Ivan's nickname, but this

14950-542: The use of sound. The term wireless has been used twice in communications history, with slightly different meanings. It was initially used from about 1890 for the first radio transmitting and receiving technology, as in wireless telegraphy , until the new word radio replaced it around 1920. Radio sets in the UK and the English-speaking world that were not portable continued to be referred to as wireless sets into

15080-513: The use of wires. The term is commonly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls, etc.) that use some form of energy (e.g. radio waves and acoustic energy) to transfer information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances. The first wireless telephone conversation occurred in 1880 when Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter invented

15210-527: The way for an even more radical transformation. Russia's eastward expansion encountered little resistance. In 1581, the Stroganov merchant family, interested in the fur trade, hired a Cossack leader, Yermak Timofeyevich , to lead an expedition into western Siberia . Yermak defeated the Khanate of Sibir and claimed the territories west of the Ob and Irtysh Rivers for Russia. From such bases as Mangazeya , merchants, traders, and explorers pushed eastward from

15340-574: The western regions of Rus'. Due to the propaganda of the Commonwealth, as well as of the Jesuits , the term Moscovia was used instead of Russia in many parts of Europe where prior to the reign of Peter the Great there was a lack of direct knowledge of the country. In Northern Europe and at the court of the Holy Roman Empire , however, the country was known under its own name, Russia or Rossia . Sigismund von Herberstein , ambassador of

15470-540: The words: "The Empire of Moscovia, or as others call it, Russia...". According to prominent historians like Alexander Zimin and Anna Khoroshkevich, the continuous use of the term Moscovia was a result of traditional habit and the need to distinguish between the Muscovite and the Lithuanian part of Rus', as well as of the political interests of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , which competed with Moscow for

15600-545: The work by Maximus the Greek , the Russian Chronograph written by Dosifei Toporkov (died 1543 or 1544) in 1516–1522, and in other sources. On 16 January 1547, Ivan IV was crowned the tsar and grand prince of all Russia ( Царь и Великий князь всея Руси , Tsar i Velikiy knyaz vseya Rusi ), thereby proclaiming the Tsardom of Russia, or "the Great Russian Tsardom", as it was called in

15730-482: The work of Humphry Davy ), and the electrical strain gauge (based on Lord Kelvin 's discovery that conductors under mechanical strain change their resistance ) and output devices such as Samuel Morse 's telegraph sounder and the relay . In 1889 this led an author in the Institution of Civil Engineers proceedings to suggest that the term for the rangefinder telemeter might be replaced with tacheometer . In

15860-419: Was Sigismund III Vasa , had been elected by Russian boyars as tsar of Russia during the Time of Troubles, renounced all claims to the title as a condition of the peace treaty. The autocracy survived the Time of Troubles and the rule of weak or corrupt tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy . Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or

15990-519: Was also a source for the Soviets, who operated listening ships in Cardigan Bay to eavesdrop on UK missile tests performed in the area. In factories, buildings and houses, energy consumption of systems such as HVAC are monitored at multiple locations; related parameters (e.g., temperature) are sent via wireless telemetry to a central location. The information is collected and processed, enabling

16120-557: Was determined to bring the Russian texts back into conformity with the Greek texts and practices of the time. But Nikon encountered opposition among the many Russians who viewed the corrections as improper foreign intrusions. When the Orthodox Church forced Nikon's reforms, a schism resulted in 1667. Those who did not accept the reforms came to be called the Old Believers ; they were officially pronounced heretics and were persecuted by

16250-538: Was eventually incorporated into the Russian Empire (after the Battle of Poltava ) during the 18th century. Russia's southwestern expansion, particularly its incorporation of the Wild Fields (modern day Eastern Ukraine), had unintended consequences . Most Little Russians were Orthodox, but their close contact with the Roman Catholic Polish also brought them Western intellectual currents. Through

16380-403: Was first investigated by Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60   GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901. The wireless revolution began in the 1990s, with the advent of digital wireless networks leading to

16510-507: Was interfering with a pilot's ability to land an aircraft. Wireless communication spans the spectrum from 9 kHz to 300 GHz. One of the best-known examples of wireless technology is the mobile phone, also known as a cellular phone, with more than 6.6 billion mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide as of the end of 2010. These wireless phones use radio waves from signal-transmission towers to enable their users to make phone calls from many locations worldwide. They can be used within

16640-414: Was never used in Russia. The two names Russia and Moscovia appear to have co-existed as interchangeable during the late 16th century and throughout the 17th century with different Western maps and sources using different names, so that the country was called "Russia, or Moscovia" ( Latin : Russia seu Moscovia ) or "Russia, popularly known as Moscovia" ( Latin : Russia vulgo Moscovia ). In England in

16770-722: Was serving in the Polish army as Registered Cossacks , the Zaporozhian Cossacks remained fiercely independent and staged several rebellions against the Poles. In 1648, the peasants of what is now Eastern Ukraine joined the Cossacks in rebellion during the Khmelnytsky Uprising , because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. Initially, Cossacks were allied with Crimean Tatars , which had helped them to throw off Polish rule. Once

16900-467: Was used by stranded trains during the Great Blizzard of 1888 and earth conductive systems found limited use between trenches during World War I but these systems were never successful economically. In 1894, Guglielmo Marconi began developing a wireless telegraph system using radio waves , which had been known about since proof of their existence in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz , but discounted as

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