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98-531: On October 31, 2002, the Wi-Fi Alliance endorsed TKIP under the name Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) . The IEEE endorsed the final version of TKIP, along with more robust solutions such as 802.1X and the AES based CCMP , when they published IEEE 802.11i-2004 on 23 July 2004. The Wi-Fi Alliance soon afterwards adopted the full specification under the marketing name WPA2 . TKIP was resolved to be deprecated by

196-648: A passphrase of 8 to 63 printable ASCII characters . This pass-phrase-to-PSK mapping is nevertheless not binding, as Annex J is informative in the latest 802.11 standard. If ASCII characters are used, the 256-bit key is calculated by applying the PBKDF2 key derivation function to the passphrase, using the SSID as the salt and 4096 iterations of HMAC - SHA1 . WPA-Personal mode is available on all three WPA versions. This enterprise mode uses an 802.1X server for authentication, offering higher security control by replacing

294-487: A best-effort basis. This equipment is less expensive, less complex and faster and thus more popular than earlier more complex technologies that provide QoS mechanisms. Ethernet optionally uses 802.1p to signal the priority of a frame. There were four type of service bits and three precedence bits originally provided in each IP packet header , but they were not generally respected. These bits were later re-defined as Differentiated services code points (DSCP). With

392-442: A book. A research project Multi Service Access Everywhere (MUSE) defined another QoS concept in a first phase from January 2004 through February 2006, and a second phase from January 2006 through 2007. Another research project named PlaNetS was proposed for European funding circa 2005. A broader European project called "Architecture and design for the future Internet" known as 4WARD had a budget estimated at 23.4 million Euro and

490-401: A data flow. For example, a required bit rate, delay , delay variation , packet loss or bit error rates may be guaranteed. Quality of service is important for real-time streaming multimedia applications such as voice over IP , multiplayer online games and IPTV , since these often require fixed bit rate and are delay sensitive. Quality of service is especially important in networks where

588-401: A document discussing QoS in the field of data networking. X.641 offers a means of developing or enhancing standards related to QoS and provide concepts and terminology that should assist in maintaining the consistency of related standards. Some QoS-related IETF Request for Comments (RFC)s are Baker, Fred; Black, David L.; Nichols, Kathleen; Blake, Steven L. (December 1998), Definition of

686-415: A law banning quality of service as proof that no legitimate purpose is served by such an offering. This argument is dependent on the assumption that over-provisioning isn't a form of QoS and that it is always possible. Cost and other factors affect the ability of carriers to build and maintain permanently over-provisioned networks. Mobile cellular service providers may offer mobile QoS to customers just as

784-524: A method of coordinating resource allocation between one autonomous system and another. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) defined the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) for bandwidth reservation as a proposed standard in 1997. RSVP is an end-to-end bandwidth reservation and admission control protocol. RSVP was not widely adopted due to scalability limitations. The more scalable traffic engineering version, RSVP-TE ,

882-406: A new message integrity code, MIC. The message integrity check prevents forged packets from being accepted. Under WEP it was possible to alter a packet whose content was known even if it had not been decrypted. TKIP uses the same underlying mechanism as WEP, and consequently is vulnerable to a number of similar attacks. The message integrity check, per-packet key hashing , broadcast key rotation, and

980-548: A new wireless adapter or appliance to a network. These methods include pushing buttons on the devices or entering an 8-digit PIN . The Wi-Fi Alliance standardized these methods as Wi-Fi Protected Setup; however, the PIN feature as widely implemented introduced a major new security flaw. The flaw allows a remote attacker to recover the WPS PIN and, with it, the router's WPA/WPA2 password in a few hours. Users have been urged to turn off

1078-465: A poorly specified part of the standard. Software patches can resolve the vulnerability but are not available for all devices. KRACK exploits a weakness in the WPA2 4-Way Handshake, a critical process for generating encryption keys. Attackers can force multiple handshakes, manipulating key resets. By intercepting the handshake, they could decrypt network traffic without cracking encryption directly. This poses

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1176-577: A protected environment for authentication without requiring client certificates. Originally, only EAP-TLS ( Extensible Authentication Protocol - Transport Layer Security ) was certified by the Wi-Fi alliance. In April 2010, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced the inclusion of additional EAP types to its WPA- and WPA2-Enterprise certification programs. This was to ensure that WPA-Enterprise certified products can interoperate with one another. As of 2010

1274-770: A risk, especially with sensitive data transmission. Manufacturers have released patches in response, but not all devices have received updates. Users are advised to keep their devices updated to mitigate such security risks. Regular updates are crucial for maintaining network security against evolving threats. The Dragonblood attacks exposed significant vulnerabilities in the Dragonfly handshake protocol used in WPA3 and EAP-pwd. These included side-channel attacks potentially revealing sensitive user information and implementation weaknesses in EAP-pwd and SAE. Concerns were also raised about

1372-535: A secure RNG. By doing so, Hostapd running on Linux kernels is not vulnerable against this attack and thus routers running typical OpenWrt or LEDE installations do not exhibit this issue. In October 2017, details of the KRACK (Key Reinstallation Attack) attack on WPA2 were published. The KRACK attack is believed to affect all variants of WPA and WPA2; however, the security implications vary between implementations, depending upon how individual developers interpreted

1470-529: A sequence counter discourage many attacks. The key mixing function also eliminates the WEP key recovery attacks. Notwithstanding these changes, the weakness of some of these additions have allowed for new, although narrower, attacks. TKIP is vulnerable to a MIC key recovery attack that, if successfully executed, permits an attacker to transmit and decrypt arbitrary packets on the network being attacked. The current publicly available TKIP-specific attacks do not reveal

1568-582: A way to push customers to higher priced QoS services. Instead they proposed over-provisioning of capacity as more cost-effective at the time. The Abilene network study was the basis for the testimony of Gary Bachula to the US Senate Commerce Committee 's hearing on Network Neutrality in early 2006. He expressed the opinion that adding more bandwidth was more effective than any of the various schemes for accomplishing QoS they examined. Bachula's testimony has been cited by proponents of

1666-549: Is a vulnerability in the WPA2 protocol that abuses the shared Group Temporal Key (GTK). It can be used to conduct man-in-the-middle and denial-of-service attacks. However, it assumes that the attacker is already authenticated against Access Point and thus in possession of the GTK. In 2016 it was shown that the WPA and WPA2 standards contain an insecure expository random number generator (RNG). Researchers showed that, if vendors implement

1764-459: Is an extension of the WEP chop-chop attack . Because WEP uses a cryptographically insecure checksum mechanism ( CRC32 ), an attacker can guess individual bytes of a packet, and the wireless access point will confirm or deny whether or not the guess is correct. If the guess is correct, the attacker will be able to detect the guess is correct and continue to guess other bytes of the packet. However, unlike

1862-495: Is an open source 802.1X server. WPA-Personal and WPA2-Personal remain vulnerable to password cracking attacks if users rely on a weak password or passphrase . WPA passphrase hashes are seeded from the SSID name and its length; rainbow tables exist for the top 1,000 network SSIDs and a multitude of common passwords, requiring only a quick lookup to speed up cracking WPA-PSK. Brute forcing of simple passwords can be attempted using

1960-474: Is available. Bulk file transfer applications that rely on TCP are generally elastic. Circuit switched networks, especially those intended for voice transmission, such as ATM or GSM , have QoS in the core protocol, resources are reserved at each step on the network for the call as it is set up, there is no need for additional procedures to achieve required performance. Shorter data units and built-in QoS were some of

2058-498: Is left over. At the medium access control (MAC) layer, VLAN IEEE 802.1Q and IEEE 802.1p can be used to distinguish between Ethernet frames and classify them. Queueing theory models have been developed on performance analysis and QoS for MAC layer protocols. Cisco IOS NetFlow and the Cisco Class Based QoS (CBQoS) Management Information Base (MIB) are marketed by Cisco Systems . One compelling example of

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2156-492: Is on average around 7 minutes, compared to the 14 minutes of the original Vanhoef-Piessens and Beck-Tews attack. The vulnerabilities of TKIP are significant because WPA-TKIP had been held before to be an extremely safe combination; indeed, WPA-TKIP is still a configuration option upon a wide variety of wireless routing devices provided by many hardware vendors. A survey in 2013 showed that 71% still allow usage of TKIP, and 19% exclusively support TKIP. A more serious security flaw

2254-520: Is overloaded. Unpredictable handovers make it impossible to give an absolute QoS guarantee during the session initiation phase. Quality of service in the field of telephony was first defined in 1994 in ITU-T Recommendation E.800. This definition is very broad, listing 6 primary components: Support, Operability, Accessibility, Retainability, Integrity and Security. In 1998 the ITU published

2352-423: Is owned and managed by a number of different network service providers , not a single entity. Its behavior is much more unpredictable . There are two principal approaches to QoS in modern packet-switched IP networks, a parameterized system based on an exchange of application requirements with the network, and a prioritized system where each packet identifies a desired service level to the network. Early work used

2450-401: Is particularly important for the transport of traffic with special requirements. In particular, developers have introduced Voice over IP technology to allow computer networks to become as useful as telephone networks for audio conversations, as well as supporting new applications with even stricter network performance requirements. In the field of telephony , quality of service was defined by

2548-430: Is possible in about 12 minutes on a typical network, which would allow an attacker to transmit 3–7 packets of at most 28 bytes. Vanhoef and Piessens improved this technique by relying on fragmentation , allowing an attacker to transmit arbitrarily many packets, each at most 112 bytes in size. The Vanhoef–Piessens attacks also can be used to decrypt arbitrary packets of the attack's choice. An attacker already has access to

2646-567: Is sometimes used in application layer services such as telephony and streaming video to describe a metric that reflects or predicts the subjectively experienced quality. In this context, QoS is the acceptable cumulative effect on subscriber satisfaction of all imperfections affecting the service. Other terms with similar meaning are the quality of experience (QoE), mean opinion score (MOS), perceptual speech quality measure (PSQM) and perceptual evaluation of video quality (PEVQ). A number of attempts for layer 2 technologies that add QoS tags to

2744-418: Is that their attack requires substantially more time to execute: approximately 18 minutes and 25 seconds. In other work Vanhoef and Piessens showed that, when WPA is used to encrypt broadcast packets, their original attack can also be executed. This is an important extension, as substantially more networks use WPA to protect broadcast packets , than to protect unicast packets . The execution time of this attack

2842-436: Is the description or measurement of the overall performance of a service, such as a telephony or computer network , or a cloud computing service, particularly the performance seen by the users of the network. To quantitatively measure quality of service, several related aspects of the network service are often considered, such as packet loss , bit rate , throughput , transmission delay , availability , jitter , etc. In

2940-419: Is the first attack of its kind that was demonstrated in practice. The attack against WPA-TKIP can be completed within an hour, and allows an attacker to decrypt and inject arbitrary packets. ZDNet reported on June 18, 2010, that WEP & TKIP would soon be disallowed on Wi-Fi devices by the Wi-Fi alliance. However, a survey in 2013 showed that it was still in widespread use. The IEEE 802.11n standard prohibits

3038-456: Is to provide high quality communication by generously over-provisioning a network so that capacity is based on peak traffic load estimates. This approach is simple for networks with predictable peak loads. This calculation may need to appreciate demanding applications that can compensate for variations in bandwidth and delay with large receive buffers, which is often possible for example in video streaming. Over-provisioning can be of limited use in

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3136-461: Is used in many networks to establish traffic-engineered Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) label-switched paths. The IETF also defined Next Steps in Signaling (NSIS) with QoS signalling as a target. NSIS is a development and simplification of RSVP. Research consortia such as "end-to-end quality of service support over heterogeneous networks" (EuQoS, from 2004 through 2007) and fora such as

3234-445: Is used. To be able to run on legacy WEP hardware with minor upgrades, TKIP uses RC4 as its cipher. TKIP also provides a rekeying mechanism. TKIP ensures that every data packet is sent with a unique encryption key (Interim Key/Temporal Key + Packet Sequence Counter). Key mixing increases the complexity of decoding the keys by giving an attacker substantially less data that has been encrypted using any one key. WPA2 also implements

3332-619: Is what makes WPA2 a robust security standard for wireless networks. In January 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced WPA3 as a replacement to WPA2. Certification began in June 2018, and WPA3 support has been mandatory for devices which bear the "Wi-Fi CERTIFIED™" logo since July 2020. The new standard uses an equivalent 192-bit cryptographic strength in WPA3-Enterprise mode ( AES-256 in GCM mode with SHA-384 as HMAC ), and still mandates

3430-641: The Aircrack Suite starting from the four-way authentication handshake exchanged during association or periodic re-authentication. WPA3 replaces cryptographic protocols susceptible to off-line analysis with protocols that require interaction with the infrastructure for each guessed password, supposedly placing temporal limits on the number of guesses. However, design flaws in WPA3 enable attackers to plausibly launch brute-force attacks ( see § Dragonblood ). WPA and WPA2 do not provide forward secrecy , meaning that once an adverse person discovers

3528-574: The IPsphere Forum developed more mechanisms for handshaking QoS invocation from one domain to the next. IPsphere defined the Service Structuring Stratum (SSS) signaling bus in order to establish, invoke and (attempt to) assure network services. EuQoS conducted experiments to integrate Session Initiation Protocol , Next Steps in Signaling and IPsphere's SSS with an estimated cost of about 15.6 million Euro and published

3626-524: The ITU in 1994. Quality of service comprises requirements on all the aspects of a connection, such as service response time, loss, signal-to-noise ratio, crosstalk , echo, interrupts, frequency response, loudness levels, and so on. A subset of telephony QoS is grade of service (GoS) requirements, which comprises aspects of a connection relating to capacity and coverage of a network, for example guaranteed maximum blocking probability and outage probability. In

3724-563: The MediaTek out-of-tree drivers, which generate the GTK themselves, and showed the GTK can be recovered within two minutes or less. Similarly, they demonstrated the keys generated by Broadcom access daemons running on VxWorks 5 and later can be recovered in four minutes or less, which affects, for example, certain versions of Linksys WRT54G and certain Apple AirPort Extreme models. Vendors can defend against this attack by using

3822-575: The Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP). WEP used a 64-bit or 128-bit encryption key that must be manually entered on wireless access points and devices and does not change. TKIP employs a per-packet key, meaning that it dynamically generates a new 128-bit key for each packet and thus prevents the types of attacks that compromised WEP. WPA also includes a Message Integrity Check , which is designed to prevent an attacker from altering and resending data packets. This replaces

3920-411: The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that was used by the WEP standard. CRC's main flaw was that it did not provide a sufficiently strong data integrity guarantee for the packets it handled. Well-tested message authentication codes existed to solve these problems, but they required too much computation to be used on old network cards. WPA uses a message integrity check algorithm called TKIP to verify

4018-462: The unique selling points of ATM for applications such as video on demand . When the expense of mechanisms to provide QoS is justified, network customers and providers can enter into a contractual agreement termed a service-level agreement (SLA) which specifies guarantees for the ability of a connection to give guaranteed performance in terms of throughput or latency based on mutually agreed measures. An alternative to complex QoS control mechanisms

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4116-551: The Access Point (AP) via an association request. This is followed by a 4-way handshake, a crucial step ensuring both the client and AP have the correct Pre-Shared Key (PSK) without actually transmitting it. During this handshake, a Pairwise Transient Key (PTK) is generated for secure data exchange. WPA2 employs the Advanced Encryption Standard AES with a 128-bit key, enhancing security through

4214-584: The Counter-Mode/CBC-Mac Protocol CCMP . This protocol ensures robust encryption and data integrity, using different Initialization Vectors (IVs) for encryption and authentication purposes. The 4-way handshake involves: Post-handshake, the established PTK is used for encrypting unicast traffic, and the Group Temporal Key (GTK) is used for broadcast traffic. This comprehensive authentication and encryption mechanism

4312-600: The Differentiated services Field (DS Field) in the IPv4 and IPv6 Headers , doi : 10.17487/RFC2474 , RFC   2474 , and Braden, Robert T.; Zhang, Lixia; Berson, Steven; Herzog, Shai; Jamin, Sugih (September 1997), Braden, R. (ed.), Resource ReSerVation Protocol (RSVP) , doi : 10.17487/RFC2205 , RFC   2205 ; both these are discussed above. The IETF has also published two RFCs giving background on QoS: Huston, Geoff (November 2000), Next Steps for

4410-556: The IEEE in January 2009. TKIP and the related WPA standard implement three new security features to address security problems encountered in WEP protected networks. First, TKIP implements a key mixing function that combines the secret root key with the initialization vector before passing it to the RC4 cipher initialization. WEP, in comparison, merely concatenated the initialization vector to

4508-636: The IP QoS Architecture , doi : 10.17487/RFC2990 , RFC   2990 , and Floyd, S.; Kempf, J. (2004), Kempf, J. (ed.), IAB Concerns Regarding Congestion Control for Voice Traffic in the Internet , doi : 10.17487/RFC3714 , RFC   3714 . The IETF has also published Baker, Fred; Babiarz, Jozef; Chan, Kwok Ho (August 2006), Configuration Guidelines for DiffServ Service Classes , doi : 10.17487/RFC4594 , RFC   4594 as an informative or best practices document about

4606-409: The Internet and thereby enforce traffic shaping that can prevent it from becoming overloaded, and are hence an indispensable part of the Internet's ability to handle a mix of real-time and non-real-time traffic without collapse. Several QoS mechanisms and schemes exist for IP networking. QoS capabilities are available in the following network technologies. End-to-end quality of service can require

4704-738: The MSCHAPv2 exchange are widely deployed to protect against exploitation of this vulnerability. However, prevalent WPA2 client implementations during the early 2000s were prone to misconfiguration by end users, or in some cases (e.g. Android ), lacked any user-accessible way to properly configure validation of AAA server certificate CNs. This extended the relevance of the original weakness in MSCHAPv2 within MiTM attack scenarios. Under stricter compliance tests for WPA2 announced alongside WPA3, certified client software will be required to conform to certain behaviors surrounding AAA certificate validation. Hole196

4802-654: The Pairwise Master Key or the Pairwise Temporal Keys. On November 8, 2008, Martin Beck and Erik Tews released a paper detailing how to recover the MIC key and transmit a few packets. This attack was improved by Mathy Vanhoef and Frank Piessens in 2013, where they increase the amount of packets an attacker can transmit, and show how an attacker can also decrypt arbitrary packets. The basis of the attack

4900-413: The QoS protocols were probably not deployable inside its Abilene Network with equipment available at that time. The group predicted that “logistical, financial, and organizational barriers will block the way toward any bandwidth guarantees” by protocol modifications aimed at QoS. They believed that the economics would encourage network providers to deliberately erode the quality of best effort traffic as

4998-602: The RC4 algorithm for encrypting data, creating a unique key for each packet by combining a new Initialization Vector (IV) with a shared key (it has 40 bits of vectored key and 24 bits of random numbers). Decryption involved reversing this process, using the IV and the shared key to generate a key stream and decrypt the payload. Despite its initial use, WEP's significant vulnerabilities led to the adoption of more secure protocols. The Wi-Fi Alliance intended WPA as an intermediate measure to take

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5096-501: The TKIP session key, thus changing future keystreams. Accordingly, attacks on TKIP will wait an appropriate amount of time to avoid these countermeasures. Because ARP packets are easily identified by their size, and the vast majority of the contents of this packet would be known to an attacker, the number of bytes an attacker must guess using the above method is rather small (approximately 14 bytes). Beck and Tews estimate recovery of 12 bytes

5194-561: The Vanhoef-Piessens attack does not. Neither attack leads to recovery of the shared session key between the client and Access Point . The authors say using a short rekeying interval can prevent some attacks but not all, and strongly recommend switching from TKIP to AES-based CCMP . Halvorsen and others show how to modify the Beck-Tews attack to allow injection of 3 to 7 packets having a size of at most 596 bytes. The downside

5292-506: The VoIP provider's connection to a different ISP. Under high load conditions, however, VoIP may degrade to cell-phone quality or worse. The mathematics of packet traffic indicate that network requires just 60% more raw capacity under conservative assumptions. Unlike single-owner networks, the Internet is a series of exchange points interconnecting private networks. Hence the Internet's core

5390-537: The WPA and WPA2 security protocols. WPA3 is required since July 1, 2020. Different WPA versions and protection mechanisms can be distinguished based on the target end-user (such as WEP, WPA, WPA2, WPA3) and the method of authentication key distribution, as well as the encryption protocol used. As of July 2020, WPA3 is the latest iteration of the WPA standard, bringing enhanced security features and addressing vulnerabilities found in WPA2. WPA3 improves authentication methods and employs stronger encryption protocols, making it

5488-500: The WPS feature, although this may not be possible on some router models. Also, the PIN is written on a label on most Wi-Fi routers with WPS, which cannot be changed if compromised. In 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance introduced Wi-Fi Easy Connect as a new alternative for the configuration of devices that lack sufficient user interface capabilities by allowing nearby devices to serve as an adequate UI for network provisioning purposes, thus mitigating

5586-431: The Wi-Fi Alliance announced the release of WPA3, which has several security improvements over WPA2. As of 2023, most computers that connect to a wireless network have support for using WPA, WPA2, or WPA3. WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) was an early encryption protocol for wireless networks, designed to secure WLAN connections. It supported 64-bit and 128-bit keys, combining user-configurable and factory-set bits. WEP used

5684-496: The Wi-Fi Alliance, implements the mandatory elements of IEEE 802.11i. In particular, it includes support for CCMP , an AES -based encryption mode. Certification began in September, 2004. From March 13, 2006, to June 30, 2020, WPA2 certification was mandatory for all new devices to bear the Wi-Fi trademark. In WPA2-protected WLANs, secure communication is established through a multi-step process. Initially, devices associate with

5782-616: The Wi-Fi standard, affecting most devices, and programming errors in Wi-Fi products, making almost all Wi-Fi products vulnerable. The vulnerabilities impact all Wi-Fi security protocols, including WPA3 and WEP. Exploiting these flaws is complex but programming errors in Wi-Fi products are easier to exploit. Despite improvements in Wi-Fi security, these findings highlight the need for continuous security analysis and updates. In response, security patches were developed, and users are advised to use HTTPS and install available updates for protection. Quality of service Quality of service ( QoS )

5880-426: The addition of more users results in the loss of over-provisioned networks. This then requires a physical update of the relevant network links which is an expensive process. Thus over-provisioning cannot be blindly assumed on the Internet. Commercial VoIP services are often competitive with traditional telephone service in terms of call quality even without QoS mechanisms in use on the user's connection to their ISP and

5978-553: The advent of IPTV and IP telephony , QoS mechanisms are increasingly available to the end user. In packet-switched networks , quality of service is affected by various factors, which can be divided into human and technical factors. Human factors include: stability of service quality, availability of service, waiting times and user information. Technical factors include: reliability, scalability, effectiveness, maintainability and network congestion. Many things can happen to packets as they travel from origin to destination, resulting in

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6076-433: The capacity is a limited resource, for example in cellular data communication. A network or protocol that supports QoS may agree on a traffic contract with the application software and reserve capacity in the network nodes, for example during a session establishment phase. During the session it may monitor the achieved level of performance, for example the data rate and delay, and dynamically control scheduling priorities in

6174-494: The certification program includes the following EAP types: 802.1X clients and servers developed by specific firms may support other EAP types. This certification is an attempt for popular EAP types to interoperate; their failure to do so as of 2013 is one of the major issues preventing rollout of 802.1X on heterogeneous networks. Commercial 802.1X servers include Microsoft Network Policy Server and Juniper Networks Steelbelted RADIUS as well as Aradial Radius server. FreeRADIUS

6272-518: The chop-chop attack against a WEP network, the attacker must wait for at least 60 seconds after an incorrect guess (a successful circumvention of the CRC32 mechanism) before continuing the attack. This is because although TKIP continues to use the CRC32 checksum mechanism, it implements an additional MIC code named Michael. If two incorrect Michael MIC codes are received within 60 seconds, the access point will implement countermeasures, meaning it will rekey

6370-453: The data have gained popularity in the past. Examples are Frame Relay , Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) (a technique between layer 2 and 3). Despite these network technologies remaining in use today, this kind of network lost attention after the advent of Ethernet networks. Today Ethernet is, by far, the most popular layer 2 technology. Conventional Internet routers and network switches operate on

6468-429: The data rate exceed 54 Mbps if TKIP is used as the Wi-Fi cipher. Wi-Fi Protected Access Wi-Fi Protected Access ( WPA ), Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 ( WPA2 ), and Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 ( WPA3 ) are the three security certification programs developed after 2000 by the Wi-Fi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks. The Alliance defined these in response to serious weaknesses researchers had found in

6566-537: The data transferred using them. As all electronic commerce on the Internet requires the use of such strong cryptography protocols, unilaterally downgrading the performance of encrypted traffic creates an unacceptable hazard for customers. Yet, encrypted traffic is otherwise unable to undergo deep packet inspection for QoS. Protocols like ICA and RDP may encapsulate other traffic (e.g. printing, video streaming) with varying requirements that can make optimization difficult. The Internet2 project found, in 2001, that

6664-616: The entire ciphertext packet. Upon retrieving the entire plaintext of the same packet, the attacker has access to the keystream of the packet, as well as the MIC code of the session. Using this information the attacker can construct a new packet and transmit it on the network. To circumvent the WPA implemented replay protection, the attacks use QoS channels to transmit these newly constructed packets. An attacker able to transmit these packets may be able to implement any number of attacks, including ARP poisoning attacks, denial of service, and other similar attacks, with no need of being associated with

6762-483: The face of transport protocols (such as TCP ) that over time increase the amount of data placed on the network until all available bandwidth is consumed and packets are dropped. Such greedy protocols tend to increase latency and packet loss for all users. The amount of over-provisioning in interior links required to replace QoS depends on the number of users and their traffic demands. This limits usability of over-provisioning. Newer more bandwidth intensive applications and

6860-402: The field of computer networking and other packet-switched telecommunication networks, teletraffic engineering refers to traffic prioritization and resource reservation control mechanisms rather than the achieved service quality. Quality of service is the ability to provide different priorities to different applications, users, or data flows , or to guarantee a certain level of performance to

6958-429: The field of computer networking and other packet-switched telecommunication networks, quality of service refers to traffic prioritization and resource reservation control mechanisms rather than the achieved service quality. Quality of service is the ability to provide different priorities to different applications, users, or data flows , or to guarantee a certain level of performance to a data flow. Quality of service

7056-427: The following problems as seen from the point of view of the sender and receiver: A defined quality of service may be desired or required for certain types of network traffic, for example: These types of service are called inelastic , meaning that they require a certain minimum bit rate and a certain maximum latency to function. By contrast, elastic applications can take advantage of however much or little bandwidth

7154-456: The inadequate security in transitional modes supporting both WPA2 and WPA3. In response, security updates and protocol changes are being integrated into WPA3 and EAP-pwd to address these vulnerabilities and enhance overall Wi-Fi security. On May 11, 2021, FragAttacks, a set of new security vulnerabilities, were revealed, affecting Wi-Fi devices and enabling attackers within range to steal information or target devices. These include design flaws in

7252-408: The integrated services (IntServ) philosophy of reserving network resources. In this model, applications used RSVP to request and reserve resources through a network. While IntServ mechanisms do work, it was realized that in a broadband network typical of a larger service provider, Core routers would be required to accept, maintain, and tear down thousands or possibly tens of thousands of reservations. It

7350-457: The integrity of the packets. TKIP is much stronger than a CRC, but not as strong as the algorithm used in WPA2. Researchers have since discovered a flaw in WPA that relied on older weaknesses in WEP and the limitations of the message integrity code hash function, named Michael , to retrieve the keystream from short packets to use for re-injection and spoofing . Ratified in 2004, WPA2 replaced WPA. WPA2, which requires testing and certification by

7448-410: The need for QoS mechanisms. QoS is sometimes used as a quality measure, with many alternative definitions, rather than referring to the ability to reserve resources. Quality of service sometimes refers to the level of quality of service, i.e. the guaranteed service quality. High QoS is often confused with a high level of performance, for example high bit rate, low latency and low bit error rate. QoS

7546-534: The need for QoS on the Internet relates to congestive collapse . The Internet relies on congestion avoidance protocols, primarily as built into Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), to reduce traffic under conditions that would otherwise lead to congestive collapse. QoS applications, such as VoIP and IPTV , require largely constant bitrates and low latency, therefore they cannot use TCP and cannot otherwise reduce their traffic rate to help prevent congestion. Service-level agreements limit traffic that can be offered to

7644-634: The need for WPS. Several weaknesses have been found in MS-CHAPv 2, some of which severely reduce the complexity of brute-force attacks, making them feasible with modern hardware. In 2012 the complexity of breaking MS-CHAPv2 was reduced to that of breaking a single DES key (work by Moxie Marlinspike and Marsh Ray). Moxie advised: "Enterprises who are depending on the mutual authentication properties of MS-CHAPv2 for connection to their WPA2 Radius servers should immediately start migrating to something else." Tunneled EAP methods using TTLS or PEAP which encrypt

7742-439: The network nodes. It may release the reserved capacity during a tear down phase. A best-effort network or service does not support quality of service. An alternative to complex QoS control mechanisms is to provide high quality communication over a best-effort network by over-provisioning the capacity so that it is sufficient for the expected peak traffic load. The resulting absence of network congestion reduces or eliminates

7840-613: The network. A group of security researchers at the Information Security Group at Royal Holloway, University of London reported a theoretical attack on TKIP which exploits the underlying RC4 encryption mechanism. TKIP uses a similar key structure to WEP with the low 16-bit value of a sequence counter (used to prevent replay attacks) being expanded into the 24-bit "IV", and this sequence counter always increments on every new packet. An attacker can use this key structure to improve existing attacks on RC4. In particular, if

7938-690: The network. In response to these markings, routers and switches use various queuing strategies to tailor performance to requirements. At the IP layer, DSCP markings use the 6 bit DS field in the IP packet header. At the MAC layer, VLAN IEEE 802.1Q can be used to carry 3 bit of essentially the same information. Routers and switches supporting DiffServ configure their network scheduler to use multiple queues for packets awaiting transmission from bandwidth constrained (e.g., wide area) interfaces. Router vendors provide different capabilities for configuring this behavior, to include

8036-513: The number of queues supported, the relative priorities of queues, and bandwidth reserved for each queue. In practice, when a packet must be forwarded from an interface with queuing, packets requiring low jitter (e.g., VoIP or videoconferencing ) are given priority over packets in other queues. Typically, some bandwidth is allocated by default to network control packets (such as Internet Control Message Protocol and routing protocols), while best-effort traffic might simply be given whatever bandwidth

8134-517: The password. Because of that, it's safer to use Transport Layer Security (TLS) or similar on top of that for the transfer of any sensitive data. However starting from WPA3, this issue has been addressed. In 2013, Mathy Vanhoef and Frank Piessens significantly improved upon the WPA-TKIP attacks of Erik Tews and Martin Beck. They demonstrated how to inject an arbitrary number of packets, with each packet containing at most 112 bytes of payload. This

8232-449: The place of WEP pending the availability of the full IEEE 802.11i standard. WPA could be implemented through firmware upgrades on wireless network interface cards designed for WEP that began shipping as far back as 1999. However, since the changes required in the wireless access points (APs) were more extensive than those needed on the network cards, most pre-2003 APs could not be upgraded to support WPA. The WPA protocol implements

8330-485: The pre-shared key, they can potentially decrypt all packets encrypted using that PSK transmitted in the future and even past, which could be passively and silently collected by the attacker. This also means an attacker can silently capture and decrypt others' packets if a WPA-protected access point is provided free of charge at a public place, because its password is usually shared to anyone in that place. In other words, WPA only protects from attackers who do not have access to

8428-400: The previous system, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). WPA (sometimes referred to as the TKIP standard) became available in 2003. The Wi-Fi Alliance intended it as an intermediate measure in anticipation of the availability of the more secure and complex WPA2, which became available in 2004 and is a common shorthand for the full IEEE 802.11i (or IEEE 802.11i-2004 ) standard. In January 2018,

8526-693: The process of setting up devices with no display interface. WPA3 also supports Opportunistic Wireless Encryption (OWE) for open Wi-Fi networks that do not have passwords. Protection of management frames as specified in the IEEE 802.11w amendment is also enforced by the WPA3 specifications. WPA has been designed specifically to work with wireless hardware produced prior to the introduction of WPA protocol, which provides inadequate security through WEP . Some of these devices support WPA only after applying firmware upgrades, which are not available for some legacy devices. Wi-Fi devices certified since 2006 support both

8624-427: The proposed RNG, an attacker is able to predict the group key (GTK) that is supposed to be randomly generated by the access point (AP). Additionally, they showed that possession of the GTK enables the attacker to inject any traffic into the network, and allowed the attacker to decrypt unicast internet traffic transmitted over the wireless network. They demonstrated their attack against an Asus RT-AC51U router that uses

8722-415: The recommended choice for securing Wi-Fi networks. Also referred to as WPA-PSK ( pre-shared key ) mode, this is designed for home, small office and basic uses and does not require an authentication server. Each wireless network device encrypts the network traffic by deriving its 128-bit encryption key from a 256-bit shared key . This key may be entered either as a string of 64 hexadecimal digits, or as

8820-422: The root key, and passed this value to the RC4 routine. This permitted the vast majority of the RC4 based WEP related key attacks . Second, WPA implements a sequence counter to protect against replay attacks. Packets received out of order will be rejected by the access point. Finally, TKIP implements a 64-bit Message Integrity Check (MIC) and re-initializes the sequence number each time when a new key (Temporal Key)

8918-537: The same data is encrypted multiple times, an attacker can learn this information from only 2 connections. While they claim that this attack is on the verge of practicality, only simulations were performed, and the attack has not been demonstrated in practice. In 2015, security researchers from KU Leuven presented new attacks against RC4 in both TLS and WPA-TKIP. Dubbed the Numerous Occurrence MOnitoring & Recovery Exploit (NOMORE) attack, it

9016-628: The use of CCMP-128 ( AES-128 in CCM mode ) as the minimum encryption algorithm in WPA3-Personal mode. TKIP is not allowed in WPA3. The WPA3 standard also replaces the pre-shared key (PSK) exchange with Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE) exchange, a method originally introduced with IEEE 802.11s , resulting in a more secure initial key exchange in personal mode and forward secrecy . The Wi-Fi Alliance also says that WPA3 will mitigate security issues posed by weak passwords and simplify

9114-473: The vulnerable WEP with the more advanced TKIP encryption. TKIP ensures continuous renewal of encryption keys, reducing security risks. Authentication is conducted through a RADIUS server, providing robust security, especially vital in corporate settings. This setup allows integration with Windows login processes and supports various authentication methods like Extensible Authentication Protocol , which uses certificates for secure authentication, and PEAP, creating

9212-400: The wired public switched telephone network services providers and Internet service providers may offer QoS. QoS mechanisms are always provided for circuit switched services, and are essential for inelastic services, for example streaming multimedia . Mobility adds complications to QoS mechanisms. A phone call or other session may be interrupted after a handover if the new base station

9310-401: Was believed that this approach would not scale with the growth of the Internet, and in any event was antithetical to the end-to-end principle , the notion of designing networks so that core routers do little more than simply switch packets at the highest possible rates. Under DiffServ, packets are marked either by the traffic sources themselves or by the edge devices where the traffic enters

9408-623: Was demonstrated by implementing a port scanner , which can be executed against any client using WPA-TKIP . Additionally, they showed how to decrypt arbitrary packets sent to a client. They mentioned this can be used to hijack a TCP connection , allowing an attacker to inject malicious JavaScript when the victim visits a website. In contrast, the Beck-Tews attack could only decrypt short packets with mostly known content, such as ARP messages, and only allowed injection of 3 to 7 packets of at most 28 bytes. The Beck-Tews attack also requires quality of service (as defined in 802.11e ) to be enabled, while

9506-401: Was funded from January 2008 through June 2010. It included a "Quality of Service Theme" and published a book. Another European project, called WIDENS (Wireless Deployable Network System), proposed a bandwidth reservation approach for mobile wireless multirate adhoc networks. Strong cryptography network protocols such as Secure Sockets Layer , I2P , and virtual private networks obscure

9604-581: Was revealed in December 2011 by Stefan Viehböck that affects wireless routers with the Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) feature, regardless of which encryption method they use. Most recent models have this feature and enable it by default. Many consumer Wi-Fi device manufacturers had taken steps to eliminate the potential of weak passphrase choices by promoting alternative methods of automatically generating and distributing strong keys when users add

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