124-612: Wi-Fi ( / ˈ w aɪ f aɪ / ) is a family of wireless network protocols based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for local area networking of devices and Internet access, allowing nearby digital devices to exchange data by radio waves . These are the most widely used computer networks, used globally in home and small office networks to link devices and to provide Internet access with wireless routers and wireless access points in public places such as coffee shops, hotels, libraries, and airports. Wi-Fi
248-450: A captive portal webpage for access. Organizations, enthusiasts, authorities and businesses , such as airports, hotels, and restaurants, often provide free or paid-use hotspots to attract customers, to provide services to promote business in selected areas. Routers often incorporate a digital subscriber line modem or a cable modem and a Wi-Fi access point, are frequently set up in homes and other buildings, to provide Internet access for
372-408: A router . The telecommunications network at the physical layer also consists of many interconnected wireline network elements (NEs). These NEs can be stand-alone systems or products that are either supplied by a single manufacturer or are assembled by the service provider (user) or system integrator with parts from several different manufacturers. Wireless NEs are the products and devices used by
496-635: A wireless local area network (WLAN) was developed in 1992 by a team of researchers from the Radiophysics Division of the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) in Australia, led by John O'Sullivan . A patent for Wi Fi was lodged by the CSIRO in 1992 The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997, and provided up to 2 Mbit/s link speeds. This
620-447: A city-wide campaign to convert old phone booths into digital kiosks in 2014. The project, titled LinkNYC , has created a network of kiosks that serve as public Wi-Fi hotspots, high-definition screens and landlines . Installation of the screens began in late 2015. The city government plans to implement more than seven thousand kiosks over time, eventually making LinkNYC the largest and fastest public, government-operated Wi-Fi network in
744-475: A coherent set of statements criticising emissions trading without any additional wording needed. In subsequent Senate Estimates hearings during 2010, Senator Carr and Clark went on record claiming the paper was originally stopped from publication solely due to its low quality not meeting CSIRO standards. At the time of its attempted suppression, the paper had been accepted for publication in an academic journal, New Political Economy , which in 2010 had been ranked by
868-460: A common Wi-Fi version. The versions differ between the radio wavebands they operate on, the radio bandwidth they occupy, the maximum data rates they can support and other details. Some versions permit the use of multiple antennas, which permits greater speeds as well as reduced interference. Historically, the equipment listed the versions of Wi-Fi supported using the name of the IEEE standards. In 2018,
992-407: A computer and an interface controller is called a station . Stations are identified by one or more MAC addresses . Wi-Fi nodes often operate in infrastructure mode in which all communications go through a base station. Ad hoc mode refers to devices communicating directly with each other, without communicating with an access point. A service set is the set of all the devices associated with
1116-552: A core aim of CSIRO is Cooperative Research "working hand in hand with industry [to] build partnerships and engage with industry to generate impact". On 25 November 2009, a debate was held in the Australian Senate concerning the alleged involvement of the CSIRO and the Labor government in censorship. The debate was called for by opposition parties after evidence came to light that a paper critical of carbon emissions trading
1240-471: A directional antenna is in use, whether nodes employ power control and so on. Cellular wireless networks generally have good capacity, due to their use of directional aerials, and their ability to reuse radio channels in non-adjacent cells. Additionally, cells can be made very small using low power transmitters this is used in cities to give network capacity that scales linearly with population density. Wireless access points are also often close to humans, but
1364-640: A greater degree by common building materials than the 2.4 GHz bands and usually give a shorter range. As 802.11 specifications evolved to support higher throughput, the protocols have become much more efficient in their bandwidth use. Additionally, they have gained the ability to aggregate channels together to gain still more throughput where the bandwidth for additional channels is available. 802.11n allows for double radio spectrum bandwidth (40 MHz) per channel compared to 802.11a or 802.11g (20 MHz). 802.11n can be set to limit itself to 20 MHz bandwidth to prevent interference in dense communities. In
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#17327722957011488-837: A large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers , etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission. Although originally intended for cell phones, with the development of smartphones , cellular telephone networks routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations: Private LTE/5G networks use licensed, shared or unlicensed wireless spectrum thanks to LTE or 5G cellular network base stations, small cells and other radio access network (RAN) infrastructure to transmit voice and data to edge devices (smartphones, embedded modules, routers and gateways. 3GPP defines 5G private networks as non-public networks that typically employ
1612-645: A major international exhibition. In November 2000, Cisco acquired Radiata in exchange for US$ 295 million in Cisco common stock with the intention of incorporating the Radiata Baseband Processor and Radio chips into its Aironet family of wireless LAN products. Cisco subsequently took a large write-down on the Radiata acquisition, following the 2001 telecoms crash , and in 2004 it shut down its internal development of wireless chipsets based on
1736-478: A mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes and each node performs routing. Ad hoc networks can "self-heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power. Various network layer protocols are needed to realize ad hoc mobile networks, such as Distance Sequenced Distance Vector routing, Associativity-Based Routing , Ad hoc on-demand distance-vector routing , and Dynamic Source Routing . Wireless metropolitan area networks are
1860-431: A method of identifying fake vials, on the basis that a unique tracer code developed by CSIRO was embedded in the product. However, the code sold to Novartis for more than A$ 2M was apparently not unique, and was based on a "cheap tracer ... bought in bulk from a Chinese distributor". Novartis was contractually bound not to reverse-engineer the tracer to verify its uniqueness. The Sydney Morning Herald report alleges that this
1984-426: A particular Wi-Fi network. Devices in a service set need not be on the same wavebands or channels. A service set can be local, independent, extended, mesh, or a combination. Each service set has an associated identifier, a 32-byte service set identifier (SSID), which identifies the network. The SSID is configured within the devices that are part of the network. A basic service set (BSS) is a group of stations that share
2108-576: A relatively small area, that is generally within a person's reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible infrared light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. Zigbee also supports WPAN applications. Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers start to integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure. A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over
2232-409: A shadowy organisation responsible for US consumers being compelled to make "a multimillion dollar donation" on the basis of a questionable patent claiming "decades old" technology. The resulting debate became so heated that the author was compelled to follow up with a defence of the original article. An alternative view was also published on The Register , challenging a number of the assertions made in
2356-646: A short distance using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for internet access. The use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network. Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name. Fixed wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or networks at two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line of sight paths. It
2480-404: A single carrier, whereas 802.11a, Wi-Fi 4, 5 and 6 use orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing . Channels are used half duplex and can be time-shared by multiple networks. Any packet sent by one computer is locally received by stations tuned to that channel, even if that information is intended for just one destination. Stations typically ignore information not addressed to them. The use of
2604-473: A smaller-scale deployment to meet an organization's needs for reliability, accessibility, and maintainability. Open source private networks are based on a collaborative, community-driven software that relies on peer review and production to use, modify and share the source code. A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications
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#17327722957012728-443: A type of wireless network that connects several wireless LANs. Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between neighboring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public Internet access system. The wireless connections between access points are usually point to point microwave links using parabolic dishes on
2852-675: A wider channel for higher throughput. Countries apply their own regulations to the allowable channels, allowed users and maximum power levels within these frequency ranges. 802.11b/g/n can use the 2.4 GHz band, operating in the United States under FCC Part 15 rules and regulations. In this frequency band, equipment may occasionally suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones , USB 3.0 hubs, Bluetooth and other devices. Spectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent worldwide: Australia and Europe allow for an additional two channels (12, 13) beyond
2976-479: A wireless carrier to provide support for the backhaul network as well as a mobile switching center (MSC). Reliable wireless service depends on the network elements at the physical layer to be protected against all operational environments and applications (see GR-3171, Generic Requirements for Network Elements Used in Wireless Networks – Physical Layer Criteria ). What are especially important are
3100-416: Is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver , known as a cell site or base station . In a cellular network, each cell characteristically uses a different set of radio frequencies from all their immediate neighbouring cells to avoid any interference. When joined these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables
3224-626: Is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance , which restricts the use of the term " Wi-Fi Certified " to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Non-compliant hardware is simply referred to as WLAN , and it may or may not work with " Wi-Fi Certified " devices. As of 2017, the Wi-Fi Alliance consisted of more than 800 companies from around the world. As of 2019, over 3.05 billion Wi-Fi-enabled devices are shipped globally each year. Wi-Fi uses multiple parts of
3348-552: Is about 20 m (66 ft) indoors, while some access points claim up to a 150 m (490 ft) range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves or as large as many square kilometers using many overlapping access points with roaming permitted between them. Over time, the speed and spectral efficiency of Wi-Fi have increased. As of 2019, some versions of Wi-Fi, running on suitable hardware at close range, can achieve speeds of 9.6 Gbit/s ( gigabit per second). A 1985 ruling by
3472-405: Is achieved. Now the wireless network has been running on LTE, which is a 4G mobile communication standard. Users of an LTE network should have data speeds that are 10x faster than a 3G network. Space is another characteristic of wireless networking. Wireless networks offer many advantages when it comes to difficult-to-wire areas trying to communicate such as across a street or river, a warehouse on
3596-457: Is an effective option compared to Ethernet for sharing printers, scanners, and high-speed Internet connections. WLANs help save the cost of installation of cable mediums, save time from physical installation, and also creates mobility for devices connected to the network. Wireless networks are simple and require as few as one single wireless access point connected directly to the Internet via
3720-629: Is defined by a standard that describes unique functions at both the Physical and the Data Link layers of the OSI model . These standards differ in their specified signaling methods, geographic ranges, and frequency usages, among other things. Such differences can make certain technologies better suited to home networks and others better suited to network larger organizations." Each standard varies in geographical range, thus making one standard more ideal than
3844-432: Is divided into a multitude of channels . In the standards, channels are numbered at 5 MHz spacing within a band (except in the 60 GHz band, where they are 2.16 GHz apart), and the number refers to the centre frequency of the channel. Although channels are numbered at 5 MHz spacing, transmitters generally occupy at least 20 MHz, and standards allow for neighbouring channels to be bonded together to form
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3968-511: Is governed by a board appointed by the Australian Government, currently chaired by Kathryn Fagg . There are eight directors inclusive of the chief executive, presently Doug Hilton , who are responsible for management of the organisation. CSIRO is structured into Research Business Units, National Facilities and Collections, and Services. As at 2023, CSIRO's research areas are identified as "Impact science" and organised into
4092-597: Is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs . Space networks are networks used for communication between spacecraft, usually in the vicinity of the Earth. The example of this is NASA's Space Network . Some examples of usage include cellular phones which are part of everyday wireless networks, allowing easy personal communications. Another example, Intercontinental network systems, use radio satellites to communicate across
4216-417: Is often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without installing a wired link. To connect to Wi-Fi using a mobile device, one can use a device like a wireless router or the private hotspot capability of another mobile device. A wireless ad hoc network, also known as a wireless mesh network or mobile ad hoc network (MANET), is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in
4340-624: Is responsible for scientific research and its commercial and industrial applications. CSIRO works with leading organisations around the world. From its headquarters in Canberra, CSIRO maintains more than 50 sites across Australia and in France, Chile and the United States, employing about 5,500 people. Federally funded scientific research in Australia began in 1916 with the creation of the Advisory Council of Science and Industry. However,
4464-638: Is submitted for certification. The lack of Wi-Fi certification does not necessarily imply that a device is incompatible with other Wi-Fi devices. The Wi-Fi Alliance may or may not sanction derivative terms, such as Super Wi-Fi , coined by the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to describe proposed networking in the UHF TV band in the US. Equipment frequently supports multiple versions of Wi-Fi. To communicate, devices must use
4588-416: Is used in applications such as motion detection and gesture recognition . Wi-Fi stations communicate by sending each other data packets , blocks of data individually sent and delivered over radio on various channels. As with all radio, this is done by the modulation and demodulation of carrier waves . Different versions of Wi-Fi use different techniques, 802.11b uses direct-sequence spread spectrum on
4712-475: Is when a node on one network is unable to send because of co-channel interference from a node that is on a different network. The wireless spectrum is a limited resource and shared by all nodes in the range of its transmitters. Bandwidth allocation becomes complex with multiple participating users. Often users are not aware that advertised numbers (e.g., for IEEE 802.11 equipment or LTE networks) are not their capacity, but shared with all other users and thus
4836-693: The Australian Dung Beetle Project . Bornemissza, upon settling in Australia from Hungary in 1951, noticed that the pastureland was covered in dry cattle dung pads which did not seem to be recycled into the soil and caused areas of rank pasture which were unpalatable to the cattle. He proposed that the reason for this was that native Australian dung beetles, which had co-evolved alongside the marsupials (which produce dung very different in its composition from cattle), were not adapted to utilise cattle dung for their nutrition and breeding since cattle had only relatively recently been introduced to
4960-636: The Australian House of Representatives that in relation to the worker's compensation claim for psychological injuries of ex-CSIRO employee, Martin Williams, which was vigorously defended by Comcare on the advice of the CSIRO, that CSIRO officers had provided false testimony on no less than 128 occasions under oath when the matter went before the Administrative Appeals Tribunal . Mirabella stated, "even in establishing
5084-550: The Eduroam international authentication infrastructure. In the early 2000s, many cities around the world announced plans to construct citywide Wi-Fi networks. There are many successful examples; in 2004, Mysore (Mysuru) became India's first Wi-Fi-enabled city. A company called WiFiyNet has set up hotspots in Mysore, covering the whole city and a few nearby villages. In 2005, St. Cloud, Florida and Sunnyvale, California , became
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5208-654: The Great Depression , research was extended into manufacturing and other secondary industries. In 1949 the Act was changed again, and the entity name amended to the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. The amendment enlarged and reconstituted the organisation and its administrative structure. Under Ian Clunies Ross as chairman, CSIRO pursued new areas such as radio astronomy and industrial chemistry. CSIRO still operates under
5332-449: The IEEE 802 protocol family and is designed to work seamlessly with its wired sibling, Ethernet . Compatible devices can network through wireless access points with each other as well as with wired devices and the Internet. Different versions of Wi-Fi are specified by various IEEE 802.11 protocol standards, with different radio technologies determining radio bands, maximum ranges, and speeds that may be achieved. Wi-Fi most commonly uses
5456-901: The Wi-Fi Alliance introduced simplified Wi-Fi generational numbering to indicate equipment that supports Wi-Fi 4 ( 802.11n ), Wi-Fi 5 ( 802.11ac ) and Wi-Fi 6 ( 802.11ax ). These generations have a high degree of backward compatibility with previous versions. The alliance has stated that the generational level 4, 5, or 6 can be indicated in the user interface when connected, along with the signal strength. The most important standards affecting Wi‑Fi are: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n ( Wi-Fi 4 ), 802.11h, 802.11i, 802.11-2007, 802.11–2012, 802.11ac ( Wi-Fi 5 ), 802.11ad, 802.11af, 802.11-2016, 802.11ah, 802.11ai, 802.11aj, 802.11aq , 802.11ax ( Wi-Fi 6 ), 802.11ay . Wi-Fi technology may be used to provide local network and Internet access to devices that are within Wi-Fi range of one or more routers that are connected to
5580-510: The advertising slogan "The Standard for Wireless Fidelity" for a short time after the brand name was created, and the Wi-Fi Alliance was also called the "Wireless Fidelity Alliance Inc." in some publications. IEEE is a separate, but related, organization and their website has stated "WiFi is a short name for Wireless Fidelity". The name Wi-Fi was partly chosen because it sounds similar to Hi-Fi , which consumers take to mean high fidelity or high quality . Interbrand hoped consumers would find
5704-455: The 11 permitted in the United States for the 2.4 GHz band, while Japan has three more (12–14). 802.11a/h/j/n/ac/ax can use the 5 GHz U-NII band , which, for much of the world, offers at least 23 non-overlapping 20 MHz channels. This is in contrast to the 2.4 GHz frequency band where the channels are only 5 MHz wide. In general, lower frequencies have longer range but have less capacity. The 5 GHz bands are absorbed to
5828-608: The 2.4 gigahertz (120 mm) UHF and 5 gigahertz (60 mm) SHF radio bands, with the 6 gigahertz SHF band used in newer generations of the standard; these bands are subdivided into multiple channels. Channels can be shared between networks, but, within range, only one transmitter can transmit on a channel at a time. Wi-Fi's radio bands work best for line-of-sight use. Many common obstructions, such as walls, pillars, home appliances, etc., may greatly reduce range, but this also helps minimize interference between different networks in crowded environments. The range of an access point
5952-452: The 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where each access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as photovoltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand-alone systems. A cellular network or mobile network
6076-408: The 5 GHz band, 20 MHz, 40 MHz, 80 MHz, and 160 MHz channels are permitted with some restrictions, giving much faster connections. Wi-Fi is part of the IEEE 802 protocol family. The data is organized into 802.11 frames that are very similar to Ethernet frames at the data link layer, but with extra address fields. MAC addresses are used as network addresses for routing over
6200-550: The Ars Technica piece. Total income to CSIRO from the patent is currently estimated at nearly $ 430 million. On 14 June 2012, the CSIRO inventors received the European Patent Office (EPO) European Inventor Award (EIA), in the category of "Non-European Countries". On 14 July 2011, Greenpeace activists vandalised a crop of GM wheat, circumventing the scientific trials being undertaken. Greenpeace
6324-656: The Australian Research Council as an 'A class' publication. In an ABC radio interview, Spash called for a Senate enquiry into the affair and the role played by senior management and the Science Minister. After these events, the Sydney Morning Herald reported that "Questions are being raised about the closeness of BHP Billiton and the CSIRO under its chief executive, Megan Clark". After his resignation, an unedited version of
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#17327722957016448-449: The CSIRO gained worldwide attention, including some criticism, for promoting a high- protein , low- carbohydrate diet of their own creation called Total Wellbeing Diet . The CSIRO published the diet in a book which sold over half a million copies in Australia and over 100,000 overseas. The diet was criticised in an editorial by Nature for giving scientific credence to a "fashionable" diet sponsored by meat and dairy industries. In
6572-417: The CSIRO on 1 January 2015, caused an international outcry after describing Australia's national climate change discussion as "more like religion than science," a week after announcing hundreds of job cuts to the organisation that will reduce the effectiveness of its climate research team. In "an open letter to the Australian Government and CSIRO", 2,800 of the leading climate scientists from 60 countries say
6696-793: The First World War. In 1920 the council was renamed the Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry, and was led by George Handley Knibbs (1921–26), but continued to struggle financially. Implementing the 1923 Imperial Conference 's call for colonies to broaden their economic base, in 1926 the Australian Parliament modified the principal Act for national scientific research (the Institute of Science and Industry Act 1920 ) by passing The Science and Industry Research Act 1926 . The same conference led to
6820-615: The Internet. The coverage of one or more interconnected access points can extend from an area as small as a few rooms to as large as many square kilometres. Coverage in the larger area may require a group of access points with overlapping coverage. For example, public outdoor Wi-Fi technology has been used successfully in wireless mesh networks in London. An international example is Fon . Wi-Fi provides services in private homes, businesses, as well as in public spaces. Wi-Fi hotspots may be set up either free of charge or commercially, often using
6944-593: The LAN. Wi-Fi's MAC and physical layer (PHY) specifications are defined by IEEE 802.11 for modulating and receiving one or more carrier waves to transmit the data in the infrared, and 2.4, 3.6 , 5, 6, or 60 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee ( IEEE 802 ). The base version of the standard was released in 1997 and has had many subsequent amendments. The standard and amendments provide
7068-491: The NEs that are located on the cell tower to the base station (BS) cabinet. The attachment hardware and the positioning of the antenna and associated closures and cables are required to have adequate strength, robustness, corrosion resistance, and resistance against wind, storms, icing, and other weather conditions. Requirements for individual components, such as hardware, cables, connectors, and closures, shall take into consideration
7192-661: The Radiata technology in order to focus on software development and emerging new technologies. Controversy over the CSIRO patent arose in 2006 after the organisation won an injunction against Buffalo Technology in an infringement suit filed in Federal Court in the Eastern District of Texas. The injunction was subsequently suspended on appeal, with the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit finding that
7316-615: The U.S. Federal Communications Commission released parts of the ISM bands for unlicensed use for communications. These frequency bands include the same 2.4 GHz bands used by equipment such as microwave ovens , and are thus subject to interference. In 1991 in Nieuwegein , the NCR Corporation and AT&T invented the precursor to 802.11, intended for use in cashier systems, under the name WaveLAN . NCR's Vic Hayes , who held
7440-545: The United States and the Netherlands simultaneously claim the invention of Wi-Fi, and a consensus has not been reached globally. In 2009, the Australian CSIRO was awarded $ 200 million after a patent settlement with 14 technology companies, with a further $ 220 million awarded in 2012 after legal proceedings with 23 companies. In 2016, the CSIRO's WLAN prototype test bed was chosen as Australia's contribution to
7564-535: The allegations seriously and responded to the articles on a number of occasions. The shadow minister for innovation, industry, science and research, Sophie Mirabella , wrote to the government requesting it establish an inquiry. Mirabella said she is aware of as many as 100 cases of alleged workplace harassment. On 20 July 2012 Comcare issued CSIRO with an Improvement Notice with regard to handling and management of workplace misconduct/code of conduct type investigations and allegations. On 24 June 2013 Mirabella advised
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#17327722957017688-604: The basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand. While each amendment is officially revoked when incorporated in the latest version of the standard, the corporate world tends to market to the revisions because they concisely denote capabilities of their products. As a result, in the market place, each revision tends to become its own standard. In addition to 802.11, the IEEE 802 protocol family has specific provisions for Wi-Fi. These are required because Ethernet's cable-based media are not usually shared, whereas with wireless all transmissions are received by all stations within
7812-478: The capability. Some laptops that have a cellular modem card can also act as mobile Internet Wi-Fi access points. Many traditional university campuses in the developed world provide at least partial Wi-Fi coverage. Carnegie Mellon University built the first campus-wide wireless Internet network, called Wireless Andrew , at its Pittsburgh campus in 1993 before Wi-Fi branding existed. Many universities collaborate in providing Wi-Fi access to students and staff through
7936-526: The chair of IEEE 802.11 for ten years, along with Bell Labs engineer Bruce Tuch, approached the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) to create a standard and were involved in designing the initial 802.11b and 802.11a specifications within the IEEE. They have both been subsequently inducted into the Wi-Fi NOW Hall of Fame. In 1989 in Australia, a team of scientists began working on wireless LAN technology. A prototype test bed for
8060-566: The channel to be idle at the same time and thus begin transmission simultaneously. A collision happens when a station receives signals from multiple stations on a channel at the same time. This corrupts the transmitted data and can require stations to re-transmit. The lost data and re-transmission reduces throughput, in some cases severely. The 802.11 standard provides several distinct radio frequency ranges for use in Wi-Fi communications: 900 MHz , 2.4 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 4.9 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz and 60 GHz bands . Each range
8184-428: The continent in the 1880s. The Australian Dung Beetle Project sought, therefore, to introduce species of dung beetle from South Africa and Europe (which had co-evolved alongside bovids) in order to improve the fertility and quality of cattle pastures. Twenty-three species were successfully introduced throughout the duration of the project and also had the effect of reducing the pestilent bush fly population by 90%. CSIRO
8308-614: The costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection between various equipment locations. Admin telecommunications networks are generally implemented and administered using radio communication . This implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI model network structure. Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks , wireless local area networks (WLANs) , wireless sensor networks, satellite communication networks, and terrestrial microwave networks. The first professional wireless network
8432-559: The council struggled due to insufficient funding. In 1926, research efforts were revitalised with the establishment of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), which strengthened national science leadership and increased research funding. CSIR grew rapidly, achieving significant early successes. In 1949, legislative changes led to the renaming of the organisation as Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). Notable developments by CSIRO have included
8556-534: The creation of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in New Zealand. The new Act replaced the institute with the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). With encouragement from prime minister Stanley Bruce , strengthened national science leadership and increased research funding, CSIR grew rapidly and achieved significant early successes. The council was structured to represent
8680-514: The database. Signal fluctuations can cause errors, which can be reduced with noise-filtering techniques. For low precision, integrating Wi-Fi data with geographical and time information has been proposed. The Wi-Fi RTT capability introduced in IEEE 802.11mc allows for positioning based on round trip time measurement, an improvement over the RSSI method. The IEEE 802.11az standard promises further improvements in geolocation accuracy. Wi-Fi sensing
8804-596: The development and proliferation of digital wireless networks by the 1990s, with further advances in MOSFET technology leading to increasing bandwidth in the 2000s ( Edholm's law ). Most of the essential elements of wireless networks are built from MOSFETs, including the mobile transceivers , base station modules, routers , RF power amplifiers , telecommunication circuits , RF circuits , and radio transceivers , in networks such as 2G , 3G , and 4G . Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) connect devices within
8928-519: The drop off in power over distance is fast, following the inverse-square law . The position of the United Kingdom 's Health Protection Agency (HPA) is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones". It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment". In October 2007, the HPA launched a new "systematic" study into
9052-447: The early 1990s, CSIRO radio astronomy scientists John O'Sullivan, Graham Daniels, Terence Percival, Diethelm Ostry and John Deane undertook research directed to finding a way to make wireless networks work as fast as wired networks within confined spaces such as office buildings. The technique they developed, involving a particular combination of forward error correction , frequency-domain interleaving, and multi-carrier modulation , became
9176-462: The effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time". Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi. CSIRO The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) is an Australian Government agency that
9300-485: The environment, human nutrition, conservation, urban and rural planning, and water. It works with leading organisations around the world and maintains more than 50 sites across Australia and in France, Chile and the United States of America, employing about 5500 people. Notable inventions and breakthroughs by CSIRO include: CSIRO had a pioneering role in the scientific discovery of the universe through radio "eyes". A team led by Paul Wild built and operated (from 1948)
9424-532: The exhibition A History of the World in 100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia . The name Wi-Fi , commercially used at least as early as August 1999, was coined by the brand-consulting firm Interbrand. The Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name that was "a little catchier than 'IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence'." According to Phil Belanger, a founding member of the Wi-Fi Alliance,
9548-410: The federal structure of government in Australia, and had state-level committees and a central council. In addition to an improved structure, CSIR benefited from strong bureaucratic management under George Julius , David Rivett , and Arnold Richardson. Research focused on primary and secondary industries. Early in its existence, CSIR established divisions studying animal health and animal nutrition. After
9672-514: The fifth electronic computer in the world. It was over 1,000 times faster than the mechanical calculators available at the time. It was decommissioned in 1955 and recommissioned in Melbourne as CSIRAC in 1956 as a general purpose computing machine used by over 700 projects until 1964. The CSIRAC is the only surviving first-generation computer in the world. Between 1965 and 1985, George Bornemissza of CSIRO's Division of Entomology founded and led
9796-409: The first cities in the United States to offer citywide free Wi-Fi (from MetroFi ). Minneapolis has generated $ 1.2 million in profit annually for its provider . In May 2010, the then London mayor Boris Johnson pledged to have London-wide Wi-Fi by 2012. Several boroughs including Westminster and Islington already had extensive outdoor Wi-Fi coverage at that point. New York City announced
9920-646: The following Business Units: CSIRO manages national research facilities and scientific infrastructure on behalf of the nation to assist with the delivery of research. The national facilities and specialised laboratories are available to both international and Australian users from industry and research. As at 2019, the following National Facilities are listed: CSIRO manages a number of collections of animal and plant specimens that contribute to national and international biological knowledge. The National Collections contribute to taxonomic, genetic, agricultural and ecological research. As at 2019, CSIRO's Collections are listed as
10044-436: The following: In 2019, CSIRO Services are itemised as follows: Other services are noted as including education, publishing , infrastructure technologies, Small and Medium Enterprise engagement and CSIRO Futures. A precursor to CSIRO, the Advisory Council of Science and Industry, was established in 1916 on the initiative of prime minister Billy Hughes . However, the advisory council struggled with insufficient funding during
10168-403: The framework for this inquiry it is obvious there's an inappropriate 'hands on' approach by CSIRO." In response to the allegations Clark commissioned Dennis Pearce, who is assisted by an investigation team from HWL Ebsworth Lawyers, to conduct an independent investigation into allegations of workplace bullying and other unreasonable behaviour. Mirabella continued to question the independence of
10292-548: The individual user rate is far lower. With increasing demand, the capacity crunch is more and more likely to happen. User-in-the-loop (UIL) may be an alternative solution to ever upgrading to newer technologies for over-provisioning . Shannon's theorem can describe the maximum data rate of any single wireless link, which relates to the bandwidth in hertz and to the noise on the channel. One can greatly increase channel capacity by using MIMO techniques, where multiple aerials or multiple frequencies can exploit multiple paths to
10416-468: The invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy , essential components of the early Wi-Fi technology, development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote , the invention of the insect repellent in Aerogard and the introduction of a series of biological controls into Australia, such as the introduction of myxomatosis and rabbit calicivirus for the control of rabbit populations. CSIRO
10540-469: The investigation. The first stage of the investigation published its findings at the end of July 2013, and the final stage was scheduled to be complete by February 2014. Post the Pearce Report, CSIRO overhauled its relevant policies and put in place training and whistleblower procedures to address the situation. In August 2015 the CSIRO discontinued its annual July and August survey, conducted over
10664-548: The judge in Texas should have allowed a trial to proceed on Buffalo's challenge to the validity of the CSIRO patent. In 2007, CSIRO declined to provide an assurance to the IEEE that it would not sue companies which refused to take a license for use in 802.11n-compliant devices, while at the same time continuing to defend legal challenges to the validity of the patent brought by Intel , Dell , Microsoft , Hewlett-Packard and Netgear . In April 2009, Hewlett-Packard broke ranks with
10788-451: The name catchy, and that they would assume this wireless protocol has high fidelity because of its name. Other technologies intended for fixed points, including Motorola Canopy , are usually called fixed wireless . Alternative wireless technologies include Zigbee , Z-Wave , Bluetooth and mobile phone standards . To connect to a Wi-Fi LAN, a computer must be equipped with a wireless network interface controller . The combination of
10912-598: The next depending on what it is one is trying to accomplish with a wireless network. The performance of wireless networks satisfies a variety of applications such as voice and video. The use of this technology also gives room for expansions, such as from 2G to 3G and, 4G and 5G technologies, which stand for the fourth and fifth generation of cell phone mobile communications standards. As wireless networking has become commonplace, sophistication increases through configuration of network hardware and software, and greater capacity to send and receive larger amounts of data, faster,
11036-674: The organisation being accused of being "Australia's biggest patent troll", a wrathful "patent bully", and of imposing a "WiFi tax" on American innovation. Further fuel was added to the controversy after a settlement with the carriers, worth around $ 229 million, was announced in March 2012. Encouraged in part by an announcement by the Australian Minister for Tertiary Education, Skills Science and Research, Senator Chris Evans, an article in Ars Technica portrayed CSIRO as
11160-517: The other side of the premises or buildings that are physically separated but operate as one. Wireless networks allow for users to designate a certain space which the network will be able to communicate with other devices through that network. Space is also created in homes as a result of eliminating clutters of wiring. This technology allows for an alternative to installing physical network mediums such as TPs , coaxes , or fiber-optics , which can also be expensive. For homeowners, wireless technology
11284-471: The paper was released by Spash as a discussion paper, and later published as an academic journal article. On 11 April 2013, the Sydney Morning Herald ran a story on how CSIRO had "duped" the Swiss-based pharmaceutical giant Novartis into purchasing an anti-counterfeit technology for its vials of injectable Voltaren . The invention was marketed by a small Australian company called DataTrace DNA as
11408-402: The previous five years, polling to create a long-term view of how Australians viewed global warming and their support for action. In the previous 2013 poll, 86 per cent agreed with the statement that climate change was occurring and only 7.6 per cent disagreed. On 11 February 2016, Dr Larry Marshall – a former venture capitalist with Southern Cross Venture Holdings, who had been appointed CEO of
11532-747: The priorities and structure of CSIRO, and the teams and facilities that implement its research, have changed as Australia's scientific challenges have evolved. Numerous CSIRO scientists have gone onto distinguished careers in the university sector. Several have been appointed to the role of Vice-Chancellor/President. They include: Sir George Currie (UNZ 1952–62, Western Australia 1945–52), Paul Wellings CBE (Wollongong 2012–21, Lancaster 2002–12), Michael Barber AO (Flinders 2008–14), Mark Smith CBE (Southampton 2019–ff, Lancaster 2012–19), Annabelle Duncan (UNE 2014–19), Attila Brungs (UNSW 2021–ff, UTS 2014–21), Alex Zelinsky AO (Newcastle (2018–ff), Andrew Parfitt (UTS 2021–ff), Chris Moran (UNE 2023–ff). In 2005
11656-555: The project, which was to be completed in 2015. Wi-Fi positioning systems use known positions of Wi-Fi hotspots to identify a device's location. It is used when GPS isn't suitable due to issues like signal interference or slow satellite acquisition. This includes assisted GPS , urban hotspot databases, and indoor positioning systems. Wi-Fi positioning relies on measuring signal strength ( RSSI ) and fingerprinting. Parameters like SSID and MAC address are crucial for identifying access points. The accuracy depends on nearby access points in
11780-584: The protocol stack. For internetworking purposes, Wi-Fi is usually layered as a link layer below the internet layer of the Internet Protocol . This means that nodes have an associated internet address and, with suitable connectivity, this allows full Internet access. Wireless network A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data connections between network nodes . Wireless networking allows homes, telecommunications networks , and business installations to avoid
11904-618: The provisions of the 1949 Act in a wide range of scientific inquiry. Participation by women in CSIRO research was severely limited by the Australian government policy, in place until 1966, forcing women public servants out of their jobs when they married. Even unmarried women were considered a poor investment because they might eventually marry. Single women such as Helen Newton Turner nevertheless made major contributions. Since 1949, CSIRO has expanded its activities to almost every field of primary, secondary and tertiary industry, including
12028-551: The range that employ that radio channel. While Ethernet has essentially negligible error rates, wireless communication media are subject to significant interference. Therefore, the accurate transmission is not guaranteed so delivery is, therefore, a best-effort delivery mechanism. Because of this, for Wi-Fi, the Logical Link Control (LLC) specified by IEEE 802.2 employs Wi-Fi's media access control (MAC) protocols to manage retries without relying on higher levels of
12152-580: The receiver to achieve much higher throughput – by a factor of the product of the frequency and aerial diversity at each end. Under Linux, the Central Regulatory Domain Agent (CRDA) controls the setting of channels. The total network bandwidth depends on how dispersive the medium is (more dispersive medium generally has better total bandwidth because it minimises interference), how many frequencies are available, how noisy those frequencies are, how many aerials are used and whether
12276-502: The receiver uses the destination address to determine whether the transmission is relevant to the station or should be ignored. A scheme known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) governs the way stations share channels. With CSMA/CA stations attempt to avoid collisions by beginning transmission only after the channel is sensed to be idle, but then transmit their packet data in its entirety. CSMA/CA cannot completely prevent collisions, as two stations may sense
12400-419: The receiver, in other cases, particularly with metallic or conductive materials reflection occurs. This can cause dead zones where no reception is available. Aluminium foiled thermal isolation in modern homes can easily reduce indoor mobile signals by 10 dB frequently leading to complaints about the bad reception of long-distance rural cell signals. In multipath fading two or more different routes taken by
12524-399: The rest of the industry becoming the first to reach a settlement of its dispute with CSIRO. This agreement was followed quickly by settlements with Microsoft, Fujitsu and Asus and then Dell, Intel, Nintendo , Toshiba , Netgear, Buffalo, D-Link , Belkin , SMC , Accton , and 3Com . The controversy grew after CSIRO sued US carriers AT&T , Verizon and T-Mobile in 2010, with
12648-489: The roles and responsibilities of the chair and chief executive have changed many times. From 1927 to 1986 the head of CSIR (and from 1949, CSIRO) was the chairman, who was responsible for the management of the organisation, supported by the chief executive. From 1 July 1959 to 4 December 1986 CSIRO had no chief executive; the chairman undertook both functions. In 1986, when the Australian Government changed
12772-399: The same channel also means that the data bandwidth is shared, so for example, available throughput to each device is halved when two stations are actively transmitting. As with other IEEE 802 LANs, stations come programmed with a globally unique 48-bit MAC address. The MAC addresses are used to specify both the destination and the source of each data packet. On the reception of a transmission,
12896-513: The same wireless channel, SSID, and other settings that have wirelessly connected, usually to the same access point. Each BSS is identified by a MAC address called the BSSID . The IEEE does not test equipment for compliance with their standards. The Wi-Fi Alliance was formed in 1999 to establish and enforce standards for interoperability and backward compatibility , and to promote wireless local-area-network technology. The Wi-Fi Alliance enforces
13020-421: The signal, due to reflections, can cause the signal to cancel out each other at certain locations, and to be stronger in other places ( upfade ). The hidden node problem occurs in some types of network when a node is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating with that AP. This leads to difficulties in medium access control (collisions). The exposed terminal problem
13144-447: The standard on reasonable and non-discriminatory terms. In 1999, Cisco Systems , Inc. and Broadcom Corporation each invested A$ 4 million in Radiata, representing an 11% stake for each investor and valuing the company at around A$ 36 million. In September 2000, Radiata demonstrated a chip set complying with the recently finalised IEEE 802.11a Wi-Fi standard, and capable of handling transmission rates of up to 54 Mbit/s, at
13268-521: The structure of CSIRO to include a board of non-executive members plus the chief executive to lead CSIRO, the roles changed. The chief executive is now responsible for management of the organisation in accordance with the strategy, plans and policies approved by the CSIRO Board which, led by the chair of the board, is responsible to the Australian Government for the overall strategy, governance and performance of CSIRO. As with its governance structure,
13392-463: The structure to which they are attached. Compared to wired systems, wireless networks are frequently subject to electromagnetic interference . This can be caused by other networks or other types of equipment that generate radio waves that are within, or close, to the radio bands used for communication. Interference can degrade the signal or cause the system to fail. Some materials cause absorption of electromagnetic waves, preventing it from reaching
13516-445: The structure. Similarly, battery-powered routers may include a mobile broadband modem and a Wi-Fi access point. When subscribed to a cellular data carrier, they allow nearby Wi-Fi stations to access the Internet. Many smartphones have a built-in mobile hotspot capability of this sort, though carriers often disable the feature, or charge a separate fee to enable it. Standalone devices such as MiFi - and WiBro -branded devices provide
13640-429: The subject of U.S. patent 5,487,069 , which was granted on 23 January 1996. In 1997 Macquarie University professor David Skellern and his colleague Neil Weste established the company Radiata, Inc., which took a nonexclusive licence to the CSIRO patent for the purpose of developing commercially viable integrated circuit devices implementing the patented technology. During this period, the IEEE 802.11 Working Group
13764-417: The term Wi-Fi was chosen from a list of ten names that Interbrand proposed. Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo . The yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability . The name is often written as WiFi , Wifi , or wifi , but these are not approved by the Wi-Fi Alliance. The name Wi-Fi is not short-form for 'Wireless Fidelity', although the Wi-Fi Alliance did use
13888-761: The use of the Wi-Fi brand to technologies based on the IEEE 802.11 standards from the IEEE. Manufacturers with membership in the Wi-Fi Alliance, whose products pass the certification process, gain the right to mark those products with the Wi-Fi logo. Specifically, the certification process requires conformance to the IEEE 802.11 radio standards, the WPA and WPA2 security standards, and the EAP authentication standard. Certification may optionally include tests of IEEE 802.11 draft standards, interaction with cellular-phone technology in converged devices, and features relating to security set-up, multimedia, and power-saving. Not every Wi-Fi device
14012-685: The world's first solar radiospectrograph, and from 1967 the 3-kilometre-diameter (1.9 mi) radioheliograph at Culgoora in New South Wales. For three decades, the Division of Radiophysics had a world-leading role in solar research, attracting prominent solar physicists from around the world. CSIRO owned the first computer in Australia, CSIRAC , built as part of a project began in the Sydney Radiophysics Laboratory in 1947. The CSIR Mk 1 ran its first program in 1949,
14136-459: The world. Emergency services such as the police utilize wireless networks to communicate effectively as well. Individuals and businesses use wireless networks to send and share data rapidly, whether it be in a small office building or across the world. In a general sense, wireless networks offer a vast variety of uses by both business and home users. "Now, the industry accepts a handful of different wireless technologies. Each wireless technology
14260-633: The world. The UK has planned a similar project across major cities of the country, with the project's first implementation in the London Borough of Camden . Officials in South Korea's capital Seoul were moving to provide free Internet access at more than 10,000 locations around the city, including outdoor public spaces, major streets, and densely populated residential areas. Seoul was planning to grant leases to KT, LG Telecom, and SK Telecom. The companies were supposed to invest $ 44 million in
14384-516: Was being suppressed. At the time, the Labor government was trying to get such a scheme through the Senate. After the debate, the Science Minister, Kim Carr, was forced to release the paper, but when doing so in the Senate he also delivered a letter from the CEO of the CSIRO, Megan Clark , which attacked the report's author and threatened him with unspecified punishment. The author of the paper, Clive Spash,
14508-453: Was cited in the press as having been bullied and harassed, and later gave a radio interview about this. In the midst of the affair, CSIRO management had considered releasing the paper with edits that Nature reported would be "tiny". Spash claimed the changes actually demanded amounted to censorship and resigned. He later posted on his website a document detailing the text that CSIRO management demanded be deleted; by itself, this document forms
14632-669: Was developed under the brand ALOHAnet in 1969 at the University of Hawaii and became operational in June 1971. The first commercial wireless network was the WaveLAN product family, developed by NCR in 1986. Advances in MOSFET (MOS transistor) wireless technology enabled the development of digital wireless networks . The wide adoption of RF CMOS ( radio frequency CMOS ), power MOSFET and LDMOS (lateral diffused MOS) devices led to
14756-575: Was developing the 802.11a wireless LAN standard. CSIRO did not participate directly in the standards process, however David Skellern was an active participant as secretary of the Working Group, and representative of Radiata. In 1998 it became apparent that the CSIRO patent would be pertinent to the standard. In response to a request from Victor Hayes of Lucent Technologies, who was chair of the 802.11 Working Group, CSIRO confirmed its commitment to make non-exclusive licenses available to implementers of
14880-448: Was done with the knowledge of key CSIRO personnel. CSIRO has since conducted a full review of the allegations and found no evidence to support them. Around 2008–2012, CSIRO fell under the spotlight for allegedly exhibiting a culture of workplace bullying and harassment. Former CSIRO employees started to surface with experiences of workplace bullying and other unreasonable behaviour by current and former CSIRO staff members. CSIRO took
15004-471: Was forced to pay reparations to CSIRO of $ 280,000 for the criminal damage, and were accused by the sentencing judge, Justice Hilary Penfold , of cynically using junior members of the organisation with good standing to avoid custodial sentences, while the offenders were given 9-month suspended sentences. Following the attack Greenpeace criticised CSIRO for a close relationship with industry that had led to an increase in genetically modified crops , even though
15128-424: Was the first Australian organisation to start using the Internet and was able to register the second-level domain csiro.au (as opposed to csiro.org.au or csiro.com.au). Guidelines were introduced in 1996 to regulate the use of the .au domain. When CSIR was formed in 1926, it was led initially by an executive committee of three people, two of whom were designated as the chairman and the chief executive. Since then
15252-454: Was then branded by Apple as AirPort . This was in collaboration with the same group that helped create the standard: Vic Hayes , Bruce Tuch, Cees Links , Rich McGinn, and others from Lucent . In the year 2000, Radiata, a group of Australian scientists connected to the CSIRO, were the first to use the 802.11a standard on chips connected to a Wi-Fi network. Wi-Fi uses a large number of patents held by many different organizations. Australia,
15376-411: Was updated in 1999 with 802.11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds. In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most IEEE 802.11 products are sold. The major commercial breakthrough came with Apple Inc. adopting Wi-Fi for their iBook series of laptops in 1999. It was the first mass consumer product to offer Wi-Fi network connectivity, which
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