Teshub was the Hurrian weather god , as well as the head of the Hurrian pantheon . The etymology of his name is uncertain, though it is agreed it can be classified as linguistically Hurrian . Both phonetic and logographic writings are attested. As a deity associated with the weather, Teshub could be portrayed both as destructive and protective. Individual weather phenomena, including winds, lightning, thunder and rain, could be described as his weapons. He was also believed to enable the growth of vegetation and create rivers and springs. His high position in Hurrian religion reflected the widespread importance of weather gods in northern Mesopotamia and nearby areas, where in contrast with the south agriculture relied primarily on rainfall rather than irrigation . It was believed that his authority extended to both mortal and other gods, both on earth and in heaven. However, the sea and the underworld were not under his control. Depictions of Teshub are rare, though it is agreed he was typically portrayed as an armed, bearded figure, sometimes holding a bundle of lightning. One such example is known from Yazılıkaya . In some cases, he was depicted driving in a chariot drawn by two sacred bulls.
245-486: According to Song of Emergence , Teshub was born from the split skull of Kumarbi after he bit off the genitals of Anu during a conflict over kingship. This tradition is also referenced in other sources, including a hymn from Aleppo and a Luwian inscription. A single isolated reference to the moon god Kušuḫ being his father instead is also known. In individual texts various deities could be referred to as his siblings, including Šauška , Tašmišu and Aranzaḫ . His wife
490-473: A manifestation of either Kumarbi or Dagan. Kumarbi was also worshiped further east in Azuḫinnu, a city located in the kingdom of Arrapha , in the proximity of modern Kirkuk . The local pantheon was apparently jointly headed by him and Šauška . In some of the offering lists from Nuzi linked to this location he is preceded by the deity Kurwe , who might have been the city god of Azuḫinnu. Kumarbi’s name
735-472: A tell located about 55 km (34 mi) southwest of Aleppo near the village of Mardikh . Ebla was an important center throughout the 3rd millennium BC and in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC . Its discovery proved the Levant was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to Egypt and Mesopotamia and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in
980-408: A battle over kingship in heaven, and how his skull had to be split to let his son out. A Hurrian hymn (KUB 47.78) also alludes to the events known from this myth, referring to Anu as Teshub's father and Kumarbi as his mother: You are the strong one, which I (praise), the bull calf of Anu! You are the strong one, which I (praise), your father Anu begot you, your mother Kumarbi brought you to life. For
1225-462: A burden in your belly. First, I have impregnated you with the mighty Storm-god . Second, I have impregnated you with the River Tigris, not to be borne. Third, I have impregnated you with the mighty Tašmišu . I have placed three frightful deities as a burden in your belly, and you will end up banging your head against the rocks of Mt. Tašša! Kumarbi spits out some of Anu’s semen, which falls on
1470-768: A campaign against the southern region of Ib'al – close to Qatna . In order to settle the war with Mari, Isar-Damu allied with Nagar and Kish . Some scholars have suggested that the Kish in question was not the Mesopotamian city but rather a town near Nagar in the Khabur area. The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish , who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa . The alliance also attacked Armi and occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipish's son Enzi-Malik as governor. Ebla suffered its first destruction
1715-408: A chronological order only reflect contemporary “ hermeneutical needs”, though he agrees that the label “Kumarbi Cycle” should be retained in scholarship for practical reasons to refer to myths which deal with the conflict between Kumarbi and Teshub. Erik van Dongen does not regard Polvani’s proposal as necessarily incorrect, though he states due to the state of preservation of the individual myths, and
1960-453: A comparable entry in the list is occupied by a deity named Apantu instead. However, Alfonso Archi suggests that in treaties with Syrian rulers the pair Enlil and Ninlil might correspond to Kumarbi and Shalash. At the same time, he notes that the sumerogram EN.LÍL was seemingly never used to designate him in offering lists. In Taite , a Mitanni city conquered by Assyria during the reign of Adad-nirari I , Kumarbi apparently retained
2205-401: A council of elders ( Abbu ) and the administration. The second kingdom was also a monarchy, but little is known about it because of a lack of written records. The third kingdom was a city-state monarchy with reduced importance under the authority of Yamhad. The queen shared the running of affairs of state with the king. The crown prince was involved in internal matters and the second prince
2450-471: A cult center of a weather god, it enjoyed “transregional” renown, comparable to Aleppo. A list of deities invoked in an oath from Mari recognized these two cities as the two main cult centers of weather gods. It forms a part of a treaty between Zimri-Lim and a king of Kurda . A text from the same city written in Hurrian directly refers to Te-šu-ba-am Ku-um-me-né-en , Teshub of Kumme. Zimri Lim also dedicated
2695-420: A curved sword. Textual sources indicate he was believed to travel in a chariot drawn by two bulls. A second animal associated with him might have been the eagle. In Hittite art , all weather gods, among them Teshub, were depicted similarly, with long hair and beard, dressed in conical headdress decorated with horns, a kilt and shoes with upturned toe area, and with a mace either resting on the shoulder or held in
SECTION 10
#17327649810382940-412: A degree of relevance well into Neo-Assyrian times alongside two other originally Hurrian deities, Nabarbi and Samnuha . All three of them are attested in a Tākultu text. The Luwian deity Kumarma, known from sources from the tenth century BCE, is presumed to be a late form of Kumarbi. Attestations of this theonym are available exclusively from hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions from south of
3185-467: A designation also used for Hittite compositions about the exploits of Gilgamesh . The Hurrian word corresponding to this sign is unknown, while in Hittite it was most likely read as išḫamai- . Preserved incipits indicate that they might have been sung. However, it is not certain if they necessarily originated as oral compositions, even though the heavy reliance on direct speech might further support
3430-403: A few years after the campaign, probably following Isar-Damu's death. The first destruction occurred c. 2300 BC ; palace "G" was burned, baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them. Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited: "Whereas, for all time since the creation of mankind, no king whosoever had destroyed Armanum and Ebla,
3675-487: A further section in 1950. Additional sections have been identified on KUB 48.97 + 1194/u. Further known fragments include KUB 36.31, KUB 36.1 and KBo 52.10. A short text written in Hurrian , KUB 47.56, is presumed to be a possible variant of the same myth due to a mention of Alalu , Anu and Kumarbi, though due to the still imperfect understanding of Hurrian its contents remain uncertain. The main tablet has been dated to
3920-559: A god who might have originated in the local tradition of Aleppo . A further deity counted among Teshub's siblings was his sister Šauška . In the Song of LAMMA , she addresses him as her younger brother. However, Daniel Schwemer argues that she might have originally been regarded as his spouse. In myths, she is often portrayed assisting Teshub in battle. Beate Pongrats-Leisten argues that Teshub and Šauška, who she treats as interchangeable with Mesopotamian Adad and Ishtar , were already paired in
4165-408: A goddess named Ašte Kumurbineve, literally “wife of Kumarbi”, appears instead. However, according to Aaron Tugendhaft she is one of the deities attested in it who would be considered “pure scholarly inventions” meant to mimic Mesopotamian pairs of major gods and their wives with etymologically related names, such as Anu and Antu . In myths Kumarbi appears without a wife. Teshub was regarded as
4410-414: A huge cliff” according to Harry Hoffner, though Daniel Schwemer instead assumes that the passage describing his conception alludes to a goddess related to stones. The former two of these three children of Kumarbi appear together in a ritual text (KUB 27.38) which states that he planned for both of them to become the king of the gods . The text places the so-called “divine determinative ” ( dingir ) before
4655-625: A local belief connected to the worship of Teshub in Aleppo , possibly though not necessarily tied to Mitanni royal ideology, or a tradition preserved in Hattusa and later imported into northern Syria is unknown. Amir Gilan has voiced support for the former interpretation. Following the proposal of Edith Porada , it is sometimes assumed that the golden bowl of Hasanlu might depict Kumarbi, as well as other deities who appear in myths focused on him, which according to Alfonso Archi would indicate that as
4900-583: A local ruler of this city during the times of either the Akkadian Empire or the Third Dynasty of Ur : Tiš-atal, endan of Urkiš, built the temple of the god Kumarbi(?). May the god Lubadaga protect this temple. As for the one who destroys it, may the god Lubadaga destroy (him). May the (weather-god?) not hear his prayer. May the lady of Nagar , the sun-god , (and) the storm-god(?) [...] him who destroys it. The deity presumed to be Kumarbi by
5145-427: A lower town and a raised acropolis in the center. During the first kingdom, the city had an area of 56 hectares and was protected by mud-brick fortifications. Ebla was divided into four districts – each with its own gate in the outer wall. The acropolis included the king's palace "G", and one of two temples in city dedicated to Kura (called the "Red Temple"). The lower city included the second temple of Kura in
SECTION 20
#17327649810385390-457: A number of authors is designated in this context by the sumerogram KIŠ.GAL, normally used to refer to Nergal . Alfonso Archi agrees that the logogram might designate a Hurrian deity , though he instead proposes Aštabi , and based on other Hurrian evidence notes that the possibility that Nergal was meant cannot be ruled out. Doubts have also been expressed by Gernot Wilhelm [ de ] , who states that while not entirely implausible,
5635-459: A priest in his service, a certain Kabiya, though there is presently no indication that any of the structures discovered during excavations was dedicated to him. Piotr Taracha [ de ] additionally tentatively suggests that the city deity of Emar , who he refers to as Il Imari (“the god of Emar”) following the earlier proposal of Joan Goodnick Westenholz , might have been understood as
5880-483: A reference to a similar epithet of Dagan, en ḫa-ar-ri , in a text from Emar , and rules out a reference to Hurrians or Kumarbi being the intent. As early as in the sixteenth century BCE Kumarbi also started to be equated with the Mesopotamian god Enlil due to both of them being regarded as the “fathers of gods” in their respective pantheons. The tradition might have been older, possibly going as far back as
6125-501: A result of this process, Teshub came to be regarded as the weather god of Aleppo. However, as Semitic languages continued to be spoken across the region, both names of weather gods continued to be used across the middle Euphrates area. While the equivalence between Teshub and Adad is not attested in the Mesopotamian god list An = Anum , he is directly referred to as one of his foreign counterparts, specifically that linked to Subartu , in another similar text, K 2100 (CT 25, 16–17). In
6370-417: A role similar to Dagan in inland Syria. However, ritual texts where the two of them appear as separate figures are also known. Franks Simons has additionally suggested that a bilingual edition of the same god list known from Emar might equate Kumarbi with the high ranked but poorly known Mesopotamian god Ištaran , possibly also due to his presumed role as a “father of gods”. The theonym he restores as Ištaran
6615-529: A royal inscription from Urkesh . Later sources indicate that his main cult center was the city of Kumme , which has not yet been located with certainty. His other major sacred city was Arrapha , the capital of an eponymous kingdom located in the proximity of modern Kirkuk in Iraq . Both of these cities were regarded as religious centers of supraregional significance, and a number of references to Mesopotamian rulers occasionally sending offerings to them are known. In
6860-425: A sense of suspense to the narratives by having each of the plans appear to be successful in the short term. Typically they involve a new enemy set up by Kumarbi to battle Teshub. However, the adversaries are eventually defeated, though not necessarily destroyed. Harry Hoffner has noted that the myths appear to present the two main characters and their allies in contrasting ways: Kumarbi is aided by figures linked to
7105-579: A similar list dealing with the worship of Teshub in Šapinuwa he appears after Anu . During the reign of Tudḫaliya IV , he received offerings alongside other deities belonging to the kaluti of Teshub in the temple of Kataḫḫa in Ankuwa during the AN.TAḪ.ŠUM [ de ] festival. In the Hurro-Hittite itkalzi rituals, Kumarbi appears alongside Shalash . She precedes him in instructions for
7350-582: A single passage from the Song of Ḫedammu Teshub is addressed with the title “canal inspector of mankind”, which most likely originates in the Babylonian milieu . Anu ’s status as the father of Teshub also mirrors Mesopotamian tradition. This idea might have reached the Hurrians as early as in the Akkadian period . Daniel Schwemer notes it is possible that in turn the tradition according to which Adad
7595-455: A smiting position. In the Yazılıkaya sanctuary, Teshub is portrayed holding a three-pronged lightning bolt in his hand and standing on two mountains, possibly to be identified as Namni and Ḫazzi . He is also depicted on a Neo-Hittite relief from Malatya , where he rides in his chariot drawn with bulls and is armed with a triple lightning bolt. Frans Wiggermann assumes that some depictions of
Teshub - Misplaced Pages Continue
7840-418: A son of Kumarbi, conceived after he bit off and swallowed the genitals of Anu. Gary Beckman states that the weather god can thus be considered a descendant of both of the lines of gods present in the Song of Kumarbi . Due to the circumstances of the weather god’s conception, a Hurrian hymn (KUB 47.78) refers to Kumarbi as his mother: You are the strong one, which I (praise), the bull calf of Anu! You are
8085-452: A temple of Ishtar instead, with its later Hurrian character resulting from the settlement of Hurrians in the nineteenth century BCE. Possibly this process was contemporary with the change of the name or refounding of the city, which was originally known as Gasur. Members of Teshub's clergy are mentioned in the Nuzi texts, including šangû priests and entu priestesses. It is also known that he
8330-684: A text from Ebla which invokes Hadda alongside Ammarik . Hurrian offering lists, so-called kaluti [ de ] , preserve long sequences of deities associated with Teshub. The standard version was arranged according to importance and included Teshub himself, as well as deities such as Tašmišu (in Šapinuwa followed by Anu), Kumarbi, Ea , Kušuḫ , Šimige , Šauška, Aštabi , Nupatik , Pirengir , Ḫešui , Iršappa , Tenu, earth and heaven , “mountains and rivers”, Šarruma, Šeri and Ḫurri, Namni and Ḫazzi, “ Ugur of Teshub”, “hero of Teshub”, “ancestors of Teshub” and various attributes and cultic paraphernalia related to him. Goddesses generally belonged to
8575-430: A type of offering pit, from the same site might have also been linked to him. A unique seal from Urkesh depicting a deity striding over a mountain range has also been described as a possible depiction of Kumarbi. It has been noted that it finds no close parallels among similar works of art known from southern Mesopotamia . Early attestations of Kumarbi are also present in sources from Mari. Gernot Wilhelm argues that
8820-504: A vase to the weather god of Kumme; the inscription renders the name logogaphically. In cases where logographic writings are used to spell the name, it is not certain if speakers of Semitic languages (Akkadian and Amorite) necessarily referred to the god of Kumme as Adad or with his Hurrian name. In some cases, Kumme occurs as a theophoric element in personal names from various Hurrian sites ( Nuzi , Tikunani ), as well as from Mariote and Middle Assyrian archives, such as Kummen-adal ("Kumme
9065-459: A vassal to the Idrimi dynasty . "Mardikh V" (1200–535 BC ) was a rural, Early Iron Age settlement that grew in size during later periods. Further development occurred during "Mardikh VI", which lasted until c. 60 AD . "Mardikh VII" began in the 3rd century AD and lasted until the 7th century, after which the site was abandoned. Ebla consisted of
9310-410: A weather god accompanied by a naked goddess might represent Teshub and an unidentified deity, rather than Mesopotamian Adad and Shala . A distinct iconography is attested for the weather god of Aleppo [ de ] , who could be identified as Teshub. His attribute was an eagle-shaped chariot. It has been suggested that its form was meant to reflect the belief that this vehicle was as fast as
9555-627: A “pan-Hurrian” deity he might have continued to be worshiped in eastern areas until the beginning of the first millennium BCE. Kumarbi played a central role in Hurrian mythology . Myths focused on him are known chiefly from the Bogazköy Archive , and most of them are preserved in Hittite translations. However, as noted by Gary Beckman , their themes, such as conflict over kingship in heaven, reflect Hurrian, rather than Hittite, theology. According to Alfonso Archi, they were transmitted in
9800-486: Is Ibbit-Lim , who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla. A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit-Lim's inscription was discovered in 1968; this helped to identify the site of Tell-Mardikh with the ancient kingdom Ebla. The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that time. By
10045-485: Is 5.20 meters long, 4 meters wide and west–east oriented. Limestone was used to build the walls and few blocks protruding from the sides toward the middle of the rooms suggest the roof to have been a corbelled vault . The tombs were found under the floor of Building Q, which was built in the Isin-Larsa period. The first kingdom's government consisted of the king (styled Malikum ) and the grand vizier, who headed
Teshub - Misplaced Pages Continue
10290-404: Is Teshub-ewre, “Teshub is lord”, presumed to refer to his position as the head of the pantheon. By the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries BCE, Teshub became the deity most commonly invoked in Hurrian theophoric names. Many royal dynasties across Upper Mesopotamia, Syria and Anatolia considered Teshub their tutelary deity. According to Piotr Taracha, this might have been a result of the influence of
10535-475: Is Teshub”), Fand-Teshub (“Teshub makes right”), Ḫižmi-Teshub (“shiny is Teshub”), Kibi-Teshub (“Teshub sent”), Tadip-Teshub (“Teshub loved”), Teshub-adal (“Teshub is strong”), Teshub-ewri (“Teshub is lord”), Teshub-madi (“Teshub [possesses] wisdom”), Tun-Teshub (“Teshub could”), Tuppi-Teshub (“Teshub is here”), Un-Teshub (“Teshub came” or “he [the child] came, o Teshub”), the hypocoristic Teššōya, and uncommon hybrid Hurro-Akkadian names such as Teshub-nirari (“Teshub
10780-479: Is a further example, his name was originally spelled as Aštabil in Ebla and as such cannot be considered another structurally Kumarbi-like theonym. According to Alfonso Archi, in a number of Hurrian texts Kumarbi’s name is represented by the sumerogram NISABA . It was also used to refer to Dagan . Archi assumes both of these scribal conventions had the same origin. In Ugaritic and related dialects Dagan’s name
11025-532: Is agreed that Teshub's name is a cognate of the Urartian theonym Teišeba . This god is only attested in sources from the first millennium BCE. Urartian and Hurrian belonged to the same language family as Hurro-Urartian languages , but they already separated in the third millennium BCE, and Teišeba's presence in the Urartian pantheon cannot be considered the result of the language descending from Hurrian. In contrast with Teshub's status in Hurrian religion , he
11270-488: Is already implicit in Old Babylonian texts. Remnants of the period of Hurrian cultural influence are also still visible in a number of Neo-Assyrian traditions pertaining to Adad. The Tākultu texts indicate that his bulls Šeri and Ḫurri were incorporated into the circle of deities associated with Adad in both Assur and Kurbail [ pl ] . The fact that he was invoked alongside Ishtar in contracts
11515-437: Is also already referenced in texts from Mari from the early second millennium BCE. Further attestations are available from Ugarit, Alalakh , and from the eastern kingdom of Arrapha , where he was worshiped in Azuḫinnu. Furthermore, he was incorporated into the Hittite pantheon, and as one of its members appears in texts from Hattusa, presumed to reflect the traditions of Kizzuwatna . A depiction of him has been identified among
11760-518: Is also attested as a commonly worshipped deity in the Ugaritic texts , which indicate that Hurrian and local elements were interconnected in the religious practice of this city. Additionally, he was incorporated into Hittite religion and Luwian religion . His hypostasis associated with Aleppo attained particular importance in this context. Multiple Hurrian myths focused on Teshub are known. Most of them are preserved in Hittite translations, though
12005-494: Is attested from sites located in all areas inhabited by the Hurrians, from Anatolia to the Zagros Mountains , though it has been argued that his importance in the sphere of cult was comparatively minor. The oldest possible reference to him occurs in a royal inscription from Urkesh from either the Akkadian or Ur III period , though the correct reading of the name of the deity meant is a matter of scholarly debate. He
12250-454: Is considered a “pan-Hurrian” god. As such, he was worshipped in all areas inhabited by the Hurrians, from southeastern Anatolia to the Zagros Mountains , similarly to deities such as Šauška , Šimige , Kušuḫ and Kumarbi . He is first attested in Hurrian theophoric names from the Ur III period . The single oldest example is Teššop-šelag ( te-šup-še-la-aḫ ; translation of the second element
12495-400: Is effectively the main character in all of them, leading to occasional renaming proposals. Teshub is also a major character in the Song of Release , whose plot focuses on his efforts to secure the liberation of the inhabitants of Igingalliš from Ebla . Two of the preserved passages additionally deal with his meetings with Ishara, the tutelary goddess of the latter city, and Allani, the queen of
SECTION 50
#173276498103812740-577: Is implicitly attested in texts from Tabal , where the latter came to be regarded as the husband of Ḫepat. However, according to Manfred Hutter it is not possible to speak of “Luwianized” form of the worship of this goddess in earlier periods. Through Luwian influence she was worshipped alongside Tarḫunz in Carchemish as well, but she was not incorporated into the religion of the Arameans and eventually gradually disappeared from sources from Syria over
12985-551: Is known from two sites, Mari and Shubat-Enlil . An example is also known from Hattusa, though due to the state of preservation of the text the full name cannot be restored. Kumarbi was among the Hurrian deities who also came to be worshiped in the Hittite Empire . Most of the ritual texts from Hattusa which mention him have a Hurrian background and likely originated in Kizzuwatna . In offering lists, he belonged to
13230-486: Is known. However, according to Wilfred G. Lambert succession involving master and servant rather than members of one family is not entirely unknown, and in addition to the account of Kumarbi’s overthrow of Anuy another example might be a section from the Theogony of Dunnu focused on a nameless figure seemingly labeled as a servant ( ṣiḫru ) rather than child ( māru ) of the god he deposes. Shalash could be viewed as
13475-487: Is my help”) or Warad-Teshub (“servant of Teshub”). It has been noted that similar theophoric names invoking Teshub are also attested in texts from contemporary Assyrian and Babylonian sites, for example Nippur . In texts from this city from the Kassite period , fifteen different examples are attested, which makes Teshub the most common non-Mesopotamian non- Kassite deity appearing in theophoric names from this corpus, and
13720-441: Is nonetheless not universally accepted. An alternate interpretation is to see Alalu as the father of Anu , who reigned between Alalu and Kumarbi as the king of the gods, and grandfather of Kumarbi. However, Christian Zgoll, who supports this theory, admits that it is difficult to prove. He nonetheless questions the notion of two separate dynasties, and argues that no other examples of a theogonic myth involving two divine families
13965-466: Is not common in the Hurrian onomasticon . He is entirely absent from the earliest known Hurrian personal names from the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods, though it has been noted they usually were not theophoric , in contrast with these from later sites such as Nuzi, and that other major deities, like Šimige, Kušuḫ or Šauška, are also not attested in them. The name Arip-Kumurwe, “Kumarbi gave (a child)”,
14210-421: Is not fond of his newborn children, and demands to have Teshub (here referred to as NAM.ḪÉ, “abundance”) to be handed over to him so that he can devour or crush him. However, a stone is given to him as a substitute and he breaks his teeth trying to bite it. It is assumed that the ultimate outcome of the myth, while not preserved, was most likely favorable for Teshub. However, he was not yet granted kingship over
14455-417: Is not universally accepted and the evidence is limited. He was also associated with prosperity. It was believed that he resided in the underworld. Multiple Hurrian deities were regarded as Kumarbi's children, including Teshub , who he conceived after biting off the genitals of Anu . They were regarded as enemies. In myths dealing with the conflict between them Kumarbi fathers various enemies meant to supplant
14700-404: Is possible that both Shamshi-Adad I and his successor Yasmah-Addu referred to the god of Arrapha as Adad. At the same time, according to Daniel Schwemer he was called Teshub by their contemporaries in Šušarrā , as the local inhabitants, who apparently at one point dedicated two bronze vessels to him, were predominantly Hurrians. Information about the religion of the kingdom of Arrapha, including
14945-596: Is presumed that it was located east of the Tigris , in the valley of the Eastern Khabur . It has been suggested that it is to be found in the immediate proximity of modern Zakho , but according to Karen Radner textual sources indicate a more mountainous environment, which lead her to suggest identification with Beytüşşebap instead. The city is already attested in texts from the Old Babylonian period . As
SECTION 60
#173276498103815190-532: Is presumed to reflect the association between Teshub and Šauška . Beate Pongratz-Leisten argues an example of Hurrian mythology being reflected in an association between these Mesopotamian deities is already present in a curse formula of Adad-nirari I . At the same time it is considered implausible to assume that the widespread veneration of Adad attested in Assyria in the Middle Assyrian period and later
15435-458: Is rendered logographically as KA.DI.DI rather than the expected KA.DI, which he argues represents a dittographic error (unnecessary duplication of a sign), while the restoration of Kumarbi’s name relies on the presence of the signs KU.MA in the Hurrian section of the same entry, which might reflect the spelling of his name used in Nuzi . He suggests that this equation would not necessarily contradict
15680-444: Is rendered with the signs (DEUS)BONUS, “the good god”. The correct reading has been determined based on a syllabic spelling identified in an inscription from Tell Ahmar , (DEUS.BONUS) ku-mara/i+ra/i-ma-sa 5 . Kumarbi’s name has Hurrian origin and can be translated as “he of Kumar”. While no such a toponym is attested in any Hurrian sources, Gernot Wilhelm [ de ] notes it shows similarities to Hurrian names from
15925-498: Is selected to act as the king of the gods by Kumarbi and Ea. He ignores the advice of Kubaba , who implores him to meet with the other gods. Ea and Kumarbi as a result eventually grow displeased with him . The former sends a messenger to the underworld to discuss how to depose LAMMA with Nara-Napšara, a pair of primeval deities, and in the end he is seemingly defeated and subsequently subjugated by Teshub. Anna Maria Polvani notes that Song of LAMMA appears to indicate that Kumarbi
16170-452: Is strong") or Kummen-ewri ("Kumme is lord"), according to Daniel Schwemer possibly functioning as a stand-in for the name of its god. Marie Claude Trémouille interprets this phenomenon similarly, presuming that the name Kummen-atal is to be translated as "(the weather god of) Kumme is strong". However, according to Thomas Richter such names reflect the perception of the city itself as a numen . The last references to Kumme occur in sources from
16415-503: Is typically translated as “Kumarbi, the descendant of Alalu”. A further piece of evidence supporting the view are sections of treaties enumerating gods invoked as their divine witnesses, in which they could be listed in sequence. Both of them appear for example in the treaty between Hittite king Muwatalli II and Alaksandu of Wilusa. The myth establishing the relation between them, the Song of Kumarbi , seemingly involves two “dynasties” of deities competing for kingship. This assumption
16660-402: Is unknown), identified in a document from Puzrish-Dagan from the seventh year of Shu-Sin ’s reign. It is also presumed that the sumerogram representing a weather god in the inscription of Tish-atal of Urkesh should be interpreted as an early reference to Teshub. According to Daniel Schwemer, it can be considered the first direct reference to this god outside of personal names, and dates to
16905-405: Is unknown, but it is assumed it has Hurrian origin. Volkert Haas suggested it was derived from the adjective teššai , which he translates as “high” or “lordly”. However, Daniel Schwemer [ de ] points out that this proposal does not provide an explanation of the suffix, and that teššai is not an actually attested word. Marie Claude Trémouille notes that while a connection with
17150-401: Is written as te-eš-šu-ub-bá- . This form seemingly reflects the pronunciation /Teššob/. Attestations of uncommon variants with the suffix -a are limited to theophoric names from various sites. In the Ugaritic alphabetic script the name was consistently rendered as tṯb ( 𐎚𐎘𐎁 ), with only a single attestation of a different variant, tṯp ( 𐎚𐎘𐎔 ). Dennis Pardee vocalizes this form of
17395-439: The hišuwa [ de ] festival. The ritual text KUB 45.28+ mentions Kumarbi alongside the “ ancient gods ” (Eltara, Nabira, Minki, Tuḫuši, Ammunki and Awannamu), Teshub, mountain gods and Ea. In lists of divine witnesses in Hittite diplomatic texts Kumarbi is only attested twice, in the treaties between Muršili II and Manapa-Tarhunta , and between Muwatalli II and Alaksandu of Wilusa . In other similar texts
17640-486: The Derveni papyrus . In standard syllabic cuneiform , the theonym Kumarbi was written as Ku-mar-bi . A byform, Kumurwe, is attested in sources from Nuzi . In Ugaritic texts written in the local alphabetic cuneiform script it was rendered as kmrb ( 𐎋𐎎𐎗𐎁 ) or kmrw ( 𐎋𐎎𐎗𐎆 ), vocalized respectively as Kumarbi and Kumarwi. A late variant, Kumarma, appears in hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions, where it
17885-466: The Hittite king Mursili I in c. 1600 BC . Ebla maintained its prosperity through a vast trading network. Artifacts from Sumer , Cyprus , Egypt and as far as Afghanistan were recovered from the city's palaces. The kingdom had its own language, Eblaite , and the political organization of Ebla had features different from the Sumerian model. Women enjoyed a special status, and
18130-519: The Khabur area. References to him have been identified in texts from Ugarit , Mari , Nuzi and Hattusa . In sources from the last of these sites, he is commonly linked to Urkesh (Tell Mozan), a city located in Upper Mesopotamia already known from sources from the Akkadian period . It has been argued that a reference to him might already occur in a building inscription of Tiš-atal ,
18375-517: The Kish civilization , which was a cultural entity of East Semitic -speaking populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to the western Levant. During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300 BC , Ebla was the most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states, especially during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC , which is known as "the age of the archives" after
18620-530: The Mediterranean coast in the fifteenth century BCE. In modern scholarship, comparisons have been made between myths focused on their respective struggles for kingship among the gods. While Baal does not directly fight against El , the senior god in the Ugaritic pantheon , the relationship between them has nonetheless been compared to the hostility between their Hurrian counterparts, Kumarbi and Teshub. Additionally, similarly to how Baal fought Yam , god of
18865-623: The Mitanni empire, the main site associated with him was Kaḫat in northern Syria. In Kizzuwatna in southeastern Turkey he was worshipped in Kummanni . Furthermore, due to Hurrian cultural influence he came to be viewed as the weather god of Aleppo [ de ] . He was also worshipped in many other Hurrian cities, and in the second half of the second millennium BCE he was the deity most commonly invoked in Hurrian theophoric names, with numerous examples identified in texts from Nuzi . He
19110-519: The Mitanni royal family was familiar with her as well, as evidenced by her presence in theophoric names of some of its members, which might indicate she was also recognized as Teshub's wife further east. Despite the connection between her and Teshub, Ḫepat was not referred to with a feminine equivalent of his title, šarri , and her corresponding epithet was allai , “lady”, instead. The deities regarded as their children were Šarruma , Allanzu and Kunzišalli. The first of these three could be referred to as
19355-604: The Near East during the Early Bronze Age . The first Eblaite kingdom has been described as the first recorded world power. Starting as a small settlement in the Early Bronze Age ( c. 3500 BC ), Ebla developed into a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony over much of northern and eastern Syria. Ebla was destroyed during the 23rd century BC . It
19600-511: The Neo-Assyrian period . The weather god of Kumme, whose name was written logographically, was recognized by Assyrian rulers. He is mentioned as IŠKUR šá ku-me in the so-called Götteradressbuch , a text listing deities worshipped in Assur , while Adad-nirari II visited the city itself in 895 BCE to make an offering to him. According to Daniel Schwemer, while the king referred to the god of
19845-455: The Song of Ullikummi (CTH 345). Their arrangement used in the following sections reflects the most commonly accepted order. However, the overall number of texts which might have originally formed the cycle is not known. Anna Maria Polvani suggests that it is possible multiple cycles of myths involving Kumarbi existed, assumes the known narratives did not necessarily form a coherent whole. Alfonso Archi states that attempts at arranging them in
20090-506: The Sun goddess of the Earth ”, though he was not an underworld god in the strict sense. A single Hittite text, KUB 59.66, mentions a “star of Kumarbi”, which Volkert Haas proposed identifying with the planet Saturn . It is assumed that Kumarbi’s father was Alalu . A direct statement confirming this relation has been identified in the text KUB 33.120 (I 19: Kumarbiš Alaluwaš NUMUN-ŠU ). It
20335-478: The Taurus Mountains , which mention him in relation with prosperity. In three texts from Tell Ahmar (Masuwari) attributed to the local king Hamiyata he appears alongside “king Ea”, according to Ilya Yakubovich a calque of Hurrian Ea šarri . He is also mentioned alongside Tipariya, a wine god, in an inscription from Carchemish which states that the weather god Tarḫunz with established “the land of
20580-403: The art of the ancient Near East is considered difficult, and according to Albert Dietz in many cases is outright impossible. It has been suggested that Teshub was typically depicted dressed in a short skirt and pointed shoes, sometimes standing on a bull, mountains or mountain gods. According to Volkert Haas , in glyptic art from Nuzi , he is depicted holding a three-pronged lightning bolt and
20825-403: The kaluti of Ḫepat instead. This separation by gender is presumed to be a Hurrian innovation, and there is no indication that it was instead derived from a Syrian Amorite or pre-Amorite tradition. Teshub was considered analogous to the Mesopotamian weather god, Adad . A degree of syncretism between them occurred across northern Syria and Upper Mesopotamia in the second millennium BCE due to
21070-462: The king of the gods . He was regarded both as a destructive figure and as a protector of mankind. He controlled thunder and lightning. In myths, various weather phenomena, including storms, lightning, rain and wind, function as his weapons. He was responsible for securing the growth of vegetation by sending rain. As an extension of his link with vegetation and agriculture, he could be connected with rivers. A Hurro-Hittite ritual (CTH 776) refers to him as
21315-403: The voiceless sibilants is a modern convention which reflects the common cuneiform spellings of the name, but writings with not only š , but also s and ṯ are all attested in various scripts. Texts from Nuzi record multiple syllabic spellings, including the most common te-šub , as well as te-šu-ub , te-eš-šub and te-eš-šu-ub , and rare te 9 -šub , te-eš 15 -šu-ub and te-su-ub ,
21560-422: The 1960s he had abandoned it himself, and instead started to advocate interpreting Tishpak's name as a derivative of Akkadian šapāku , to be translated as “the down-pouring one”. However, this etymology is not regarded as plausible today. More recently, support for the view that Tishpak might have been related to Teshub has been voiced by Alfonso Archi, who suggests the Mesopotamian god developed through reception of
21805-628: The 2000 BC dating being a mere formal date. The Akkadians under Sargon of Akkad and his descendant Naram-Sin invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus Mountain ; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the areas attacked were not attached to Akkad. Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider them responsible for
22050-618: The Bible, based on preliminary guesses and speculations by Pettinato and others, is now widely discredited and the academic consensus is that Ebla "has no bearing on the Minor Prophets, the historical accuracy of the Biblical Patriarchs, Yahweh worship, or Sodom and Gomorrah". In Ebla studies, the focus has shifted away from comparisons with the Bible; Ebla is now studied as a civilization in its own right. The claims led to
22295-486: The Ebla tablets. Mardiikh IIA : The early period between 3000 and 2400 BC is designated "Mardikh IIA". General knowledge about the city's history prior to the written archives is obtained through excavations. The first stages of Mardikh IIA is identified with building "CC", and structures that form a part of building "G2", which was apparently a royal palace built c. 2700 BC . Toward
22540-698: The Hurrian goddess Lelluri . Starting in the Middle Hittite period, the Hittites due to growing Hurrian influence on their culture came to associate Teshub with their weather god, Tarḫunna . The character of the Luwian weather god, Tarḫunz , also came to be influenced by the Teshub. A factor facilitating interchange of traits between these Anatolian weather gods, their Hurrian counterpart and other weather deities, such as Hattian Taru and Mesopotamian Adad,
22785-468: The Hurrian one in the Diyala area. Manfred Krebernik [ de ] instead classifies the name of Tishpak as Elamite . Marten Stol also tentatively describes it as such. Daniel Schwemer states that there is presently no evidence confirming the identification of Teshub and Tishpak as related deities. The two primary roles assigned to Teshub in Hurrian religion were those of a weather god and of
23030-497: The Hurrians under the name Aranzaḫ or Aranziḫ. While Šauška was regarded as a sister of both Teshub and Tašmišu, she is not mentioned among Kumarbi’s children in the Song of Kumarbi , though according to Marie-Claude Trémouille this might simply be the result of its incomplete state of preservation. She therefore argues it can nonetheless be assumed this deity was also one of the children of Kumarbi and Anu. However, according to Gary Beckman’s recent treatment of Song of Kumarbi ,
23275-408: The Syrian goddess Ishara , who was the goddess of the royal family. Ishtar was also worshiped but was mentioned only five times in one of the monthly offering lists, while Ishara was far more important, appearing 40 times. Other deities included Damu ; the Mesopotamian god Utu ; Ashtapi ; Dagan ; Hadad ( Hadda ) and his consort Halabatu ("she of Halab"); and Shipish , the goddess of
23520-561: The Tigris, in the proximity of Little Zab . It is possible that the local god was understood to be Teshub during the reign of Shamshi-Adad I already. One of his inscriptions refers to sacrifices made during a festival ( ḫumṭum ) held in Arrapha in honor of a weather god and a sun god, and while the sumerograms used are usually interpreted as Adad and Shamash , it is not impossible that the deities meant were Teshub and Šimige . Ultimately it
23765-405: The acropolis. The reason for the destruction is not known; according to Astour, it could have been the result of a Hurrian invasion c. 2030 BC , led by the former Eblaite vassal city of Ikinkalis . The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release" discovered in 1983, which Astour considers as describing the destruction of
24010-466: The archive has allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important information over the political organization and social customs of the mid-3rd millennium BC 's Levant. The word "Ebla" means "white rock" and may refer to the limestone outcrop on which the city was built. In the central mound, finds from the Late Ubaid and Late Chalcolithic has been found. Ebla
24255-460: The association between them should be understood as an example of what he deems “translation” of deities with similar positions meant to facilitate the understanding of different pantheons, rather than syncretism . The trilingual version of the Weidner god list from Ugarit in addition to equating Kumarbi with Enlil also presents him as analogous to El , a god who in the local pantheon fulfilled
24500-465: The assumptions that it structurally resembled other myths belonging to the Kumarbi Cycle , while considered plausible, is only conjectural. In the beginning, the narrator praises Silver, crediting “wise men” as the source of information about him. Daniel Schwemer interprets him as the personification of the metal he represented. He is described as a son of a mortal woman and a god described as
24745-425: The attestations of this writing from Anatolia instead suggests that it reflected a connection to the Hittite grain deity Ḫalki , who similarly could be represented by the same sumerogram. One Anatolian example of the use of NISABA to designate Kumarbi has been identified in an offering list dealing with the deities worshiped in the Hittite city of Durmitta [ ca ] . Despite the different character of
24990-580: The beginning of the 18th century BC , Ebla had become a vassal of Yamhad , an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo. Written records are not available for this period, but the city was still a vassal during Yarim-Lim III of Yamhad's reign. One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was Immeya , who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre , indicating the continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla. The city
25235-459: The beginning of the fourteenth century BCE, during a period of growing influence of Hurrian culture on the Hittites. The “Kumarbi Cycle” is a scholarly grouping of a number of myths focused on the eponymous god. It has been described as “[u]nquestionably the best-known belletristic work discovered in the Hittite archives”. The individual texts were referred to with the sumerogram SÌR, “song”,
25480-418: The best course of action with Anu, Ea and Teshub, in this passage designated by the epithet KA.ZAL. Following the weather god’s argument that the only safe way for him to leave Kumarbi’s body would be to split the skull of the latter, the fate goddesses perform this operation, and subsequently mend the head “like a garment” while apparently the river Tigris leaves through another, unspecified, route. Kumarbi
25725-469: The bird it was patterned after and its ability to travel across the sky. Teshub was regarded as the son of Anu and Kumarbi . The former was a deity received from Mesopotamia , and outside of being the father of Teshub did not play a major role in Hurrian religion . The circumstances of the weather god's birth are known from the Song of Emergence , which relays how Kumarbi bit off the genitals of Anu during
25970-504: The bull was already the symbolic animal of the weather god earlier, in the Old Hittite period. While in Hittite texts postdating the introduction of Hurrian deities, Teshub might appear alongside Šuwaliyat , who corresponded to Tašmišu , there is no evidence that a connection existed between this Anatolian god and Tarḫunna in earlier periods. Their juxtaposition was influenced by traditions imported from Kizzuwatna. In order to reconcile
26215-417: The central authority were either ruled directly from the capital, or had appointed officials. The titles of the civil servants do not clearly define the bearer's responsibilities and authority as each town had its own political traditions. The regions under the direct control of the king that were economically vital for the capital are called the " chora " by archaeologists. Regions under direct control of
26460-436: The circle of deities ( kaluti [ de ] ) of Teshub . In the reliefs from the Yazılıkaya sanctuary, where the depicted deities seemingly follow the order of such lists, he is most likely depicted on relief assigned number 40 in the conventional numbering in modern literature. Typically in ritual texts in enumerations of deities he follows Teshub and Tašmišu and precedes Ea , Kušuḫ and Šimige . However, in
26705-402: The cities and villages where the king or his vizier had palaces, towns that included important sanctuaries of gods related to the royal institution, towns visited by the monarch during the different rituals he participated in (such as the renewal of royalty ritual), and other cities such as the ones where textiles were delivered. The chora spans around 3000 km ; from west to east it includes
26950-429: The city as Adad, this should only be considered a case of what he deems " interpretatio assyria " (per analogy with a later religious phenomenon referred to as interpretatio graeca ). At the time, Kumme was an independent polity under the control of local rulers. The city's status as a well established religious center might have been the reason why it retained independence. A further Assyrian reference to Kumme occurs in
27195-432: The city of Aleppo I summon him, Teššop, for the pure throne. A single text, KUB 33,89+, preserves a different tradition about Teshub's parentage and refers to the moon god Kušuḫ as his father, but this attestation remains isolated and its broader implications are uncertain. The passage is entirely logographic (U DUMU 30), and in the past it has been interpreted as a possible reference to a Hattian tradition instead, with
27440-490: The city's most important deity apart from Hadad. At the beginning of the process of deciphering the tablets, Giovanni Pettinato made claims about possible connections between Ebla and the Bible, citing alleged references in the tablets to the existence of Yahweh , the Patriarchs , Sodom and Gomorrah and other Biblical references. However, much of the initial media excitement about a supposed Eblaite connections with
27685-408: The city. Trade continued to be Ebla's main economic activity during the third kingdom; archaeological finds show there was an extensive exchange with Egypt and coastal Syrian cities such as Byblos . Ebla was a polytheistic state. During the first kingdom, Eblaites worshiped their dead kings. The pantheon of the first Ebla included pairs of deities and they can be separated into three genres; in
27930-507: The city; the last ten kings (ending with Irkab-Damu) were buried in Darib , while older kings were buried in a royal mausoleum located in Binas and only one royal tomb dating to the first kingdom was discovered in Ebla (Hypogeum "G4"). This first kingdom tomb was probably built during the reign of the last king and might be an indication of Eblaite adoption of Mesopotamian traditions to bury
28175-401: The course of the eighth and seventh centuries BCE. It is also possible that the echoes of the myth about Teshub's birth are preserved in a hieroglyphic Luwian inscription from Arsuz , which names the male deity Kumarma as Tarḫunz's mother similarly to how a Hurrian hymn refers to Kumarbi as Teshub's mother due to the circumstances of his birth. Teshub was one of the oldest Hurrian deities . He
28420-472: The creator of rivers and springs. The high status of weather gods in Upper Mesopotamia , Syria and Anatolia reflected the historical reliance on rainfall in agriculture. In contrast, in southern Mesopotamia , where it depended chiefly on irrigation, the weather god ( Ishkur /Adad) was a figure of comparatively smaller significance. Teshub's royal authority was believed to extend to both gods and mortals. According to Hurrian tradition his domain included both
28665-466: The cult of Teshub preserve an order of deities reflecting the succession described in this passage. The length of the reigns is most likely symbolic, and according to Gery Beckman in the light of the central themes of this work might be a reference to the nine months of human pregnancy. Kumarbi let Anu flee after defeating him, though only after biting off and swallowing his genitals. Anu then taunts him: Do not rejoice over your belly, for I have placed
28910-537: The cuneiform sign having both of these values depending on context. However, Marie Claude Trémouille argues this transcription is erroneous in this case. The use of this numeral to render the names of weather gods is first documented for Adad in the fifteenth century BCE. This convention might have originated in Northern Mesopotamia or in Syria , but Daniel Schwemer argues that it also cannot be ruled out it
29155-468: The deity playing this role, but he is better attested in association with Ḫepat and Teshub. In myths belonging to the Kumarbi is also aided by the deified sea, who acts as his counsellor. In Song of Ḫašarri , a reference is made to a group of wandering deities referred to as the "Seven Eyes of Kumarbi", possibly analogous to Ḫutellurra . The circle of deities associated with him additionally included
29400-496: The deity venerated there, originally Adad , came to be identified as Teshub instead. According to Alfonso Archi, he was effectively superimposed over the older god. For example, a festival originally dedicated to Adad which took place in the month Ḫiyaru was later held in honor of Teshub. According to Gernot Wilhelm, the hypostasis of Teshub associated with Aleppo became the “most important local variant” of this god, as evidenced by attestations spanning from Hattusa and Ugarit in
29645-538: The destruction which ended the Archive period. By the time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian king. A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla, but there was continuity with its first kingdom heritage. Ebla maintained its earliest features, including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first kingdom's religious sites. A new royal palace
29890-456: The ear symbol is not used elsewhere, and might only represent a play on words referencing the scribal convention of using the name of dissimilar Hittite deity Ḫalki as a logogram designating Kumarbi. Feliu points out many arguments in favor of interpreting Kumarbi as an agricultural god are based on circular reasoning , specifically on the assumption that if Dagan, closely associated with him, had agricultural character, so did he. However, Dagan
30135-431: The early Hurrian inscription of Tish-atal , with the goddess Belat-Nagar who occurs in it according to her representing a local hypostasis of Šauška. However, the theory that the tutelary goddess of Nagar was a form of Šauška or Ishtar has been critically evaluated by Joan Goodnick Westenholz , who remarked that these goddesses did not have anything in common with them beyond also being imagined as female figures. Ḫepat
30380-536: The end of the Old Babylonian period , in which Šunuḫru-ammu, a ruler of the kingdom of Khana , mentions the sacrifice he made to Dagan ša ḪAR- ri . The proposal that the epithet should be interpreted as ša Ḫur-ri , “of the Hurrians”, has originally been made by Ignace J. Gelb , and subsequently found support of authors such as Volkert Haas , Ichiro Nakata, Karel van der Toorn and Alfonso Archi. However, Lluís Feliu argues it should be read as ša ḫar-ri based on
30625-411: The end of the third millennium BCE . Lluís Feliu proposes that a damaged line from the later god list An = Anum which describes a deity whose name is not preserved as the “Enlil of Subartu ” might refer to Kumarbi. However, Enlil and Kumarbi are for the most part treated as two separate figures in Hurrian myths, for example in the Song of Kumarbi Enlil and Ninlil are among the deities invited by
30870-464: The end of this period, a hundred years' war with Mari started. Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king Saʿumu , who conquered many of Ebla's cities. In the mid-25th century BC , king Kun-Damu defeated Mari, but the state's power declined following his reign. Mardikh IIB1 : The archive period, which is designated "Mardikh IIB1", lasted from c. 2400 BC until c. 2300 BC . The end of
31115-657: The entire kingdom. The Eblaites of Mardikh II were Semite-speakers close to their Northwestern Semitic neighbors, such as the Amorites. Giovanni Pettinato said the Eblaite language , one of the oldest attested Semitic languages, was a West Semitic language ; Gelb and others said it was an East Semitic dialect closer to the Akkadian language . Academic consensus considers Eblaite an East Semitic language which exhibits both West and East Semitic features. Ebla held several religious and social festivals, including rituals for
31360-525: The equivalent of other weather gods worshipped in Mesopotamia and further west in Syria, including Adad and Ugaritic Baal . In Anatolia he also influenced Hittite Tarḫunna and Luwian Tarḫunz , though all of these gods were also worshipped separately from each other. The worship of Teshub is first attested in the Ur III period , with the early evidence including Hurrian theophoric names and in
31605-399: The events described in them reflect Hurrian, rather than Hittite, theology. Many of them focus on Teshub's rise to the position of the king of the gods and his conflict with Kumarbi and his allies, such as the sea monster Ḫedammu , the stone giant Ullikummi or the personified sea . These texts are conventionally referred to as the Kumarbi Cycle , though it has been pointed out that Teshub
31850-521: The fact the copy from Ugarit equates Kumarbi with Enlil, as the smaller size of the Hurrian pantheon necessitated using the same deities as translations of multiple Mesopotamian ones in god lists, as evident in the case of Šimige , equated both with Utu and Lugalbanda in such a context. However, it has been questioned if the multilingual editions of the Weidner god list can be considered an accurate source of information about Hurrian religion. Kumarbi
32095-586: The first and most common one, there were the couples, such as the deity and his female consort. The second type of pairs was the divine twosomes, such as the deities that cooperate to create the cosmos, like in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian pantheons. The third type included divine pairs who were actually a single deity that had two names. Eblaites worshiped few Mesopotamian deities, preferring North-Western Semitic gods, some of which were unique to Ebla. The first genre of pairs included Hadabal ( NI- da -KUL ), who
32340-606: The first decades of the fourteenth century, but the composition might be older. Amir Gilan has described it as “one of the finest and most sophisticated works of literature to survive from the Hittite world.” The title Song of Kumarbi has originally been proposed by Hans Gustav Güterbock . However, the first translation of the text was published as The Kingship among the Gods . It has been variously referred to as Kingship in Heaven or Theogony as well. More recent publications use
32585-466: The first sign of Imzuanna's name is identical with the sumerogram IM used to represent names of weather gods. He concludes that it is unlikely the list can be used as a point of reference for either Hurrian or Ugaritic theology. It has been argued that the theonyms Teshub and Baal were both used interchangeably to refer to the local weather god in Emar . However, most likely, his principal name in this city
32830-721: The god Nergal, by means of (his) weapons opened the way for Naram-Sin, the mighty, and gave him Armanum and Ebla. Further, he gave to him the Amanus, the Cedar Mountain, and the Upper Sea. By means of the weapons of the god Dagan, who magnifies his kingship, Naram-Sin, the mighty, conquered Armanum and Ebla." The second kingdom's period is designated "Mardikh IIB2", and spans the period between 2300 and 2000 BC . The second kingdom lasted until Ebla's second destruction, which occurred anytime between 2050 and 1950 BC , with
33075-509: The gods from the Yazılıkaya sanctuary. In the first millennium BCE he continued to be worshiped in Taite , and as one of its deities he is attested in the Assyrian Tākultu rituals. He is also attested in Luwian inscriptions from sites such as Carchemish and Tell Ahmar . Multiple myths focused on Kumarbi are known. Many of them belong to the so-called Kumarbi Cycle, which describes
33320-462: The gods, and in a surviving passage seemingly expresses displeasure, cursing the older deities. The Song of LAMMA , also known as the Song of KAL , is focused on a deity designated by the sumerogram LAMMA. It is considered improbable that a Mesopotamian lamma ( lamassu ) is meant, and Alfonso Archi suggests that the name is a logographic writing of Karḫuḫi . In the beginning of the narrative, LAMMA manages to defeat Teshub and Šauška . He
33565-427: The gods, replaced by his son Teshub , though this is presumed to be a fictional etiological narrative explaining the structure of the Hurrian pantheon, rather than reflection of a loss of importance at the expense of another deity. It has nonetheless been argued that the relation between them might have originally developed as a way to harmonize two originally distinct local pantheons. It is often assumed that Kumarbi
33810-402: The good god and Tipariya”. A stele from Arsuz addresses them as “mother” and “father” respectively. This description has been described as an “unexpected reversal of sexes”, but Mark Weeden notes that it might echo the Hurrian tradition about the birth of Teshub , in the context of which Kumarbi could similarly be referred to as his mother. He states that whether this reflects a survival of
34055-427: The head of the Hurrian pantheon , and only reached this position as a part of what he understands as a broader phenomenon of growing prominence of weather gods in the early second millennium BCE. Gernot Wilhelm [ de ] similarly considers it a possibility that he acquired this role in the beginning of the second millennium BCE. However, Daniel Schwemer [ de ] argues that Teshub's status as
34300-456: The heavens and the earth, but the sea and the underworld were areas hostile to him. He was accordingly referred to as the “lord of heaven and earth” ( EN AN ú KI). This epithet might be derived from a Syrian tradition. The two most common titles applied to him were ewri , “lord”, and šarri , “king”. The context in which the term ewri was used was different from that of šarri , as the former referred to ordinary historical rulers as well, while
34545-412: The king extended beyond the chora and it is difficult to determine the exact size of the kingdom and the chora due to the constant military expansion of Ebla which added new territories; some of those were ruled directly while others were allowed to retain their own rulers as vassals. Generally, the chora is the core region of Ebla that includes the economic hinterland supporting the capital. It includes
34790-421: The kingdom of Arrapha is reflected in the large number of theophoric names invoking him, including these belonging to members of the highest strata of society. Teshub names predominate even among members of the royal family, with virtually all of the known kings and a half of the princes bearing them. Some of the identified names include Arip-Teshub (“Teshub gave”), Egel-Teshub (“save, Teshub”), Fagar-Teshub (“good
35035-417: The kings beneath their royal palaces. The third kingdom royal necropolis was discovered beneath palace "Q" (the western palace); it contains many hypogea but only three were excavated. Those tombs were natural caves in the bedrock of the palace's foundation; they all date to the 19th and 18th centuries BC and had a similar plan consisting of an entrance shaft, burial chambers and a dromos connecting
35280-545: The label applied to them, and suggests that calling them the cycle of Teshub would more accurately reflect their contents. This objection is also supported by Piotr Taracha [ de ] . The Song of Kumarbi is uniformly agreed to be beginning of the Kumarbi Cycle. The best known copy of the text is the tablet KUB 33.120, which is poorly preserved, with only around 125-150 lines out of original 350 surviving. Emmanuel Laroche identified tablet KUB 33.119 as
35525-419: The last of which is only attested once in the entire corpus . Additional shortened forms, such as Te, Tē, Teya or Tēya, were used in the writing of theophoric names . It has been suggested that their development can be compared to the possible derivation of the hypocoristic suffixes še and šeya from the word šēna , “brother”. In names from Alalakh it was rendered as te-eš-šu-ub . In Mitanni letters it
35770-519: The late Ur III period. Little is known about the history of the cult of Teshub prior to the rise of Hurrian dynasties in Upper Mesopotamia . Theophoric names invoking him were not yet common in the periods predating the time of the Mari archives. In addition to examples from this text corpus , a few are known from Old Babylonian Dilbat , Kish , Sippar , Kisurra , Alalakh , Tell Leilan , Tell al-Rimah and Tell Shemshara . One Old Babylonian example
36015-415: The latter was limited to the sphere of myth. Further related epithets of Teshub include šarri talawoži , “great king” and šarri ennāže , “king of the gods”. It is also known that one of the ceremonies in honor of him revolved around the concept of šarrašši , “kingship”. A single text refers to him as eni ennāže , “god of the gods”. Piotr Taracha [ de ] argues that Teshub was initially not
36260-428: The logogram differently. While in theophoric names it is generally advised to render it according to the linguistic affinity of the other component, the existence of unusual bilingual hybrid names have been noted, one example being Ikūn-Teššub. A further attested logographic writing of Teshub's name is 10, though it started to be used later than IŠKUR. This logogram is sometimes rendered as U in modern literature due to
36505-450: The lord". Each year was given a name instead of a number. Women received salaries equal to those of men and could accede to important positions and head government agencies. The Eblaites imported Kungas from Nagar , and used them to draw the carriages of royalty and high officials, as well as diplomatic gifts for allied cities. Society was less centered around the palace and the temple than in Mesopotamian kingdoms. The Eblaite palace
36750-497: The middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king Iblul-Il . Ebla recovered under King Irkab-Damu in about 2340 BC ; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter-offensive against Mari. Irkab-Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with Abarsal ; it is one of the earliest-recorded treaties in history. At its greatest extent, Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size of modern Syria, from Ursa'um in
36995-519: The mountain Kanzura which becomes pregnant with Tašmišu instead, though this still leaves the remaining two children inside him, and he travels to Nippur to seek a solution. It is presumed that the reference to this city reflected the theological tradition known from the Syro-Hurrian milieu, according to which Kumarbi and its main god, Enlil , were regarded as analogous. He apparently discusses
37240-460: The mountains of Ebla, indicating Ebla's territory included Urshu north of Carchemish in modern-day Turkey. Texts that dates to the seventh year of Amar-Sin ( c. 2040 BC ), a ruler of the Ur III empire, mention a messenger of the Ensí ("Megum") of Ebla. The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur III government, but the nature of the relation is unknown and it included
37485-470: The name Teshub. However, as noted by Gary Beckman , full conflation of deities was rare in Hittite religion , and generally should be considered “late and exceptional”, with individual weather gods maintaining separate identities. Teshub's bulls were incorporated alongside him into the Hittite pantheon, but it is possible the image of a weather god travelling in a chariot drawn by bulls was not present in Hittite culture exclusively due to Hurrian influence, as
37730-461: The name as Teṯṯub. Multiple variants occur in the texts from the same city written in standard syllabic cuneiform, for example te-šab , te-šub , IŠKUR- ub and 10- ub . In Luwian hieroglyphs , the name could be rendered as ti-su-pi ( Yazılıkaya ) or DEUSFORTIS-su-pa-sa ( Tell Ahmar ), with an additional shortened form, TONITRUS- pa-sá/ti-sa-pa , Tispa or Tisapa, attested in theophoric names from Carchemish . The precise etymology of Teshub's name
37975-430: The name of Ḫedammu, but not Silver. Both of them are also described with the terms šarra , used to refer to mythical, deified rulers and ewri , which designated non-supernatural kings. Like all other major Hurrian gods, Kumarbi was believed to be served by a divine “ vizier ”, Mukišānu [ de ] . His name was derived from the toponym Mukiš . A single text from Ugarit instead describes Šarruma as
38220-419: The narrator to listen to the story of Kumarbi, while in the Song of Ullikummi , Enlil makes a brief appearance to comment on Kumarbi’s plan to create the eponymous monster to destroy Teshub. Alfonso Archi additionally notes that the notion of equivalence between the two was seemingly unknown to the Hittites , even though Hittite sources do indicate awareness of both of them as individual deities. He concludes
38465-548: The north, to the area around Damascus in the south, and from Phoenicia and the coastal mountains in the west, to Haddu in the east. Large parts of the kingdom were under the direct control of the king and were administered by governors; the rest consisted of vassal kingdoms. One of the most important of these vassals was Armi , which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla tablets. Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and city-states, including Hazuwan , Burman , Emar , Halabitu and Salbatu . The vizier
38710-532: The oldest certain reference to him occurs in a tablet from this city inscribed with a Hurrian text, dated to roughly 1700 BCE. In an incantation, he is mentioned alongside Pidenḫi, an epithet of Shalash : The tooth wails! The tooth sounds out! They (the teeth) cry out to mother Pidenḫi, to father Kumarbi! It has been suggested that it was meant to cure toothache . However, it is not certain why Kumarbi and Shalash would be invoked in connection with teeth. A further city in modern Syria from which evidence for
38955-416: The origin of any of them being mentioned. The first of the kings of the gods is Alalu, who after nine years is overthrown by his cupbearer Anu, who forces him to flee to the “Dark Earth”, the underworld. Anu is in turn overthrown by his own cupbearer Kumarbi, described as “scion of Alalu”, who fought him after first serving him for nine years. Some of the kaluti [ de ] lists belonging to
39200-453: The payment of tribute. A formal recognition of Ur's overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with that empire. The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the 21st century BC , and ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so-called "Temple of the Rock", and in the area around palace "E" on
39445-657: The period is known as the "first destruction", mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace "G" and built over the earlier "G2"), and much of the acropolis. During the archive period, Ebla had political and military dominance over the other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in the archives. Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents. The written archives do not date from before Igrish-Halam 's reign, which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari, and an extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in
39690-415: The personal name Bēl-Kumme-ilā’ī. The final fate of the city is uncertain, as it is no longer attested in sources from the reign of Sennacherib and his successors. The city of Arrapha (Arrapḫum) or Āl-ilāni (“city of the gods”), modern Kirkuk , was already known as a cult center of a weather god in the Old Babylonian period. The local temple was considered the most important sanctuary in the area east of
39935-483: The plains east of Jabal Zawiya , the Maṭkh swamp, al-Hass mountain and mount Shabīth. Areas directly on the borders of the chora such as al-Ghab , al-Rouge plain and al-Jabbul have close cultural affinity with the chora. Mardikh II's periods shared the same culture. the population of Ebla during Mardikh IIB1 (2400–2300 BC) is estimated to have numbered around 40,000 in the capital, and over 200,000 people in
40180-426: The port of Ugarit , but most of its trade seems to have been directed by river-boat towards Mesopotamia – chiefly Kish. The main palace G was found to contain artifacts dating from Ancient Egypt bearing the names of the pharaohs Khafre and Pepi I . Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom, evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period and were destroyed along with
40425-408: The possibility that the discovered versions were meant to be performed. The core theme of myths grouped under the label of "Kumarbi Cycle" are Kumarbi’s attempts to dethrone Teshub . The individual texts frequently characterize him as cunning ( ḫattant- ), and describe him plotting new schemes meant to bring upon the defeat of the weather god. As noted by Daniel Schwemer, ancient authors introduced
40670-426: The proliferation of new Hurrian dynasties, and eventually the rise of the empire of Mitanni , but its precise development is not possible to study yet due to lack of sources which could be a basis for case studies. While Hurrian rulers are not absent from sources from the Old Babylonian period , they attained greater relevance from the sixteenth century onwards, replacing the formerly predominant Amorite dynasties. As
40915-417: The proposal that Kumarbi is represented by a sumerogram in the inscription is impossible to prove. Beate Pongratz-Leisten tentatively refers to both Nergal and Kumarbi as possible identities of the deity of Urkesh. A temple found during excavations of Urkesh which remained in use from the third millennium BCE to the end of the Mitanni empire has been interpreted as possibly dedicated to Kumarbi. The apu ,
41160-402: The queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs. The pantheon of gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla. The city was excavated from 1964 and became famous for the Ebla tablets , an archive of about 20,000 cuneiform tablets found there, dated to 2500 BC –2350 BC . Written in both Sumerian and Eblaite and using the cuneiform ,
41405-478: The same period. In some cases it is uncertain which deity was represented by IŠKUR, for example a theophoric name from Alalakh, a -RI-IŠKUR, might invoke either Teshub or Adad. The identity of the weather god worshipped in Nuzi and other nearby cities is also ambiguous in some cases due to use of logograms and the presence of speakers of both Hurrian and Akkadian in the area. It has been noted that speakers of Semitic languages and Hurrians might have in some cases read
41650-527: The sanctity of the acropolis in the center of the city. The third kingdom's iconography and royal ideology were under the influence of Yamhad's culture; kingship was received from the Yamhadite deities instead of Ishtar of Ebla, which is evident by the Eblaite seals of Indilimma's period. During the first kingdom period, the palace controlled the economy, but wealthy families managed their financial affairs without government intervention. The economic system
41895-527: The sea, the Kiaše was also counted among Teshub's mythical adversaries, and both battles were associated with the same mountain, Ḫazzi . However, myths about Baal also contain elements which find no parallel in these focused on Teshub, such as the confrontation with Mot , the personification of death, and his temporary death resulting from it. In contrast with Teshub, Baal also did not have a wife, and in Ugarit Ḫepat
42140-467: The second kingdom. In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man called "Zazalla" prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners from Ebla's former vassal Ikinkalis, provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm god Teshub and causing him to destroy the city. The third kingdom is designated "Mardikh III"; it is divided into periods "A" ( c. 2000–1800 BC ) and "B" ( c. 1800–1600 BC ). In period "A", Ebla
42385-404: The shaft to the chamber. The royal tomb found in the royal palace "G" is designated hypogeum "G4"; it dates to the archive period, most probably the reign of Isar-Damu . The tomb is heavily damaged; most of its stones were sacked and nothing of the roof system remains. It also lacks any skeletal remains or funerary goods suggesting that it was either heavily pillaged, never used, or
42630-401: The shared themes between them, separation into multiple cycles is presently impossible and continuing to refer to them as a singular cycle in scholarship remains preferable. However, he does suggest that it might be more correct to refer to it as a “Kingship in Heaven cycle” than Kumarbi Cycle. Carlo Corti, while he accepts the existence of a cycle of myths involving Kumarbi, has also questioned
42875-464: The short term, but ultimately the adversaries he creates are defeated by the protagonists. Further texts argued to also be a part of the cycle include the Song of the Sea , the Song of Oil , and other fragmentary narratives. Kumarbi also appears in an adaptation of Atrahsasis , where he plays the role which originally belonged to Enlil. Myths focused on him are often compared to other narratives known from
43120-505: The sixteenth century BCE onward, and possibly also earlier, Kumarbi and Enlil were viewed as equivalents, though they were not necessarily conflated with each other, and could appear as two distinct figures in the same myths. A trilingual version of the Weidner god list from Ugarit presents both Kumarbi and Enlil as the equivalents of the local god El . A tentative restoration of a bilingual version from Emar might also indicate he could be associated with Ištaran . The worship of Kumarbi
43365-531: The sixteenth most common overall. The temple of the weather god of Aleppo was already considered a major sanctuary in the Eblaite texts, which predate the Sargonic period . In a treaty from Mari, the weather gods of Aleppo and Kumme appear separately from each other as the two most important weather deities invoked. Hurrianization of the site presumably only occurred in the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries BCE. Due to growing Hurrian influence in northern Syria,
43610-525: The so-called “ former gods ”, referred to as ammadena enna in Hurrian and karuilieš šiuneš in Hittite . They were portrayed as his helpers in myths. However, the same group of deities could also be affiliated with Allani . Kumarbi was closely associated with Dagan , the head god of the pantheon of inland Syria in the Bronze Age . The association goes back at least to the eighteenth century BCE . It has been proposed that Kumarbi’s character
43855-405: The southeast called "Temple of the Rock". During the second kingdom, a royal palace (Archaic palace "P5") was built in the lower town northwest of the acropolis, in addition to temple "D" built over the destroyed "Red Temple". During the third kingdom, Ebla was a large city nearly 60 hectares in size, and was protected by a fortified rampart, with double chambered gates. The acropolis
44100-399: The spouse of Kumarbi. She was originally associated with Dagan , as already attested in texts from Ebla , and the link between her and Kumarbi was a later development. However, the evidence associating Shalash with Kumarbi is also used as an argument in favor of continuity of her association with Dagan. In the Hurrian column of a multilingual edition of the Weidner god list from Ugarit ,
44345-427: The standard Hittite pantheon and the dynastic pantheon including Hurrian deities, attempts have also been made by Hittite court theologians to equate Ḫepat and the Sun goddess of Arinna , as attested for example in a prayer of Puduḫepa , but according to Piotr Taracha it is implausible that these ideas found support among the general populace. In the first millennium BCE, the identification between Teshub and Tarḫunz
44590-402: The strong one, which I (praise), your father Anu begot you, your mother Kumarbi brought you to life. For the city of Aleppo I summon him, Teššop, for the pure throne. Noga Ayali-Darshan notes the relationship between Kumarbi and Teshub was portrayed as “ dysfunctional ” in Hurrian mythology . The other children of Kumarbi conceived the same way were Tašmišu and the river Tigris , known by
44835-478: The structure of local pantheons, is only known from administrative texts, such as lists of rations meant for the cults of specific deities. In lists of oil rations, Teshub always occurs alongside Šauška of Nineveh . It is also known that a festival in honor of a deity designated by the logogram IŠKUR took place in the fourth month of the local calendar, corresponding to June or July. While no inscriptions dealing with any building projects or votive offerings related to
45080-428: The struggle for kingship among the gods between him and Teshub. The texts usually agreed to belong to it include the Song of Kumarbi (likely originally known as Song of Emergence ), the Song of LAMMA , the Song of Silver , the Song of Ḫedammu and the Song of Ullikummi . Kumarbi is portrayed in them as a scheming deity who raises various challengers to depose or destroy Teshub. His plans are typically successful in
45325-430: The succession of a new king, which normally lasted for several weeks. The Eblaite calendars were based on a solar year divided into twelve months. Two calendars were discovered; the "old calendar" used during the reign of Igrish-Halam, and a "new calendar" introduced by vizier Ibbi-Sipish. Many months were named in honor of deities; in the new calendar, "Itu be-li" was the first month of the year, and meant "the month of
45570-442: The sun who had a temple dedicated to her cult. The four city gates were named after the gods Dagan, Hadda, Rasap and Utu, but it is unknown which gate had which name. Overall, the offering list mentioned about 40 deities receiving sacrifices. During the third kingdom, Amorites worshiped common northern Semitic gods; the unique Eblaite deities disappeared. Hadad was the most important god, while Ishtar took Ishara's place and became
45815-562: The supreme deity of the Hurrian pantheon belonged to him since the dawn of recorded history, and arguments on the contrary lack solid proof. He points out that the small number of early theophoric names invoking him cannot be necessarily used as evidence, as other major Hurrian deities, such as Šauška or Kumarbi , are not attested in the early Hurrian onomasticon at all, and non-theophoric names predominate. Support for Schwemer's views has been voiced by Alfonso Archi. Depictions of Teshub are rare. The identification of individual weather gods in
46060-539: The term tešš- , attested as an equivalent of the Sumerian title ugula (“overseer”), has been suggested, the evidence remains unconvincing. In addition to phonetic syllabic spellings, Teshub's name could be represented in cuneiform by the sumerogram IŠKUR . The same sign could also be read as /im/, “wind” or “storm”. Therefore, the sumerogram is sometimes rendered as IM in Assyriological literature, though
46305-441: The text explicitly states that the eponymous god was impregnated with only three deities. In myths dealing with his conflict with Teshub, Kumarbi is also the father of various opponents of the weather god, such as Ullikummi , Ḫedammu and Silver. Ḫedammu’s mother was Šertapšuruḫi [ de ] , a daughter of the deified sea . Silver was born to a mortal woman. Ullikummi was the product of Kumarbi’s “sexual union with
46550-459: The third millennium BCE and on this basis proposes that it might refer to a settlement which existed in the early period of Hurrian history, poorly documented in textual sources. He suggests that its name in turn goes back to the Hurrian root kum , “to pile up”. Examples of other analogously structured Hurrian theonyms include Nabarbi (“she of Nawar”) and possibly Ḫiriḫibi (“he of [the mountain] Ḫiriḫi”). While it has been argued that Aštabi
46795-424: The title Song of Emergence . It was established based on new joins to the texts, including a colophon , originally identified in 2007. As noted by Carlo Corti, the text is labeled in it as the song of GÁ✕È.A, which based on the information provided by the multilingual edition of the lexical list Erimḫuš can be interpreted as a writing of the Hittite phrase para-kán pauwar , which makes it possible to translate
47040-478: The title literally as “song of departure”, and metaphorically as the “song of emergence” or “song of genesis”. The fragment also identifies a certain Ašḫapala as the scribe responsible for copying the text. The myth begins with an invocation of primeval deities , who are invited to listen to the narrator’s song about the deeds of Kumarbi, and with an account the reigns of three “kings in heaven” are described, without
47285-414: The tradition of Yamhad , centered in Aleppo , in which the god confirming royal authority was Adad, later syncretised with Teshub in the west. Kumme ( Akkadian : Kummu or Kummum, Hittite : Kummiya, Urartian : Qumenu) was the main cult center of Teshub. It is also the first attested city associated with him. It is to be distinguished from Kummanni in Kizzuwatna . Its precise location is not known. It
47530-494: The tradition of other neighboring cultures, such as Mesopotamian Theogony of Dunnu or Ugaritic Baal Cycle . It is also commonly assumed that they were an influence on Theogony , especially on the succession of divine rulers and on the character of Kronos. Further works argued to show similar influences include the Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos and various Orphic theogonies, such as that known from
47775-418: The transcription IŠKUR is considered preferable. The use of logograms of Sumerian and Akkadian origin to represent the names of various deities was widespread across the ancient Near East . IŠKUR is first documented as the representation of the name of a different weather god than Ishkur in the case of Adad in pre-Sargonic texts from Mari, though this scribal convention was unknown further west, in Ebla , in
48020-406: The two deities, there is also evidence for the use of Ḫalki’s name as a logogram to refer to Kumarbi. Hurrian texts refer to Kumarbi as the “father of gods”. Volkert Haas has interpreted this as an indication that he was regarded as a creator deity . His position in the Hurrian pantheon was high, as reflected by his epithet ewri , “lord”. In myths he was portrayed as an old deposed king of
48265-471: The underworld, such as Alalu , the deified sea , Ullikummi or the Irširra deities, while Teshub by heavenly deities such as Šauška , Šimige , Kušuḫ , Aštabi or Ḫepat and her maidservant Takitu . The five myths conventionally considered to be a part of the cycle are the Song of Kumarbi ( CTH 344), the Song of LAMMA (CTH 343), the Song of Silver (CTH 364), the Song of Ḫedammu (CTH 348) and
48510-600: The underworld. Interpretation of the narrative as a whole and its individual episodes remain matters of scholarly debate. Additional references to him have been identified in a number of literary texts focused on human heroes, including the tale of Appu and the Hurrian adaptation of the Epic of Gilgamesh . Multiple romanizations of the name Teshub are in use in Assyriological and Hittitological literature, including Teššub, Tešub, Teššob and Teššop. The transcription of
48755-411: The vizier palace, the western palace (in area "Q"), the temple of Shamash (temple "N"), the temple of Rasap (temple "B1") and the northern palace (built over the "Intermediate Palace"). In the north of the lower town, a second temple for Ishtar was built, while the former "Temple of the Rock" was replaced by a temple of Hadad . The kings of the first kingdom were buried outside
49000-469: The weather god being Taru and the moon god Kašku , but according to Jörg Klinger [ de ] this interpretation is not plausible. The Song of Emergence also states that Tašmišu and Aranzaḫ (the river Tigris) were born alongside Teshub. According to Piotr Taracha [ de ] the former was specifically regarded as his twin. He also functioned as his divine “vizier” ( sukkal ). The latter role could also be attributed to Tenu ,
49245-488: The weather god, such as the stone giant Ullikummi . Kumarbi was also closely associated with other deities who were regarded as the "fathers of gods" in their respective pantheons. As early as in the eighteenth century BCE, he came to be linked with Dagan , the head god of the pantheon of inland Syria in the Bronze Age. Both of them were associated with the goddess Shalash , and with the Mesopotamian god Enlil . From
49490-494: The west to Nuzi in the east. The Nuzi evidence includes references to IŠKUR ḫalba=ġe and to a deity named Ḫalbae or Ḫarbaḫe, “the divine Halabean” (Halab being the Akkadian name of Aleppo), presumably the same figure. In Ugaritic texts written in the local alphabetic script, Teshub of Aleppo appears as tṯb ḫlbġ. Traditions of Aleppo, including those related to Teshub, presumably also reached Kizzuwatna. Kumarbi Kumarbi , also known as Kumurwe , Kumarwi and Kumarma ,
49735-415: The western palace "Q". Alternatively, Maratewari could well be the last king according to Archi, who also argued that the "Song of Release" epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements. Ebla never recovered from its third destruction. It was a small village in the phase designated "Mardikh IV" (1600–1200 BC ), and was mentioned in the records of Alalakh as
49980-503: The worship of Kumarbi is available is Ugarit. Hurrian offering lists from this city place him after a “ god father ” (a “generic ancestor of the gods”) and El (otherwise absent from Hurrian tradition). This sequence corresponds to the enumeration of Ilib , El and Dagan in similar texts written in Ugaritic or Akkadian . In KTU 1.110, a description of a type of sacrifice ( aṯḫulumma ), Kumarbi instead appears after Kušuḫ . A Hurrian incantation, KTU 1.44 (RS 1.007), mentions that he
50225-463: The worship of Teshub can be attributed to local kings, it is presumed they nonetheless engaged in such activities, and the lack of textual evidence might be accidental. Teshub is also attested in texts from two other sites in the proximity of Arrapha itself, Nuzi (Yorgantepe) and Kurruhanni ( Tell al-Fakhar ). It is possible that a double temple excavated in the former of these cities was dedicated jointly to him and Šauška. It might have been originally
50470-663: The “bull-calf of Teshub”, though according to Gernot Wilhelm the familial connection between them should be considered a relatively late development. Pentikalli (Belet-ekallim), a Mesopotamian goddess at some point incorporated into the Hurrian pantheon, could be designated as a “concubine” of Teshub ( na-šar-ti-ya ŠA IM). Offering lists in some cases mention a solar disk ( šapši ḫišammi ) dedicated to her. In Hurrian context she could be linked to Pithanu. Volkert Haas, who rendered this theonym as Bitḫanu, translated this name from Akkadian as “the Hanaean daughter”, and suggested that she
50715-452: The “father of Urkesh ”, presumed to be Kumarbi. Silver’s name is written without the so-called divine determinative , and according to Alfonso Archi the myth most likely reflects the belief that a couple consisting of a deity and a mortal would have mortal offspring. Ebla Ebla ( Sumerian : 𒌈𒆷 eb₂-la , Arabic : إبلا , modern: تل مرديخ , Tell Mardikh ) was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria . Its remains constitute
50960-488: The “fathers of gods” and especially the weather god, and their shared association with Shalash and Enlil . Furthermore, Tuttul , the cult center of Dagan, is mentioned as a city associated with Kumarbi in the Song of Ḫedammu . It is also sometimes assumed Kumarbi could be outright referred to as “Dagan of the Hurrians ”. However, this assumptions rests on the proposed reading of a single inscription from Terqa from
51205-496: Was Ḫepat , a goddess originally worshipped in Aleppo at some point incorporated into the Hurrian pantheon. Their children were Šarruma , Allanzu and Kunzišalli. Other deities believed to belong to the court of Teshub included Tenu , Pentikalli , the bulls Šeri and Ḫurri and the mountain gods Namni and Ḫazzi . Members of his entourage were typically enumerated in so-called kaluti [ de ] , Hurrian offering lists. God lists indicate that Teshub could be recognized as
51450-407: Was Adad, and Baal served only as an appellative. It is possible that in the local pantheon, the relationship between him and Ashtart was imagined similar to the bond between Teshub and Šauška in Hurrian mythology, as evidence for alleged consort relation between them is lacking. In Kummanni in Kizzuwatna , Teshub was identified with the local god Manuzi . The latter was regarded as the spouse of
51695-416: Was a Babylonian tradition in origin, and that at the very least it must have developed as an addition to the well attested system of using other numerals to represent Mesopotamian theonyms (30 for Sin , 20 for Shamash ). Two logograms were used to refer to Teshub in hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions, L.318 and FORTIS; they differ from the default weather god logogram in this writing system, TONITRUS. It
51940-399: Was a Hurrian god . He held a senior position in the Hurrian pantheon, and was described as the "father of gods". He was portrayed as an old, deposed king of the gods , though this most likely did not reflect factual loss of the position of the head of the pantheon in Hurrian religion , but only a mythological narrative. It is often assumed that he was an agricultural deity , though this view
52185-650: Was a deified epithet of Belet-ekallim. Both of them appear in a Hittite list of offerings to Teshub of Aleppo. Pithanu is also mentioned in the text KUB 45.28+39.97(+), which states that “down at Teššub’s throne sits Pithanu”. According to Haas, it should be considered a description of the arrangement of statues of deities. While it has been argued that Ishara might have been the partner ( parhedra [ de ] ) of Teshub in Old Babylonian Ebla , as well as in Emar and Alalakh, no evidence supporting this proposal has been identified. Teshub's chariot
52430-413: Was a homophone of the word for grain, with both written as dgn ( 𐎄𐎂𐎐 ) in Ugaritic alphabetic texts, and the logographic writing of both his name and that of Kumarbi as NISABA was likely an example of wordplay popular among scribes, which in this case relied on the close association between these two gods and on the fact that Nisaba’s name could function as a metonym for grain. Lluís Feliu based on
52675-458: Was a son of Dagan was influenced by Hurrian religion , and was meant to mirror the connection between their Hurrian counterparts, Teshub and Kumarbi , and argues it is “questionable” if it was envisioned similarly before the arrival of the Hurrians. According to Lluís Feliu, while a father-son relationship between Dagan and the weather god is only directly attested in Ugarit , it can be assumed it
52920-436: Was already regarded as the spouse of the local weather god, originally known as Hadda , in the third millennium BCE. She was chiefly worshipped in northern Syria, especially in Aleppo and Alalakh , though the area associated with her also encompassed southern Anatolia and the middle Euphrates . It has been suggested that the recognition of the connection between her and Teshub was limited to western Hurrian communities. However,
53165-407: Was associated with grain. However, Lluís Feliu points out that the direct evidence for his supposed agrarian character is presently limited to the fact that the sumerogram NISABA was sometimes employed to write his name, and the identification of a plant he holds on the Yazılıkaya relief as an ear of grain . Feliu’s criticism of this characterization is supported by Alfonso Archi, who points out
53410-453: Was built as a cenotaph. Excavated between 1992 and 1995, it is located underneath the western sector of the palace at a depth of almost 6 meters. The tomb is composed of two rooms opened on each other's with lime plaster floors. Both rooms are rectangular in shape; the eastern room (L.6402) is 4 meters wide, more than 3,5 meters long (total length is unknown due to heavy damage) and west–east oriented. The western room (L.5762)
53655-429: Was built in the lower town, and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace "G". Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of the period. The second kingdom was attested to in contemporaneous sources; in an inscription, Gudea of Lagash asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu in
53900-513: Was designed around the courtyard, which was open toward the city, thus making the administration approachable. This contrasts with Mesopotamian palaces, which resembled citadels with narrow entrances and limited access to the external courtyard. Music played an important part in the society and musicians were both locals, or hired from other cities such as Mari. Ebla also hired acrobats from Nagar, but later reduced their number and kept some to train local Eblaite acrobats. The Mardikh III population
54145-457: Was equal to that of the most important Sumerian cities, and its main commercial rival was Mari. Ebla's main articles of trade were probably timber from the nearby mountains, and textiles. Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export, evidenced by the quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city. Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern-day Afghanistan. It shipped textiles to Cyprus, possibly through
54390-439: Was exclusive to Ebla, and his consort, Belatu ("his wife"); Rasap and his consort Adamma ; the patron gods of the city Kura , who was unique to Ebla, and his consort Barama . The third genre included the artisan god Kamish/Tit , Kothar-wa-Khasis and the planet Venus represented by twin mountain gods; Shahar as the morning star and Shalim as the evening star. The first Eblaites worshiped many other deities, such as
54635-587: Was first settled around 3500 BC ; its growth was supported by many satellite agricultural settlements. The city benefited from its role as an entrepôt of growing international trade, which probably began with an increased demand for wool in Sumer . Archaeologists designate this early habitation period "Mardikh I"; it ended around 3000 BC . Mardikh I is followed by the first and second kingdoms era between about 3000 and 2000 BC , designated "Mardikh II". I. J. Gelb considered Ebla as part of
54880-444: Was fortified and separated from the lower town. New royal palace "E" was built on the acropolis (during Mardikh IIIB), and a temple of Ishtar was constructed over the former "Red" and "D" temples (in area "D"). The lower town was also divided into four districts; palace "P5" was used during Mardikh IIIA, and replaced during Mardikh IIIB by the "Intermediate Palace". Other third kingdom buildings included
55125-460: Was imagined as a bull in the areas where his worship is best attested. Two further deities belonging to the circle of Teshub, in offering lists often placed after his bulls, were Namni and Ḫazzi . These mountain gods might have been worshipped alongside him in Aleppo, though no direct evidence in favor of this view exists. The association between mountain gods and weather gods has a long history across Syria and Anatolia, and might be first documented in
55370-418: Was in part influenced by him, or even that he originally developed as the Hurrian counterpart of this god. In Assyriology the identification of these two gods has been first pointed out by Emmanuel Laroche . Direct equations between Dagan and Kumarbi are absent from god lists, but other evidence in favor of identification of the two is available, including their similar position in the respective pantheons as
55615-530: Was involved in foreign affairs. Most duties, including military ones, were handled by the vizier and the administration, which consisted of 13 court dignitaries – each of whom controlled between 400 and 800 men forming a bureaucracy with 11,700 people. Each of the four quarters of the lower city was governed by a chief inspector and many deputies. To oversee royal interest, the king employed agents (mashkim), collectors ( ur ) and messengers ( kas ). Many client kingdoms owed allegiance to Ebla and each
55860-476: Was mentioned in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of Alalakh in modern-day Turkey; an Eblaite princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh, who belonged to a branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty . Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King Mursili I in about 1600 BC . Indilimma was probably the last king of Ebla; a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in
56105-428: Was not necessarily always portrayed as seeking kingship for himself or his sons, as he also supports LAMMA. However, Harry Hoffner argues that it is not impossible that he was also regarded as a son of Kumarbi. The classification of the Song of Silver as a part of the cycle is not universally accepted. The text does not explicitly refer to kingship among the gods or to the defeat of the eponymous figure, Silver, and
56350-417: Was not the head of the pantheon, but rather the second most important god after Ḫaldi , though according to Daniel Schwemer this should be considered a secondary development. It has also been proposed that a connection existed between the names of Teshub and Tishpak , a Mesopotamian god regarded as the city deity of Eshnunna . This hypothesis was originally formulated by Thorkild Jacobsen in 1932, but by
56595-402: Was one of the deities regarded as “pan-Hurrian”. As such, he was worshiped in all areas inhabited by the Hurrians , from southeastern Anatolia in the west to the Zagros Mountains in the east. However, it has been argued that his importance in the sphere of cult was relatively minor and references to him in religious texts are relatively rare. Volkert Haas has argued that he originated in
56840-543: Was predominately Semitic Amorite. The Amorites were mentioned in the first kingdom's tablets as neighbors and as rural subjects, and they came to dominate Ebla after the destruction of the second kingdom. The city witnessed a great increase in construction, and many palaces, temples and fortifications were built. The Amorite-speaking Eblaites worshiped many of the same deities as the Paleo-Syrian-speaking Eblaites of earlier periods, and maintained
57085-410: Was pulled by two bulls, Šeri and Ḫurri . Šeri was believed to mediate between humans and his master, while no distinct role is attested for Ḫurri. In the Song of Ullikummi , he is replaced by Tilla , but this theonym is better attested as the name of a fully independent god popular in Nuzi . According to Daniel Schwemer, the latter was typically not associated with Teshub, and there is no evidence he
57330-408: Was quickly rebuilt as a planned city. The foundations covered the remains of Mardikh II; new palaces and temples were built, and new fortifications were built in two circles – one for the low city and one for the acropolis. The city was laid out on regular lines and large public buildings were built. Further construction took place in period "B". The first known king of the third kingdom
57575-507: Was redistributive; the palace distributed food to its permanent and seasonal workers. It is estimated that around 40,000 persons contributed to this system, but in general, and unlike in Mesopotamia, land stayed in the hands of villages, which paid an annual share to the palace. Agriculture was mainly pastoral; large herds of cattle were managed by the palace. The city's inhabitants owned around 140,000 head of sheep and goats, and 9,000 cattle. Ebla derived its prosperity from trade; its wealth
57820-541: Was regarded as Teshub's wife. She was received by the Hurrians from the local pantheon of Aleppo. It is possible that she and Teshub were already paired with each other in Old Babylonian Mari , as indicated by one of the letters sent to king Zimri-Lim . Its sender states in it that she will pray before a weather god designated by the Sumerogram IŠKUR and Ḫepat for the king (ARM 10.92, lines 22–23). Ḫepat
58065-407: Was regarded as a god of broadly understood prosperity, rather than specifically agriculture. Kumarbi himself was invoked in association with prosperity in hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions from the first millennium BCE. The underworld could be regarded as Kumarbi’s abode, as indicated for example by an incantation according to which water from a spring located under his throne “reaches the head of
58310-420: Was ruled by its own king (En); those vassal kings were highly autonomous, paying tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla. The administrative center in the capital was named the "SA.ZA"; it included the royal palaces, storerooms and some temples. Regions beyond the walls of the capital were collectively named in Eblaite texts "uru-bar" (literally meaning outside of the city). The villages and towns under
58555-426: Was seemingly recognized as a counterpart of Pidray , who was regarded as his daughter, rather than spouse. For uncertain reasons a trilingual edition of the Weidner god list from Ugarit equates Teshub and Baal not only with each other, but also with the Mesopotamian goddess Imzuanna . As her character was dissimilar, Aaron Tugendhaft has suggested that this connection might be an example of scribal word play , as
58800-578: Was the king's chief official. The holder of the office possessed great authority; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium , who campaigned against Abarsal during the term of his predecessor Arrukum. Ibrium held office for 18 years with warfare occurring in all but one year. During the reign of Isar-Damu , Ebla continued the war against Mari, which defeated Ebla's ally Nagar , blocking trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia. Ebla conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals, including several attacks on Armi, and
59045-430: Was the result of Hurrian influence, and most likely it should be instead interpreted as a case of cultural continuity, as evidenced by the broad distribution of the evidence for worship of Adad of Assur, attested even in Hittite sources. In Ugarit, Teshub was identified with the local weather god, Baal . It is presumed that the latter developed through the replacement of the main name of the weather god by his epithet on
59290-467: Was the use of the same sumerogram to represent their names. In some cases, Hittites adopted Hurrian texts focused on Teshub, including hymns, prayers and myths, but substituted his name for that of their own analogous god. Sources such as ritual texts pertaining to the worship of Šauška in Šamuha instead preserve cases of what according to Piotr Taracha can be described as interpretatio hurritica , namely referring to various Anatolian weather gods with
59535-511: Was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the Third Dynasty of Ur . The second Ebla was a continuation of the first, ruled by a new royal dynasty. It was destroyed at the end of the 3rd millennium BC , which paved the way for the Amorite tribes to settle in the city, forming the third Ebla. The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center; it became a subject and an ally of Yamhad (modern-day Aleppo) until its final destruction by
59780-455: Was worshiped “from Tuttul to Awirraše”. The latter settlement was presumably located in western Syria. Further cult centers of Kumarbi mentioned in the Ugaritic texts include Kumma (or Kummi) and Uriga. The latter toponym has alternatively been interpreted as Urkesh. References to Kumarbi have also been identified in texts from Alalakh , with one example being tablet A1T 15 which mentions
60025-466: Was worshipped in other settlements in the same area, Ḫilmani and Ulamme, as well as in Tilla, possibly identical with the similarly named Tille which based on Old Babylonian records was located in northeastern part of Upper Mesopotamia. In yet another city in the kingdom of Arrapha, Šuriniwe, a double temple dedicated jointly to Teshub and the moon god Kušuḫ existed. The importance of the cult of Teshub in
#37962