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86-447: The Cassandra Crossing is a 1976 disaster thriller film directed by George Pan Cosmatos and starring Sophia Loren , Richard Harris , Ava Gardner , Martin Sheen , Burt Lancaster , Lee Strasberg and O. J. Simpson about a disease-infected Swedish terrorist who infects a cross-European train's passengers as they head to a derelict arch bridge which is liable to collapse. With

172-474: A US Army medical team is placed aboard, with the now-deceased terrorist being placed in a hermetically sealed coffin. Chamberlain learns of the risk of the Cassandra Crossing. Chamberlain also begins to suspect the disease is not as serious as originally thought: few of the passengers have become infected and few of those have actually died. He radios MacKenzie suggesting the infected portion of

258-406: A Special Achievement Award for visual effects. The film was directed by Mark Robson and starred Charlton Heston , Ava Gardner , Geneviève Bujold , George Kennedy and Lorne Greene . It was noted as the first film to utilize Sensurround , where massive subwoofer speakers were installed in theaters to recreate the vibrating sensation of an earthquake. Several made-for-TV movies also capitalized on

344-413: A boost, where it is added through the turbocharger, to mix with diesel fuel droplets. Propane droplets' very high hydrogen content helps the diesel fuel to burn hotter and therefore more completely. This provides more torque, more horsepower, and a cleaner exhaust for the trucks. It is normal for a 7-liter medium-duty diesel truck engine to increase fuel economy by 20 to 33 percent when a propane boost system

430-457: A chimney, (known as lower heating value ) is −2043.455 kJ/mol. The lower heat value is the amount of heat available from burning the substance where the combustion products are vented to the atmosphere; for example, the heat from a fireplace when the flue is open. The density of propane gas at 25 °C (77 °F) is 1.808 kg/m , about 1.5× the density of air at the same temperature. The density of liquid propane at 25 °C (77 °F)

516-527: A different movie than the made-for-TV production of same title listed above), starring Jason Robards ; and City on Fire (1979), starring Barry Newman . The Airport series continued with Airport '77 (1977) and The Concorde ... Airport '79 (1979), with George Kennedy portraying the character Joe Patroni in each sequel, and The Poseidon Adventure was followed by Beyond the Poseidon Adventure in 1979. The genre began to burn out by

602-456: A gas, very high pressure is required to store useful quantities. This poses the hazard that, in an accident, just as with any compressed gas cylinder (such as a CO 2 cylinder used for a soda concession) a CNG cylinder may burst with great force, or leak rapidly enough to become a self-propelled missile. Therefore, CNG is much less efficient to store than propane, due to the large cylinder volume required. An alternative means of storing natural gas

688-463: A giant wave triggered by an earthquake. The Poseidon Adventure was nominated for eight Academy Awards, including Best Supporting Actress for Shelley Winters , and winning for Original Song and receiving a Special Achievement Award for visual effects . The trend reached its zenith in 1974 with the release of The Towering Inferno , Earthquake , and Airport 1975 (the first Airport sequel). The competing films enjoyed staggering success at

774-550: A gigantic gorilla rampaging through New York City; and The Last Days of Pompeii (1935), dealing with the Mount Vesuvius volcanic eruption in 79 AD. John Ford 's The Hurricane (1937) concluded with the striking sequence of a tropical cyclone ripping through a fictional South Pacific island. The drama San Francisco (1936) depicted the historic 1906 San Francisco earthquake , while In Old Chicago (1937) recreated The Great Chicago Fire which burned through

860-473: A mid-air collision; and The Doomsday Flight (1966), written by Rod Serling and starring Edmond O'Brien as a disgruntled aerospace engineer who plants a barometric pressure bomb on an airliner built by his former employer set to explode when the airliner descends for landing. The golden age of the disaster film began in 1970 with the release of Airport . A huge financial success, earning more than $ 100 million ($ 713 million in 2022-adjusted dollars) at

946-403: A renewal in the 1990s boosted by computer-generated imagery and larger studio budgets which allowed for greater spectacle, culminating in the cinematic phenomenon that was James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997. Disaster themes are almost as old as the film medium itself. One of the earliest was Fire! (1901) made by James Williamson of England. The silent film portrayed a burning house and

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1032-399: A significant risk of fire or explosion. Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons. Propane is also instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, as the energy source for a gas absorption refrigerator and

1118-555: A strain of plague (vaguely identified as pneumonic ) is revealed at the US mission at the International Health Organization , three terrorists seek to blow up the US mission. Two of them are shot, one mortally, by security personnel, but one escapes. The surviving terrorist is hospitalized and quarantined and identified as Swedish. Elena Stradner and US military intelligence Colonel Stephen Mackenzie argue over

1204-555: A trainload of disease-exposed passengers lurch to their fate." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times called the film "a disaster picture quite literally disastrous and so awful it's unintentionally hilarious." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote, "Cosmatos is an absentminded, huffing-puffing director who seems to keep hoping we'll overlook his frazzled continuity, which suggests an old serial slapped together in such

1290-462: A tunnel, the dog infected with Eklund's plague is transferred to the helicopter and taken back to the IHO lab. Chamberlain is also told that the plague has a 60% mortality rate. Mackenzie, however, informs passengers that police have received reports of anarchist bombs placed along the rail line, and that the train will be rerouted to Nuremberg . There the train is sealed with an enclosed oxygen system and

1376-457: A version of the epic story of the Titanic . The film combined romance with intricate special effects and was a massive success, becoming the highest-grossing film of all time for twelve years with over $ 2.2 billion worldwide, and won 11 Academy Awards including Best Picture and Best Director . Propane Propane ( / ˈ p r oʊ p eɪ n / ) is a three- carbon alkane with

1462-422: A visible flame. The enthalpy of combustion of propane gas where all products return to standard state, for example where water returns to its liquid state at standard temperature (known as higher heating value ), is (2,219.2 ± 0.5) kJ/mol, or (50.33 ± 0.01) MJ/kg. The enthalpy of combustion of propane gas where products do not return to standard state, for example where the hot gases including water vapor exit

1548-434: A way that the cliffhanging bits are never resolved." Richard Combs of The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "The one remotely enjoyable aspect of The Cassandra Crossing is that it knows no proportion in anything—from performances through plotting, shooting style and special effects, it is constantly outdoing itself in monumental silliness." The film was booed and hissed at preview screenings by critics. The graphic scenes of

1634-438: Is 0.493 g/cm , which is equivalent to 4.11 pounds per U.S. liquid gallon or 493 g/L. Propane expands at 1.5% per 10 °F. Thus, liquid propane has a density of approximately 4.2 pounds per gallon (504 g/L) at 60 °F (15.6 °C). As the density of propane changes with temperature, this fact must be considered every time when the application is connected with safety or custody transfer operations. Propane

1720-415: Is a popular choice for barbecues and portable stoves because the low boiling point of −42 °C (−44 °F) makes it vaporize as soon as it is released from its pressurized container. Therefore, no carburetor or other vaporizing device is required; a simple metering nozzle suffices. Blends of pure, dry "isopropane" [isobutane/propane mixtures of propane (R-290) and isobutane (R-600a)] can be used as

1806-486: Is a simple asphyxiant . Unlike natural gas , it is denser than air. It may accumulate in low spaces and near the floor. When abused as an inhalant , it may cause hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia , cardiac failure or cardiac arrest . Propane has low toxicity since it is not readily absorbed and is not biologically active . Commonly stored under pressure at room temperature, propane and its mixtures will flash evaporate at atmospheric pressure and cool well below

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1892-524: Is as a cryogenic liquid in an insulated container as liquefied natural gas (LNG). This form of storage is at low pressure and is around 3.5 times as efficient as storing it as CNG. Unlike propane, if a spill occurs, CNG will evaporate and dissipate because it is lighter than air. Propane is much more commonly used to fuel vehicles than is natural gas, because that equipment costs less. Propane requires just 1,220 kilopascals (177 psi) of pressure to keep it liquid at 37.8 °C (100 °F). Propane

1978-581: Is commonly used for camping and recreational vehicles. It has also been proposed to use propane as a refrigerant in heat pumps . Since it can be transported easily, it is a popular fuel for home heat and backup electrical generation in sparsely populated areas that do not have natural gas pipelines. In June 2023, Stanford researchers found propane combustion emitted detectable and repeatable levels of benzene that in some homes raised indoor benzene concentrations above well-established health benchmarks. The research also shows that gas and propane fuels appear to be

2064-454: Is delivered to end-users via small or medium-sized individual cylinders, while empty cylinders are removed for refilling at a central location. There are also community propane systems, with a central cylinder feeding individual homes. In the U.S., over 190,000 on-road vehicles use propane, and over 450,000 forklifts use it for power. It is the third most popular vehicle fuel in the world, behind gasoline and diesel fuel . In other parts of

2150-401: Is embroiled in an affair with her young companion Robby Navarro. Navarro is a heroin trafficker being pursued by Interpol agent Haley, who is travelling undercover as a priest. Mackenzie informs Chamberlain of the presence of Eklund, who is found hiding in the baggage car next to a caged basset hound , but attempts to remove him via helicopter are unsuccessful. Just before the train enters

2236-467: Is far less than current refrigerants, propane was chosen as one of five replacement refrigerants approved by the EPA in 2015, for use in systems specially designed to handle its flammability. Such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable refrigerant presents

2322-544: Is known as a BLEVE or boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion . The Kingman Explosion involved a railroad tank car in Kingman, Arizona, U.S., in 1973 during a propane transfer. The fire and subsequent explosions resulted in twelve fatalities and numerous injuries. Propane is produced as a by-product of two other processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining . The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane , propane, and large amounts of ethane from

2408-457: Is much cleaner than that of coal or unleaded gasoline. Propane's per-BTU production of CO 2 is almost as low as that of natural gas. Propane burns hotter than home heating oil or diesel fuel because of the very high hydrogen content. The presence of C–C bonds , plus the multiple bonds of propylene and butylene , produce organic exhausts besides carbon dioxide and water vapor during typical combustion. These bonds also cause propane to burn with

2494-525: Is not suited for most vehicle fuels. HD-5 is a specification that establishes a maximum concentration of 5% propene in propane. Propane and other LP gas specifications are established in ASTM D-1835. All propane fuels include an odorant , almost always ethanethiol , so that the gas can be smelled easily in case of a leak. Propane as HD-5 was originally intended for use as vehicle fuel. HD-5 is currently being used in all propane applications. Typically in

2580-741: Is present for complete combustion, carbon monoxide , soot ( carbon ), or both, are formed as well: C 3 H 8 + 9 2 O 2 ⟶ 2 CO 2 + CO + 4 H 2 O + heat {\displaystyle {\ce {C3H8 + 9/2 O2 -> 2 CO2 + CO + 4 H2O + heat}}} C 3 H 8 + 2 O 2 ⟶ 3 C + 4 H 2 O + heat {\displaystyle {\ce {C3H8 + 2 O2 -> 3 C + 4 H2O + heat}}} The complete combustion of propane produces about 50 MJ/kg of heat. Propane combustion

2666-519: Is rated HD-5 (Heavy Duty 5%). HD-5 grade has a maximum of 5 percent butane, but propane sold in Europe has a maximum allowable amount of butane of 30 percent, meaning it is not the same fuel as HD-5. The LPG used as auto fuel and cooking gas in Asia and Australia also has very high butane content. Propylene (also called propene) can be a contaminant of commercial propane. Propane containing too much propene

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2752-537: Is that theft is much more difficult than with gasoline or diesel fuels. Propane is also used as fuel for small engines , especially those used indoors or in areas with insufficient fresh air and ventilation to carry away the more toxic exhaust of an engine running on gasoline or diesel fuel. More recently, there have been lawn-care products like string trimmers , lawn mowers and leaf blowers intended for outdoor use, but fueled by propane in order to reduce air pollution . Many heavy-duty highway trucks use propane as

2838-720: Is used for heat and cooking in recreational vehicles and campers . Propane is becoming popular as a replacement refrigerant (R290) for heatpumps also as it offers greater efficiency than the current refrigerants: R410A / R32, higher temperature heat output and less damage to the atmosphere for escaped gasses - at the expense of high gas flammability. Propane was first synthesized by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot in 1857 during his researches on hydrogenation . Berthelot made propane by heating propylene dibromide (C 3 H 6 Br 2 ) with potassium iodide and water. Propane

2924-537: Is used. It is cheaper because propane is much cheaper than diesel fuel. The longer distance a cross-country trucker can travel on a full load of combined diesel and propane fuel means they can maintain federal hours of work rules with two fewer fuel stops in a cross-country trip. Truckers, tractor pulling competitions, and farmers have been using a propane boost system for over forty years in North America. The North American standard grade of automotive-use propane

3010-595: The epic film Titanic in 1943. The film was soon banned in Germany and its director, Selpin, was allegedly executed. The film was a staple for all Titanic films, and scenes became stock footage for the British version. Clifton Webb and Barbara Stanwyck starred in the 1953 20th Century Fox production Titanic , followed by the highly regarded British film A Night to Remember in 1958. The British action-adventure film The Last Voyage (1960), while not about

3096-643: The space group P2 1 /n. The low space-filling of 58.5% (at 90 K), due to the bad stacking properties of the molecule, is the reason for the particularly low melting point. Propane undergoes combustion reactions in a similar fashion to other alkanes . In the presence of excess oxygen, propane burns to form water and carbon dioxide . C 3 H 8 + 5 O 2 ⟶ 3 CO 2 + 4 H 2 O + heat {\displaystyle {\ce {C3H8 + 5 O2 -> 3 CO2 + 4 H2O + heat}}} When insufficient oxygen

3182-510: The 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons. By 1947, 62% of all U.S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking. In 1950, 1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority , and by 1958, sales in

3268-605: The December 2015 EIA figure for the East Coast at $ 2.67 per gallon and the Midwest at $ 1.43 per gallon. As of August 2018 , the average US propane retail cost was approximately $ 2.48 per gallon. The wholesale price of propane in the U.S. always drops in the summer as most homes do not require it for home heating. The wholesale price of propane in the summer of 2018 was between 86 cents to 96 cents per U.S. gallon, based on

3354-581: The Earth Caught Fire (1961) and Crack in the World (1965). Volcanic disasters would also feature in films such as The Devil at 4 O'Clock (1961) starring Spencer Tracy and Frank Sinatra , and the 1969 epic Krakatoa, East of Java starring Maximilian Schell . As in the silent film era, the sinking of the Titanic would continue to be a popular disaster with filmmakers and audiences alike. Werner Klingler and Herbert Selpin released

3440-541: The Energy Information Administration (EIA) quotes a $ 2.995 per gallon average on the East Coast for October 2013, while the figure for the Midwest was $ 1.860 for the same period. As of December 2015 , the propane retail cost was approximately $ 1.97 per gallon, which meant filling a 500-gallon propane tank to 80% capacity costed $ 788, a 16.9% decrease or $ 160 less from November 2013. Similar regional differences in prices are present with

3526-733: The French chemist Marcellin Berthelot , it became commercially available in the US by 1911. Propane has lower volumetric energy density than gasoline or coal, but has higher gravimetric energy density than them and burns more cleanly. Propane gas has become a popular choice for barbecues and portable stoves because its low −42 °C boiling point makes it vaporise inside pressurised liquid containers (it exists in two phases, vapor above liquid). It retains its ability to vaporise even in cold weather, making it better-suited for outdoor use in cold climates than alternatives with higher boiling points like butane. LPG powers buses, forklifts, automobiles, outboard boat motors, and ice resurfacing machines , and

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3612-546: The Mighty (1954), starring John Wayne and Robert Stack as pilots of a crippled airplane attempting to cross the ocean; Zero Hour! (1957), written by Arthur Hailey (who also penned the 1968 novel Airport ) about an airplane crew that succumbs to food poisoning; Jet Storm and Jet Over the Atlantic , two 1959 films both featuring attempts to blow up an airplane in mid-flight; The Crowded Sky (1960) which depicts

3698-469: The Titanic disaster but a predecessor to The Poseidon Adventure , starred Robert Stack as a man desperately attempting to save his wife ( Dorothy Malone ) and child trapped in a sinking ocean liner . The film, concluding with the dramatic sinking of the ship, was nominated for an Oscar for Best Visual Effects . Additional precursors to the popular disaster films of the 1970s include The High and

3784-584: The U.S. had reached 7 billion US gallons (26,000,000 m ) annually. In 2004, it was reported to be a growing $ 8-billion to $ 10-billion industry with over 15 billion US gallons (57,000,000 m ) of propane being used annually in the U.S. During the COVID-19 pandemic , propane shortages were reported in the United States due to increased demand. The " prop- " root found in "propane" and names of other compounds with three-carbon chains

3870-759: The United States and Canada, LPG is primarily propane (at least 90%), while the rest is mostly ethane , propylene , butane , and odorants including ethyl mercaptan . This is the HD-5 standard, (maximum allowable propylene content, and no more than 5% butanes and ethane) defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials by its Standard 1835 for internal combustion engines. Not all products labeled "LPG" conform to this standard, however. In Mexico, for example, gas labeled "LPG" may consist of 60% propane and 40% butane. "The exact proportion of this combination varies by country, depending on international prices, on

3956-432: The availability of components and, especially, on the climatic conditions that favor LPG with higher butane content in warmer regions and propane in cold areas". Propane is bought and stored in a liquid form, LPG. It can easily be stored in a relatively small space. By comparison, compressed natural gas (CNG) cannot be liquefied by compression at normal temperatures, as these are well above its critical temperature . As

4042-470: The backing of the media tycoon Sir Lew Grade (the head of the British broadcast network Associated Television ) and the Italian film producer Carlo Ponti , the international all-star cast was expected to attract a widespread audience, with rights sold prior to filming, to both British and American distributors. Ponti also saw the production as a showcase for his wife, Sophia Loren. When the existence of

4128-520: The box office, the film was directed by George Seaton and starred Burt Lancaster , Dean Martin , George Kennedy , Jacqueline Bisset and Helen Hayes . While not exclusively focused on a disaster—in this case, an airplane crippled by the explosion of a bomb—the film established the blueprint of multiple plotlines acted out by an all-star cast. Airport was nominated for 10 Academy Awards , including Best Picture , winning Best Supporting Actress for Hayes. The 1972 release of The Poseidon Adventure

4214-423: The box office, with The Towering Inferno earning $ 116 million ($ 697 million in 2022-adjusted dollars), Earthquake earning $ 79 million ($ 475 million in 2022-adjusted dollars), and Airport 1975 earning $ 47 million ($ 282 million in 2022-adjusted dollars) in theatrical rentals. Arguably the greatest of the 1970s disaster films, The Towering Inferno was a joint venture of 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. and

4300-424: The bridge might collapse as the train passes over it. The presence of the infected terrorist, and the rerouting of the train, precipitates the second conflict, among passengers on the train who include Jonathan Chamberlain, a famous neurologist ; his ex-wife Jennifer Rispoli Chamberlain, a writer; a former inmate of Janov and Holocaust survivor Herman Kaplan; and Nicole Dressler, the wife of a German arms dealer. She

4386-408: The characters' attempts to avert, escape or cope with the disaster and its aftermath. The genre came to particular prominence during the 1970s with the release of high-profile films such as Airport (1970), followed in quick succession by The Poseidon Adventure (1972), Earthquake (1974) and The Towering Inferno (1974). The casts are generally made up of familiar character actors . Once

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4472-580: The circulating refrigerant in suitably constructed compressor-based refrigeration. Compared to fluorocarbons, propane has a negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential (having a GWP value of 0.072, 13.9 times lower than the GWP of carbon dioxide) and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12 , R-22 , R-134a , and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems. Because its global warming effect

4558-730: The city in 1871. Carol Reed 's 1939 film, The Stars Look Down , examines a catastrophe at a coal mine in North-East England . Inspired by the end of World War II and the beginning of the Atomic Age , science fiction films of the 1950s, including When Worlds Collide (1951), The War of the Worlds (1953) and Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956), routinely used world disasters as plot elements. This trend would continue with The Deadly Mantis (1957), The Day

4644-431: The coupler. He sacrifices himself by setting off the explosion with a cigarette lighter. Chamberlain manages to separate the rear half of the train, hoping that with less weight the front half will cross safely. But the bridge collapses, killing everyone aboard the front half. Max, the train's conductor, applies the manual brakes and stops the remaining cars just before reaching the downed bridge. The survivors soon evacuate

4730-816: The craze, including Heatwave! (1974), The Day the Earth Moved (1974), Hurricane (1974), Flood! (1976) and Fire! (1977). The trend continued on a larger scale with The Hindenburg (1975), starring George C. Scott ; The Cassandra Crossing (1976), starring Burt Lancaster ; Two-Minute Warning (1976), starring Charlton Heston; Black Sunday (1977), starring Robert Shaw ; Rollercoaster in Sensurround (1977), starring George Segal ; Damnation Alley (1977), starring Jan-Michael Vincent ; Avalanche (1978), starring Rock Hudson ; Gray Lady Down (1978), also starring Charlton Heston; Hurricane (a 1979 remake of John Ford's 1937 film;

4816-416: The disaster begins in the film, the characters are usually confronted with human weaknesses, perhaps falling in love or finding a villain to blame. The films usually feature a persevering hero or heroine ( Charlton Heston , Steve McQueen , etc.) called upon to lead the struggle against the threat; in many cases, the "evil" or "selfish" individuals are the first to succumb to the disaster. The genre experienced

4902-619: The dominant source of benzene produced by cooking. In rural areas of North America, as well as northern Australia, propane is used to heat livestock facilities, in grain dryers, and other heat-producing appliances. When used for heating or grain drying it is usually stored in a large, permanently-placed cylinder which is refilled by a propane-delivery truck. As of 2014 , 6.2 million American households use propane as their primary heating fuel. In North America, local delivery trucks with an average cylinder size of 3,000 US gallons (11 m ), fill up large cylinders that are permanently installed on

4988-407: The doomed bridge. At the lab, Dr. Stradner tests and monitors the ill dog, which spontaneously recovers, but Mackenzie is unimpressed and refuses to alter his plan. Navarro is killed by the guards as he attempts to reach the engine from the outside. Haley is killed during a firefight while protecting a girl passenger. Kaplan learns of the plot to blow up the club car's bottled gas supply and expose

5074-588: The end of the trend was marked by the 1980 comedy Airplane! , which fondly spoofed the clichés of the genre to surprising box-office success, producing a sequel of its own, Airplane II: The Sequel , in 1982. The resurgence of big-budget productions of the genre—aided by advancements in CGI technology during the 1990s—include such films as Twister , Independence Day , Daylight , Dante's Peak , Volcano , Hard Rain , Deep Impact and Armageddon . In 1997, James Cameron co-produced, wrote and directed

5160-545: The film "profoundly, offensively stupid," with Ava Gardner "awful in an awful role" and Sophia Loren "totally miscast." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 1.5 stars out of 4 and called it "an unintentional parody of a disaster film. The catastrophes that befall the passengers of a Geneva to Copenhagen train in the picture are positively ridiculous." Variety dismissed the film as, "a tired, hokey and sometimes unintentionally funny disaster film in which

5246-690: The firemen who arrive to quench the flames and rescue the inhabitants. Origins of the genre can also be found in In Nacht und Eis (1912), about the sinking of the Titanic ; Atlantis (1913), also about the Titanic ; the Danish The End of the World (1916), (about a comet ); Noah's Ark (1928), the Biblical story from Genesis about the great flood; Deluge (1933), about tidal waves devastating New York City ; King Kong (1933), with

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5332-577: The floor to the pilot light on the furnace or water heater, and results in an explosion or fire. This property makes propane generally unsuitable as a fuel for boats. In 2007, a heavily investigated vapor-related explosion occurred in Ghent, West Virginia, U.S., killing four people and completely destroying the Little General convenience store on Flat Top Road , causing several injuries. Another hazard associated with propane storage and transport

5418-408: The freezing point of water. The cold gas, which appears white due to moisture condensing from the air, may cause frostbite. Propane is denser than air. If a leak in a propane fuel system occurs, the vaporized gas will have a tendency to sink into any enclosed area and thus poses a risk of explosion and fire. The typical scenario is a leaking cylinder stored in a basement; the propane leak drifts across

5504-402: The green coloured BVB trams and Basel's Central Station Square can be seen in the background. Much of the film's special effects involved models and rear screen work that was largely effective, although the studio artwork shows a typical US diesel locomotive that doesn't resemble anything seen in the film. Peter O'Toole was offered the lead role, but he turned it down. Richard Harris played

5590-404: The late-1970s when the big-budget films The Swarm (1978), Meteor (1979), Hurricane (1979), The Concorde ... Airport '79 (1979), Beyond the Poseidon Adventure (1979) and When Time Ran Out ... (1980) performed poorly at the box office, signaling declining interest in the disaster film product. Although The Big Bus (1976), an earlier disaster film spoof, had failed to be a hit,

5676-526: The location footage. The steel arch bridge depicted in the film is actually the Garabit Viaduct in southern France, built from 1880 to 1884 by Gustave Eiffel , who later constructed the Eiffel Tower . At the beginning of the film passengers arrive at Geneva railway station to embark on the train. The scenes were shot at Basel SBB railway station . Where Dr Chamberlain enters the station,

5762-511: The molecular formula C 3 H 8 . It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure , but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is often a constituent of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), which is commonly used as a fuel in domestic and industrial applications and in low-emissions public transportation; other constituents of LPG may include propylene , butane , butylene , butadiene , and isobutylene . Discovered in 1857 by

5848-403: The nature of the strain, which Stradner suspects is a biological weapon but which Colonel Mackenzie claims was in the process of being destroyed. The third terrorist, Eklund, escapes and stows away on a train travelling from Geneva to Stockholm . Stradner believes that the train should be stopped so that the terrorist can be removed and quarantined, but Col. Mackenzie is concerned that all of

5934-472: The part instead. The Cassandra Crossing was only the third film made by George Pan Cosmatos . Ava Gardner said "the real reason I'm in this picture is money, baby, pure and simple." Tom Mankiewicz , who worked on the script, dubbed the film The Towering Germ , a reference to another disaster film of the time, The Towering Inferno . The film holds a score of 36% on Rotten Tomatoes based on eleven reviews. Richard Eder of The New York Times called

6020-445: The passengers being killed at the end of the film had ensured an "R" rating in theatres and led to two "censored" and "uncensored" versions being released for broadcast and home media. The Cassandra Crossing , however, still made money. The producers claimed that they recouped the production costs of the film out of Japan alone. Disaster film These films often feature large casts of actors and multiple plot lines, focusing on

6106-521: The passengers on the train might be infected. Mackenzie insists on rerouting the train to a disused railway line which goes to a former Nazi concentration camp in Janov, Poland where the passengers will be quarantined. However, the line crosses a dangerously unsound steel arch bridge known as the Kasundruv Bridge or the "Cassandra Crossing", out of use since 1948. Mackenzie understands that

6192-511: The propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline and rail. The remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport. After it is separated from the crude oil, North American propane is stored in huge salt caverns . Examples of these are Fort Saskatchewan , Alberta ; Mont Belvieu, Texas ; and Conway, Kansas . These salt caverns can store 80,000,000 barrels (13,000,000 m ) of propane. As of October 2013 ,

6278-521: The property, or other service trucks exchange empty cylinders of propane with filled cylinders. Large tractor-trailer trucks, with an average cylinder size of 10,000 US gallons (38 m ), transport propane from the pipeline or refinery to the local bulk plant. The bobtail tank truck is not unique to the North American market, though the practice is not as common elsewhere, and the vehicles are generally called tankers . In many countries, propane

6364-425: The raw gas, to prevent condensation of these volatiles in natural gas pipelines. Additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil. The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, because of the by-product nature of propane production. About 90% of U.S. propane is domestically produced. The United States imports about 10% of

6450-493: The remaining cars and head off on foot, no longer under guard or quarantine. In Geneva, both Stradner and MacKenzie depart: she keeps hope of survivors while he feels quiet guilt over the whole affair. After they leave, Major Stack informs MacKenzie's superior that both the colonel and the doctor are under surveillance. Sources: The Cinecittà studios in Rome were chosen for interiors, with French and Swiss locales providing most of

6536-437: The retail cost of propane was approximately $ 2.37 per gallon, or roughly $ 25.95 per 1 million BTUs. This means that filling a 500-gallon propane tank, which is what households that use propane as their main source of energy usually require, cost $ 948 (80% of 500 gallons or 400 gallons), a 7.5% increase on the 2012–2013 winter season average US price. However, propane costs per gallon change significantly from one state to another:

6622-459: The train be uncoupled and isolated, but MacKenzie, acting under orders, has no intention of stopping the train: if, as expected, the Cassandra Crossing collapses, it will neatly cover the fact that the American military has been harbouring germ warfare agents in a neutral country. Chamberlain and Haley form a group of passengers to overcome the guards and seize control of the train before it reaches

6708-440: The world and firefighters' attempts at rescuing occupants trapped on the top floor. The film was nominated for eight Academy Awards including Best Picture, winning for Best Cinematography , Best Film Editing and Best Original Song . Earthquake was also honored with four Academy Award nominations for its impressive special effects of a massive earthquake leveling the city of Los Angeles , winning for Best Sound and receiving

6794-547: The world, propane used in vehicles is known as autogas. In 2007, approximately 13 million vehicles worldwide use autogas. The advantage of propane in cars is its liquid state at a moderate pressure. This allows fast refill times, affordable fuel cylinder construction, and price ranges typically just over half that of gasoline. Meanwhile, it is noticeably cleaner (both in handling, and in combustion), results in less engine wear (due to carbon deposits) without diluting engine oil (often extending oil-change intervals), and until recently

6880-469: Was another huge financial success, notching an impressive $ 84 million in US/Canada gross rental theatrical rentals ($ 592 Million in 2022-adjusted dollars); the disaster film officially became a movie-going craze. Directed by Ronald Neame and starring Gene Hackman , Ernest Borgnine , Shelley Winters and Red Buttons , the film detailed survivors' attempts at escaping a sinking ocean liner overturned by

6966-547: Was derived from " propionic acid ", which in turn was named after the Greek words protos (meaning first) and pion (fat), as it was the "first" member of the series of fatty acids . Propane is a colorless, odorless gas. Ethyl mercaptan is added as a safety precaution as an odorant , and is commonly called a "rotten egg" smell. At normal pressure it liquifies below its boiling point at −42 °C and solidifies below its melting point at −187.7 °C. Propane crystallizes in

7052-443: Was developed by Frank Peterson and its patent was granted on July 2, 1912. The 1920s saw increased production of LP gases, with the first year of recorded production totaling 223,000 US gallons (840 m ) in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached 1 million US gallons (3,800 m ), and by 1935, the annual sales of LP gas had reached 56 million US gallons (210,000 m ). Major industry developments in

7138-532: Was during this time that Snelling — in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, and Arthur Kerr — developed ways to liquefy the LP gases during the refining of gasoline. Together, they established American Gasol Co., the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25, 1913, his method of processing and producing LP gases was issued patent #1,056,845. A separate method of producing LP gas through compression

7224-663: Was found dissolved in Pennsylvanian light crude oil by Edmund Ronalds in 1864. Walter O. Snelling of the U.S. Bureau of Mines highlighted it as a volatile component in gasoline in 1910, which marked the "birth of the propane industry" in the United States. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as "wild" because of the high vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, 1912, The New York Times reported on Snelling's work with liquefied gas, saying "a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks". It

7310-455: Was produced by Irwin Allen (eventually known as "The Master of Disaster", as he had previously helmed The Poseidon Adventure and later produced The Swarm , Beyond the Poseidon Adventure and When Time Ran Out ... ). Directed by John Guillermin and starring Paul Newman , Steve McQueen , William Holden and Faye Dunaway , the film depicts a huge fire engulfing the tallest building in

7396-467: Was relatively low-cost in North America. The octane rating of propane is relatively high at 110. In the United States the propane fueling infrastructure is the most developed of all alternative vehicle fuels. Many converted vehicles have provisions for topping off from "barbecue bottles". Purpose-built vehicles are often in commercially owned fleets, and have private fueling facilities. A further saving for propane fuel vehicle operators, especially in fleets,

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