A reading of a bill is a stage of debate on the bill held by a general body of a legislature .
79-633: In the Westminster system , developed in the United Kingdom , there are generally three readings of a bill as it passes through the stages of becoming, or failing to become, legislation . Some of these readings may be formalities rather than actual debate. Legislative bodies in the United States also have readings. The procedure dates back to the centuries before literacy was widespread. Since many members of Parliament were illiterate,
158-460: A governor-general ) formally appoints as the head of government whoever commands the confidence of the lower or sole house of the legislature and invites him or her to form a government. In the UK, this is known as kissing hands . Although the dissolution of the legislature and the call for new elections is formally performed by the head of state, the head of state, by convention, acts according to
237-476: A parliamentary republic like India, the president is the de jure executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the prime minister and the Council of Ministers . In Israel , however, executive power is vested de jure and de facto in the cabinet and the president is de jure and de facto a ceremonial figurehead. As an example, the prime minister and cabinet (as
316-420: A semi-parliamentary system . The Westminster system has a very distinct appearance when functioning, with many British customs incorporated into day-to-day government function. A Westminster-style parliament is usually a long, rectangular room, with two rows of seats and desks on either side. Many chambers connect the opposing rows, either with a perpendicular row of seats and desks at the furthermost point from
395-553: A bill is read with all amendments and given final approval by a legislative body. In legislatures whose procedures are based on those of the Westminster system, the third reading occurs after the bill has been amended by committee and considered for amendment at report stage (or, in Israel's case, second reading). In most bicameral legislatures, a bill must separately pass the third reading in both chambers. Once that happens, it
474-459: A bill to be defeated on first reading if a member introduced it and no one seconded it, even if the first reading did not require a formal vote. However, the practice of requiring a seconder for a motion has since been removed, and thus an introduced bill cannot be defeated until the end of its first reading. In the Polish Sejm , the first reading comprises a debate on the general outlines of
553-891: A concept was reinforced in The English Constitution (1876) by Walter Bagehot , who distinguished between the separate "dignified" and "efficient" functions of government. The sovereign should be a focal point for the nation ("dignified"), while the PM and cabinet actually undertook executive decisions ("efficient"). The electoral system is often set out in a Representation of the People Act . Common ministerial titles include parliamentary secretary and under-secretary . Ministers are supported by private secretaries and government departments are run by permanent secretaries , principal secretaries or chief secretaries . The head of state or their representative (such as
632-533: A consultative body. In other Westminster countries, however, the upper house can sometimes exercise considerable power, as is the case for the Australian Senate. Some Westminster-derived parliaments are unicameral for two reasons: Hong Kong , a former British crown colony and currently a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China , has a unicameral Legislative Council . While
711-405: A debate on the general outlines of the bill followed by a vote on whether to send it to committee to be prepared for first reading or to remove it from the agenda. A first reading is when a bill is introduced to a legislature . Typically, in the United States , the title of the bill is read and the bill is immediately assigned to a committee. The bill is then considered by committee between
790-455: A federal government at any time, loss of supply is sometimes, controversially, considered a suitable trigger for a dismissal (such as with the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis ). This is controversial because it conflicts with the Westminster tradition of government by a party with the confidence of the lower house (not an upper house like the Senate). Some political scientists have held that
869-470: A final vote on the bill as amended. In both Houses of the British Parliament, after a bill has been reported from the committee to which it was assigned, consideration of the proposal moves to the so-called "Report Stage", during which further amendments may be table and voted on. After Report Stage has ended, a debate is held on the final bill, as amended, followed by a vote on the motion "That
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#1732773264818948-639: A hybrid system (like South Africa ) as their form of government. The Westminster system of government may include some of the following features: Most of the procedures of the Westminster system originated with the conventions , practices, and precedents of the Parliament of the United Kingdom , which form a part of what is known as the Constitution of the United Kingdom . Unlike the uncodified British constitution, most countries that use
1027-600: A law or problem, and dissolve after their findings have been reported. These are very common in government legislatures , and are used to solve special problems, hence their name. In the UK, select committees work in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords . There are select committees appointed by both the Australian Senate and the Australian House of Representatives . Under Rule 125 of
1106-463: A power similar to that held in the UK until 1911 by the House of Lords , which has since then been impossible, in the Westminster system. A government that has lost supply is severely restricted in its abilities to act; unless a solution can be negotiated and supply can be restored, such an occurrence would normally trigger a federal election. Since the governor-general , technically speaking, can dismiss
1185-480: A second reading, it is now very rare for a bill to be considered clause-by-clause. In the Polish Sejm , the second reading comprises a consideration of the committee's report on the bill (as committee consideration between first and second readings), and an introduction of any proposed amendments, although the Sejm's standing orders do not provide for a clause by clause vote on the bill itself, or on any amendment, during
1264-496: A single bloc. The starting point for the bill considered in second reading is its post-committee consideration text, which can vary widely from the bill voted on in first reading, even to the point of mergers and splits. In New Zealand, once a bill passes a second reading it is then considered clause-by-clause by the whole Parliament. If a majority of Parliament agree, the bill can be considered part-by-part, saving considerable time. Because most bills must have majority support to pass
1343-468: A vote on whether or not to send it to committee. In both Houses of the British Parliament , bills introduced by the government or by MPs and Lords who won the private members' ballot automatically receive a first reading without the need for the bill being discussed or voted on; the same applies for bills brought from the other House (for example, a bill which has completed all its stages in
1422-613: Is responsible to the legislature; the presence of parliamentary opposition parties; and a ceremonial head of state who is separate from the head of government . The term derives from the Palace of Westminster , which has been the seat of the Westminster Parliament in England and later the United Kingdom since the 13th century. The Westminster system is often contrasted with the presidential system that originated in
1501-614: Is a president who functions similarly to a governor-general. An unusual case lies in Israel and Japan , where the respective prime ministers have the full legal power to implement executive decisions, and presidential (in Israel) or imperial (in Japan) approval is not required; the prime ministers of these nations are fully the de jure source of executive authority, and not the head of state. The head of state will often hold meetings with
1580-415: Is carried. After a bill has been read a first time, it is ordered to be printed. A second reading is the stage of the legislative process where a draft of a bill is read a second time. In most Westminster-style legislatures, a vote is taken on the general outlines of the bill before being sent to committee. In most non-Westminster-style legislatures, the bill's detailed provisions are considered in
1659-508: Is exceptional because the government faces a fully elected upper house, the Senate , which must be willing to pass all its legislation. Although government is formed in the lower house, the House of Representatives, the support of the Senate is necessary in order to govern. The Australian Senate is unusual in that it maintains an ability to withhold supply from the government of the day –
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#17327732648181738-588: Is imminent, a lot of time is taken up in the conversations of politicians and in the news media, speculating on who will, or will not, be moved in and out of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister, because the appointment of ministers to the Cabinet, and threat of dismissal from the Cabinet, is the single most powerful constitutional power which a Prime Minister has in the political control of the Government in
1817-632: Is obliged to resign, e.g., when a re-elected Legislative Council passes again a bill that he or she had refused to sign. The waters of the Thames and of the Potomac both flow into Lake Burley Griffin . Australian constitutional law is, in many respects, a unique hybrid with influences from the United States Constitution as well as from the traditions and conventions of the Westminster system and some indigenous features. Australia
1896-441: Is permitted. This exception is necessary because section 53 gives senators the right to move requests to the House of Representatives for amendments to a financial bill (to which the Senate is not allowed to amend) at any stage of consideration of the bill, including on the first reading. The first readings of most ordinary bills are almost always a formality and are passed "on the voices". In extremely rare circumstances however,
1975-464: Is sent on for promulgation , such as royal assent in the Westminster system or signing by the president or governor in the U.S. model. In some bicameral legislatures, such as the Parliament of Poland or of the Czech Republic , a bill must pass three readings in the lower house, but only one reading in the upper house, at which the bill may be passed unchanged, amended, or rejected; and if
2054-476: Is usually where ministers or members of the house come to speak. Other ceremonies sometimes associated with the Westminster system include an annual Speech from the Throne (or equivalent thereof) in which the head of state gives a special address (written by the government) to parliament about what kind of policies to expect in the coming year, and lengthy State Opening of Parliament ceremonies that often involve
2133-511: The de facto executive body in the system) generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions. If, for instance the British prime minister wished to dissolve Parliament in order for a general election to take place, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to request permission from the sovereign in order to attain such a wish. However, the sovereign in modern times has virtually always followed
2212-637: The Australian system of government was consciously devised as a blend or hybrid of the Westminster and the United States systems of government , especially since the Australian Senate is a powerful upper house like the US Senate; this notion is expressed in the nickname "the Washminster mutation". The ability of upper houses to block supply also features in the parliaments of most Australian states . The Australian system has also been referred to as
2291-680: The Governor remained the head of government until the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, when the role was replaced by the Chief Executive . Secretaries had remained to be chosen by the Chief Executive not from the Legislative Council, and their appointments need not be approved by the Legislative Council. Although essentially more presidential than parliamentary, the Legislative Council had inherited many elements of
2370-452: The House of Commons (under various names), comprising local, elected representatives of the people (with the only exception being elected entirely by nationwide Proportional Representation). Most also have a smaller upper house, which is made up of members chosen by various methods: In the UK, the lower house is the de facto legislative body, while the upper house practices restraint in exercising its constitutional powers and serves as
2449-604: The Rajya Sabha Rules and Procedures, any member may move as an amendment that a bill be referred to a select committee and, if the motion is carried, the bill shall be referred to such a committee. The House decides the members of such committee. In Malaysia, there are special committees of the Dewan Rakyat (House of Reps) and the Dewan Negara (Senate). In South Africa, select committees appointed by
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2528-522: The United States , or with the semi-presidential system, based on the government of France . The Westminster system is used, or was once used, in the national and subnational legislatures of most former colonies of the British Empire , upon gaining self-government (with the exception of the United States and Cyprus ), beginning with the first of the Canadian provinces in 1848 and
2607-582: The Westminster system of parliamentary democracy is a committee made up of a small number of parliamentary members appointed to deal with particular areas or issues. A select committee is a special subcommittee of a legislature or assembly. Select committees exist in the British Parliament , as well as in other parliaments based on the Westminster model, such as those in Australia, Canada, Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, and New Zealand. They are often investigative in nature, collecting data or evidence for
2686-518: The Bill be now read a third time". If the motion is carried, the bill is passed. Westminster system The Westminster system , or Westminster model , is a type of parliamentary government that incorporates a series of procedures for operating a legislature , first developed in England . Key aspects of the system include an executive branch made up of members of the legislature, and that
2765-402: The Cabinet are collectively seen as responsible for government policy, a policy termed cabinet collective responsibility . All Cabinet decisions are made by consensus, a vote is rarely taken in a Cabinet meeting. All ministers, whether senior and in the Cabinet, or junior ministers, must support the policy of the government publicly regardless of any private reservations. When a Cabinet reshuffle
2844-481: The Calendar of Business after second reading. No vote is held on whether to read the bill a second time. In U.S. legislatures where consideration in committee precedes second reading, the procedure varies as to how a bill reaches second reading. In Illinois, for example, legislation is automatically read a second time, after which amendments are in order. A third reading is the stage of a legislative process in which
2923-590: The Clerk of Parliament would read aloud a bill to inform members of its contents. By the end of the 16th century, it was practice to have the bill read on three occasions before it was passed. In the Israeli Knesset , private member bills do not enter the house at first reading. Instead, they are subject to a preliminary reading , where the members introducing the bill present it to the Knesset, followed by
3002-469: The House of Lords is immediately brought to the House of Commons, where it receives a first reading). Bills introduced under the Ten Minute Rule are subject to a debate lasting not more than ten minutes (equally divided between a supporter and an opponent), followed by a vote is held on the motion "That leave be granted to bring in" the bill; the latter receives a first reading only if the motion
3081-554: The Legislative Councils in British Australasian and North American colonies were unelected upper houses and some of them had since abolished themselves, the Legislative Council of Hong Kong has remained the sole chamber and had in 1995 evolved into a fully elected house, yet only part of the seats are returned by universal suffrage. Responsible government was never granted during British colonial rule, and
3160-586: The President remains responsible to the lower house of parliament; it elects the President at the beginning of a new Parliament, or when there is a vacancy in the office, or when the sitting President is defeated on a vote of confidence. If the Parliament cannot elect a new President within a short period of time (a week to a month) the lower house is dissolved and new elections are called. Select committee (parliamentary system) A select committee in
3239-611: The Senate may vote against the first reading, which prevents the bill from proceeding further. This has happened as recently as June 2021, when the Ministerial Suitability Commission of Inquiry Bill 2021 (Cth), introduced by Greens Senator Larissa Waters in relation to the 1988 rape allegation against the Attorney-General Christian Porter , was narrowly negatived in a division . Similar arrangements are in place in
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3318-489: The Speaker's Chair at the opposite end of the chamber (e.g. UK House of Lords or Israel Knesset) or the rows of chairs and desks are rounded at the end, opposite to the Speaker's Chair (e.g. Australian chambers, Ireland, South Africa, India). The chairs in which both the government and opposition sit, are positioned so that the two rows are facing each other. This arrangement is said to have derived from an early Parliament which
3397-465: The Westminster system have codified the system, at least in part, in a written constitution . However, uncodified conventions, practices, and precedents continue to play a significant role in most countries, as many constitutions do not specify important elements of procedure. For example, some older constitutions using the Westminster system do not mention the existence of the cabinet or the prime minister, because these offices were taken for granted by
3476-495: The Westminster system, including parliamentary powers, privileges and immunity, and the right to conduct inquiries, amongst others. Minutes are known as Hansards, and the theme colour of the meeting chamber is red as in other upper houses. Government secretaries and other officials are seated on the right hand side of the President in the chamber. The Chief Executive may dissolve the Legislative Council under certain conditions, and
3555-416: The Westminster system. The Official Opposition and other major political parties not in the Government, will mirror the governmental organisation with their own Shadow Cabinet made up of Shadow Ministers . In a Westminster system, some members of parliament are elected by popular vote, while others are appointed. Nearly all Westminster-based parliaments have a lower house with powers based on those of
3634-519: The advice of their prime minister without their own agency, this owes to the fact that the British sovereign is a constitutional monarch ; he or she abides by the advice of his or her ministers, except when executing reserve powers in times of crisis. The sovereign's power to appoint and dismiss governments, appoint cabinet ministers to serve in the government, appoint diplomats , declare war , and to sign treaties (among other powers de jure held by
3713-609: The authors of these constitutions. Sometimes these conventions, reserve powers , and other influences collide in times of crisis and in such times the weaknesses of the unwritten aspects of the Westminster system, as well as the strengths of the Westminster system's flexibility, are put to the test. As an illustrative example, in the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 , the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr , dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam and replaced him with opposition leader Malcolm Fraser . Usually
3792-436: The bill is not passed unchanged by the upper house, it is returned to the lower house, which may impose its original version by a supermajority , and is sent to promulgation after passing both chambers. This "imperfect" procedure requires that all bills must be introduced to the lower house, although this may be mitigated by giving the upper house the right to submit bills to the lower. In a unicameral legislature, after passing
3871-520: The bill or it being received from the Senate. However, in the Australian Senate , the question on the first reading is always moved immediately after introduction (which is a separate motion altogether) or receipt from the House of Representatives and may be voted on. Amendments to or debate on the first reading is not permitted, except for bills subject to section 53 of the Constitution (i.e. appropriation and money bills ), in which case debate
3950-478: The bill passes second stage it is referred to a select committee of that house or taken in committee stage by the whole house. In the Knesset , the bill's detailed provisions are considered in the second reading, and then voted on clause by clause. However, continuous stretches of clauses without any proposed amendments (which includes different wordings for the same clause written in the original bill), are voted as
4029-533: The bill, followed by a vote on the motion "that the Bill be now read a second time" (or sometimes on a wrecking amendment to that motion). If the motion is carried, the bill is then sent either to a standing committee or to a Committee of the Whole House , where it is considered and voted on clause by clause. In the United States Senate, a bill is either referred to committee or placed on
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#17327732648184108-423: The bill, it is sent to the President of Ireland to be signed into law. In the Polish Sejm , the third reading comprises a presentation of the amendments passed in second reading (or of a second committee report on the bill that was returned to committee after second reading), and a voting sequence: first on a motion to reject the bill (if one is introduced), then on the amendments introduced in second reading, and
4187-536: The bill. Notably, only constitutional amendment bills, money bills, electoral law bills, and law code bills have their first reading at a plenary session of the Sejm; all other bills have their first reading occur in committee, unless the Marshal of the Sejm decides to refer them to the plenum. In the Russian State Duma , the first reading includes a debate on the general outlines of the bill followed by
4266-437: The cabinet as a whole, along with more junior ministers , however, in effect, the head of government dominates the executive as the head of government is ultimately the person from whom the head of state will take advice (by constitutional convention) on the exercise of executive power , including the appointment and dismissal of cabinet members. This results in the situation where individual cabinet members in effect serve at
4345-439: The day. In India, the prime minister is constitutionally bound to hold regular sessions with the president, in a similar manner to the aforementioned British practice. In essence, the head of state, as the theoretical executive authority, "reigns but does not rule". This phrase means that the head of state's role in government is generally ceremonial and as a result does not directly institute executive powers. The reserve powers of
4424-522: The first and second readings. In the United States Senate and most British-influenced legislatures, the committee consideration occurs between second and third readings. In most non Westminster-style legislatures, a vote is taken on the general outlines of the bill before being sent to committee. In the Australian House of Representatives , a bill is automatically read a first time without any question being proposed upon presentation of
4503-498: The first reading includes a debate on the general outlines of the bill followed by a vote on whether or not to send it to committee. In New Zealand , once a bill passes first reading it is normally referred to a select committee . However, the government can have a bill skip the select committee stage by a simple majority vote in Parliament. It was possible in the earliest years of the New Zealand Parliament for
4582-462: The floor in front of the government and opposition benches that members may cross only when exiting the chamber. At one end of the room sits a large chair, for the Speaker of the House . The speaker usually wears black robes, and in some countries, a wig . Robed parliamentary clerks often sit at narrow tables between the two rows of seats, as well. These narrow tables in the centre of the chamber,
4661-479: The following: One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with a native monarch , along with Japan, Lesotho, Malaysia, and Thailand. One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with a native monarch , along with Denmark, Lesotho, Malaysia, and Thailand. One of five countries other than the UK to use a Westminster system with a native monarch , along with Denmark, Japan, Malaysia, and Thailand. The Westminster system
4740-417: The formal powers of monarchs, governors-general, and presidents vary greatly from one country to another. However, as sovereigns and governors-general are not elected, and some presidents may not be directly elected by the people, they are often shielded from any public disapproval stemming from unilateral or controversial use of their powers. In many Commonwealth realms a governor-general formally represents
4819-400: The head of government and cabinet, as a means of keeping abreast of governmental policy and as a means of advising, consulting and warning ministers in their actions. Such a practice takes place in the United Kingdom and India. In the UK, the sovereign holds confidential weekly meetings with the prime minister to discuss governmental policy and to offer his or her opinions and advice on issues of
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#17327732648184898-399: The head of state are sufficient to ensure compliance with some of their wishes. However, the extent of such powers varies from one country to another and is often a matter of controversy. Such an executive arrangement first emerged in the United Kingdom. Historically, the British sovereign held and directly exercised all executive authority. George I of Great Britain (reigned 1714 to 1727)
4977-465: The leader of the largest party in the lower house (legislature if unicameral). Formed by the largest party/coalition in the lower house (legislature if unicameral), and led by the head of government. The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster system is quite complex. In essence, the head of state , usually a monarch or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or de jure source of executive power within
5056-530: The monarch, who is usually absent from the realm. In such countries, the identity of the "head of state" may be unclear. In the book The English Constitution , Walter Bagehot emphasised the divide of the constitution into two components, the Dignified (that part which is symbolic) and the Efficient (the way things actually work and get done), and called the Efficient " Cabinet Government ". Members of
5135-409: The parliament passes a motion of no confidence , or refuses to pass an important bill such as the budget , then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a parliamentary dissolution so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government's mandate. Executive authority within a Westminster system is de jure exercised by
5214-588: The parliaments of the states and territories. In the House of Commons of Canada , in addition to the usual introduction of a bill by a member for first reading, a member of the cabinet may move a motion to appoint or to instruct a committee to prepare a bill. In the Oireachtas of Ireland, the first stage of a bill is by either of two methods: In the Israeli Knesset , the committee consideration occurs between first and second readings and (for private member bills ) between preliminary and first readings, and
5293-410: The pleasure of the prime minister. Thus the cabinet is strongly subordinate to the prime minister as they can be replaced at any time, or can be moved ("demoted") to a different portfolio in a cabinet reshuffle for "underperforming". In the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the prime minister and the cabinet effectively implement executive powers. In
5372-460: The presentation of a large ceremonial mace . Some legislatures retain Westminster's colour-coded chambers, with the upper houses associated with the colour red (after the House of Lords) and the lower with green (after the House of Commons). This is the case in India, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Barbados. Countries that use variations on the theme of the Westminster system, as of 2023, include
5451-603: The second reading, and then voted on clause by clause. In the Oireachtas, the second reading is referred to as "second stage", though the subheading "second reading" is used in Dáil standing orders, and the motion at second stage is still "that the Bill is to be read a second time". A bill introduced in one house enters the other house at second stage, except that the Seanad second stage is waived for Dáil consolidation bills . Once
5530-422: The second reading. If amendments are introduced to a bill, it is returned for further committee consideration between second and third readings unless the Sejm decides otherwise. In the Russian State Duma , the bill's detailed provisions are considered in the second reading, and then voted on clause by clause. In both Houses of the British Parliament the second reading includes a debate on the general outlines of
5609-463: The six Australian colonies between 1855 and 1890. It is the form of government bequeathed to New Zealand , and former British Hong Kong . Israel adopted a largely Westminster-inspired system of government upon declaring independence from the British Mandate of Palestine . However, some former colonies have since adopted either the presidential system ( Nigeria for example) or
5688-480: The sovereign personally in the United Kingdom are instead exercised by the governor-general . In such nations, the prime minister is obligated to formally seek permission from the governor-general when implementing executive decisions, in a manner similar to the British system. An analogous scenario also exists in republics in the Commonwealth of Nations , such as India or Trinidad and Tobago , where there
5767-482: The sovereign) is known as the royal prerogative , which in modern times is exercised by the sovereign solely on the advice of the Prime Minister. This custom also occurs in other countries are regions around the world using the Westminster System, as a legacy of British colonial rule . In Commonwealth realms such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the day-to-day functions that would be exercised by
5846-409: The system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, even though executive authority is nominally exercised in their name. The head of government , usually called the prime minister or premier , will ideally have the support of a majority in the responsible house, and must, in any case, be able to ensure the existence of no absolute majority against the government. If
5925-458: The third reading in the sole chamber, the bill goes on directly for promulgation. In the Oireachtas of Ireland, the equivalent of the third reading is referred to as the "fifth stage" or "final stage". The motion is "That the Bill do now pass", except that the Seanad motion for a money bill is "That the Bill be returned to the Dáil". When a bill passes one house, it is sent to the other house and enters at second stage. After both houses have passed
6004-517: The wishes of the head of government. A president, monarch, or governor-general might possess clearly significant reserve powers . Examples of the use of such powers include the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 and the Canadian King–Byng affair in 1926. The Lascelles Principles were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice. Because of differences in their written constitutions,
6083-414: Was adopted by a number of countries which subsequently evolved or reformed their system of government departing from the original model. In some cases, certain aspects of the Westminster system were retained or codified in their constitutions. For instance South Africa and Botswana , unlike Commonwealth realms or parliamentary republics such as India, have a combined head of state and head of government but
6162-456: Was held in a church choir . Traditionally, the opposition parties will sit in one row of seats, and the government party will sit in the other. In some countries, the mace will face the government’s side whilst lying on the table of the House. In most majority governments , the number of government-party MPs is so large that it must use the "opposition" seats as well. In the lower house at Westminster (the UK's House of Commons) there are lines on
6241-534: Was the first British monarch to delegate some executive powers to a prime minister and a cabinet of the ministers, largely because he was also the monarch of Hanover in Germany and did not speak English fluently. Over time, further arrangements continued to allow the execution of executive authority on the sovereign's behalf and more and more de facto power ended up lying in the Prime Minister's hands. Such
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