99-576: In Vedic timekeeping , a tithi is a "duration of two faces of moon that is observed from earth", known as milа̄lyа̄ ( Newar : 𑐩𑐶𑐮𑐵𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅, मिलाल्याः ) in Nepal Bhasa , or the time it takes for the longitudinal angle between the Moon and the Sun to increase by 12 ° . In other words, a tithi is a time duration between the consecutive epochs that correspond to when the longitudinal angle between
198-520: A de-evolution in spiritual consciousness and an evolution in material consciousness. Kali-yuga is followed by Satya-yuga of the next cycle, where a cycle is called a catur-yuga (pronounced chatur-yuga ; a.k.a. mahā-yuga ). Each yuga is divided into a main period ( a.k.a. yuga proper) and two yuga-sandhis ( a.k.a. yuga-sandhyās ; connecting periods)— yuga-sandhyā (dawn) and yuga-sandhyāṃśa ( a.k.a. yuga-sandhyānśa ; dusk)—where each yuga-sandhi lasts for 10% of
297-415: A multi-layered network of cooperating, distinct, or even competing social groups – from families and peer groups to corporations and political states . As such, social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms , languages , and traditions (collectively termed institutions ), each of which bolsters human society . Humans are also highly curious , with
396-668: A theory of mind . The human mind is capable of introspection , private thought , imagination , volition , and forming views on existence . This has allowed great technological advancements and complex tool development through complex reasoning and the transmission of knowledge to subsequent generations through language . Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment . They are apex predators , being rarely preyed upon by other species. Human population growth , industrialization, land development, overconsumption and combustion of fossil fuels have led to environmental destruction and pollution that significantly contributes to
495-443: A consequence of better nutrition, healthcare, and living conditions. The average mass of an adult human is 59 kg (130 lb) for females and 77 kg (170 lb) for males. Like many other conditions, body weight and body type are influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals. Humans have a far faster and more accurate throw than other animals. Humans are also among
594-419: A few other places), saw the emergence of agriculture and permanent human settlement ; in turn, this led to the development of civilization and kickstarted a period of continuous (and ongoing) population growth and rapid technological change . Since then, a number of civilizations have risen and fallen, while a number of sociocultural and technological developments have resulted in significant changes to
693-463: A great capacity for altering their habitats by means of technology, irrigation , urban planning , construction, deforestation and desertification . Human settlements continue to be vulnerable to natural disasters , especially those placed in hazardous locations and with low quality of construction. Grouping and deliberate habitat alteration is often done with the goals of providing protection, accumulating comforts or material wealth, expanding
792-612: A higher body fat percentage. At puberty , humans develop secondary sex characteristics . Females are capable of pregnancy , usually between puberty, at around 12 years old, and menopause , around the age of 50. As omnivorous creatures, they are capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material, and have used fire and other forms of heat to prepare and cook food since the time of Homo erectus . Humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food and several days without water . Humans are generally diurnal , sleeping on average seven to nine hours per day. Childbirth
891-475: A human can lose personhood (such as by going into a persistent vegetative state ). Humans are apes ( superfamily Hominoidea ). The lineage of apes that eventually gave rise to humans first split from gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo ), then gorillas (genus Gorilla ), and finally, chimpanzees and bonobos (genus Pan ). The last split, between the human and chimpanzee–bonobo lineages, took place around 8–4 million years ago, in
990-415: A length of Krita-yuga ( a.k.a. Satya-yuga ). Hindu texts specify that the start and end of each of the yugas are marked by astronomical alignments. This cycle's Treta-yuga began with 5 planets residing in the "Aries" constellation. This cycle's Dvapara-yuga ended with the "Saptarshi" constellation (Ursa major) residing in the "Magha" constellation. The current Kali-yuga will end with
1089-414: A month, and twelve months form a year. (14) Persons well-read in mathematical science say that a year is made up of two solar motions, viz, the northern and the southern. (15) The sun makes the day and the night for men. The night is for the sleep of all living creatures and the day is for work. (16) A month of human beings is equal to a day and night of the departed manes. That division consists in this
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#17327795613001188-581: A more barrel-shaped chests in contrast to the funnel shape of other apes, an adaptation for bipedal respiration. Apart from bipedalism and brain size, humans differ from chimpanzees mostly in smelling , hearing and digesting proteins . While humans have a density of hair follicles comparable to other apes, it is predominantly vellus hair , most of which is so short and wispy as to be practically invisible. Humans have about 2 million sweat glands spread over their entire bodies, many more than chimpanzees, whose sweat glands are scarce and are mainly located on
1287-504: A much clearer picture of life at the time. Between the 8th and 6th century BCE, Europe entered the classical antiquity age, a period when ancient Greece and ancient Rome flourished. Around this time other civilizations also came to prominence. The Maya civilization started to build cities and create complex calendars . In Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum overtook the declining Kingdom of Kush and facilitated trade between India and
1386-422: A period called a manvantara , each lasting for 71 chatur-yugas (306.72 million years). A total of 14 Manus reign successively in one kalpa (day of Brahma ). Preceding the first and following each manvantara is a sandhyā (connection period), each lasting the duration of Satya-yuga (1.728 million years). During each manvantara-sandhyā ( a.k.a. manvantara-sandhi ), Earth ( Bhu-loka )
1485-451: A result, humans are a cosmopolitan species found in almost all regions of the world, including tropical rainforest , arid desert , extremely cold arctic regions , and heavily polluted cities; in comparison, most other species are confined to a few geographical areas by their limited adaptability. The human population is not, however, uniformly distributed on the Earth 's surface, because
1584-639: A similar species. Migrating out of Africa , they gradually replaced and interbred with local populations of archaic humans. Multiple hypotheses for the extinction of archaic human species such as Neanderthals include competition, violence , interbreeding with Homo sapiens , or inability to adapt to climate change . Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–60,000 years ago. For most of their history, humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. The Neolithic Revolution , which began in Southwest Asia around 13,000 years ago (and separately in
1683-515: A simple linear or branched progression but involved interbreeding between related species . Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution. DNA evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non sub-Saharan-African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans , may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day non sub-Saharan-African humans. Human evolution
1782-451: A successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries. Both the mother and the father provide care for human offspring, in contrast to other primates, where parental care
1881-515: A traditional 360-day year (twelve 30-day months) and a standard 24-hour day for all entities. Hindu texts define lifespans differently for humans , Pitris (forefathers), Devas (gods), Manus (progenitors of mankind), and Brahma (creator god). The division of a year for each is twelve 30-day months or 360 days, where a day is divided into a 12-hour day proper and 12-hour night. A 30-day month amounts to four 7-day weeks with an extra 8th day every two weeks (48-week year). A traditional human year
1980-409: A traditional 360-day year is equivalent to a modern ~365.24-day solar or tropical year . According to Puranic sources , Krishna's departure marks the end of the human age of Dvapara-yuga and the start of Kali-yuga , which is dated to midnight on 17/18 February 3102 BCE of the proleptic Julian calendar . We are currently halfway through Brahma's life ( maha-kalpa ), whose lifespan
2079-741: A twinkling of the eye ( nimesha ) up to the days ( kalpa ) and nights ( pralaya ) of Brahma . निमेषा दश चाष्टौ च काष्ठा त्रिंशत् तु ताः कला । त्रिंशत् कला मुहूर्तः स्यादहोरात्रं तु तावतः ॥ ६४ ॥ nimeṣā daśa cāṣṭau ca kāṣṭhā triṃśat tu tāḥ kalā । triṃśat kalā muhūrtaḥ syādahorātraṃ tu tāvataḥ ॥ 64 ॥ (64) Eighteen nimeshas (twinklings of the eye, are one kashtha), thirty kashthas one kala, thirty kalas one muhurta, and as many (muhurtas) one day and night. अहोरात्रे विभजते सूर्यो मानुषदैविके । रात्रिः स्वप्नाय भूतानां चेष्टायै कर्मणामहः ॥ ६५ ॥ ahorātre vibhajate sūryo mānuṣadaivike । rātriḥ svapnāya bhūtānāṃ ceṣṭāyai karmaṇāmahaḥ ॥ 65 ॥ (65) The sun divides days and nights, both human and divine,
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#17327795613002178-406: A wide variety of plant and animal material. Human groups have adopted a range of diets from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous . In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases ; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet
2277-422: A wink of the eye ( nimesha ) up to the days ( kalpa ) and nights ( pralaya ) of Brahma . (12–13) The Rishis, measuring time, have given particular names to particular portions. Five and ten winks of the eye make what is called a Kashtha. Thirty Kashthas make what is called a Kala. Thirty Kalas, with the tenth part of a Kala, make a Muhurta. Thirty Muhurtas make up one day and night. Thirty days and nights form
2376-511: Is 38 weeks, but a normal pregnancy can vary by up to 37 days. Embryonic development in the human covers the first eight weeks of development; at the beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed a fetus . Humans are able to induce early labor or perform a caesarean section if the child needs to be born earlier for medical reasons. In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (7–9 lb) in weight and 47–53 cm (19–21 in) in height at birth. However, low birth weight
2475-485: Is a mixture of the two parental sets. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes . Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system , so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. Genes and environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility and mental abilities. The exact influence of genes and environment on certain traits
2574-424: Is a population decline in the winter months of this realm. Humans established nation-states in the other seven realms, such as South Africa , India , Russia , Australia , Fiji , United States and Brazil (each located in a different biogeographical realm). By using advanced tools and clothing , humans have been able to extend their tolerance to a wide variety of temperatures, humidities , and altitudes. As
2673-402: Is characterized by a number of morphological , developmental , physiological , and behavioral changes that have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees . The most significant of these adaptations are hairlessness , obligate bipedalism, increased brain size and decreased sexual dimorphism ( neoteny ). The relationship between all these changes
2772-456: Is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions. Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous, with a much higher risk of complications and death. The size of the fetus's head is more closely matched to the pelvis than in other primates. The reason for this is not completely understood, but it contributes to a painful labor that can last 24 hours or more. The chances of
2871-421: Is dangerous, with a high risk of complications and death . Often, both the mother and the father provide care for their children, who are helpless at birth . Humans have a large, highly developed, and complex prefrontal cortex , the region of the brain associated with higher cognition. Humans are highly intelligent and capable of episodic memory ; they have flexible facial expressions, self-awareness , and
2970-456: Is described as eternal. Various fragments of time are described in the Vedas , Manusmriti , Bhagavata Purana , Vishnu Purana , Mahabharata , Surya Siddhanta etc. Sidereal astrology maintains the alignment between signs and constellations via corrective systems of Hindu ( Vedic )-origin known as ayanamsas (Sanskrit: 'ayana' "movement" + 'aṃśa' "component"), to allow for
3069-440: Is equal to the duration of the manifested material elements, from which Brahma manifests his universe in kalpa cycles: A maha-kalpa is followed by a maha-pralaya (full dissolution) of equal length. Each kalpa (day of Brahma) is followed by a pralaya (night of Brahma or partial dissolution) of equal length. Preceding the first and following each manvantara is a manvantara-sandhya (connection period), each with
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3168-479: Is generally aging, with the median age around 40 years. In the developing world , the median age is between 15 and 20 years. While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older. In 2012, the United Nations estimated that there were 316,600 living centenarians (humans of age 100 or older) worldwide. Humans are omnivorous , capable of consuming
3267-443: Is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve , must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago. Most human reproduction takes place by internal fertilization via sexual intercourse , but can also occur through assisted reproductive technology procedures. The average gestation period
3366-436: Is measured by the sun's northern ( uttarayana ) and southern ( dakshinayana ) movements in the sky, where the new year commences only when the sun returns to the same starting point and a pause on the commencement otherwise. Ebenezer Burgess postulates an intercalary month was inserted every five years to anciently maintain the correspondence of the 360-day years with the true solar years (~365.24-day years). For this reason,
3465-408: Is mostly done by the mother. Helpless at birth , humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 15 to 17 years of age. The human life span has been split into various stages ranging from three to twelve. Common stages include infancy , childhood , adolescence , adulthood and old age . The lengths of these stages have varied across cultures and time periods but
3564-521: Is not well understood. While no humans – not even monozygotic twins – are genetically identical, two humans on average will have a genetic similarity of 99.5%-99.9%. This makes them more homogeneous than other great apes, including chimpanzees. This small variation in human DNA compared to many other species suggests a population bottleneck during the Late Pleistocene (around 100,000 years ago), in which
3663-441: Is of four hundred years. (21) Regarding the other cycles, the duration of each gradually decreases by a quarter in respect of both the principal period with the minor portion and the conjoining portion itself. (29) The learned say that these twelve thousand celestial years form what is called a cycle. A thousand such cycles form a single day of Brahman [(Brahma)]. (30) The same is the duration of Brahman's [(Brahma's)] night. With
3762-470: Is one of the five elements of a Pañcāṅga . The other four elements: This Hinduism-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Vedic timekeeping Traditional Hindu units of time are described in Hindu texts ranging from microseconds to trillions of years, including cycles of cosmic time that repeat general events in Hindu cosmology . Time ( kāla )
3861-524: Is submerged in water. A manvantara lasts for 306.72 million years, where the current (ruled by Vaivasvatha Manu ) is the 7th of 14: The lifespan of Brahma (creator god) lasts for 100 of his years. His 12-hour day or kalpa ( a.k.a. day of Brahma) is followed by a 12-hour night or pralaya ( a.k.a. night of Brahma) of equal length, each lasting for 4.32 billion years. A kalpa lasts for 1,000 chatur-yugas and has 14 manvantaras and 15 manvantara-sandhyas occurring in it. At
3960-620: Is the 4th of 4 yugas in a cycle as well as the current yuga , with two sandhyas , each lasting for 36,000 years: A chatur-yuga lasts for 4.32 million years, where the current is the 28th of 71: The lifespan of the Pitris (forefathers) lasts for 100 of their years. The lifespan of the Devas (gods) lasts for 100 of their years. The lifespan of the Manus (progenitors of mankind) lasts for 100 of their years. Each Manu reigns over
4059-445: Is the subject of ongoing debate. Hylobatidae ( gibbons ) Pongo abelii Pongo tapanuliensis Pongo pygmaeus Gorilla gorilla Gorilla beringei Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Homo sapiens (humans) Until about 12,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers . The Neolithic Revolution (the invention of agriculture ) first took place in Southwest Asia and spread through large parts of
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4158-414: Is their day for active exertion, the bright (fortnight) their night for sleep. दैवे रात्र्यहनी वर्षं प्रविभागस्तयोः पुनः । अहस्तत्रोदगयनं रात्रिः स्याद् दक्षिणायनम् ॥ ६७ ॥ daive rātryahanī varṣaṃ pravibhāgastayoḥ punaḥ । ahastatrodagayanaṃ rātriḥ syād dakṣiṇāyanam ॥ 67 ॥ (67) A year is a day and a night of the gods; their division is (as follows): the half year during which the sun progresses to
4257-654: Is typified by an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence. Human females undergo menopause and become infertile at around the age of 50. It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring, and in turn their children (the grandmother hypothesis ), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age. The life span of an individual depends on two major factors, genetics and lifestyle choices. For various reasons, including biological/genetic causes, women live on average about four years longer than men. As of 2018 ,
4356-548: The British Empire expanded to become the world's largest empire . A tenuous balance of power among European nations collapsed in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War , one of the deadliest conflicts in history. In the 1930s, a worldwide economic crisis led to the rise of authoritarian regimes and a Second World War , involving almost all of the world's countries . The war's destruction led to
4455-580: The Caral–Supe civilization is the oldest complex civilization in the Americas. Astronomy and mathematics were also developed and the Great Pyramid of Giza was built. There is evidence of a severe drought lasting about a hundred years that may have caused the decline of these civilizations, with new ones appearing in the aftermath. Babylonians came to dominate Mesopotamia while others, such as
4554-511: The Church would provide centralized authority and education. In the Middle East, Islam became the prominent religion and expanded into North Africa. It led to an Islamic Golden Age , inspiring achievements in architecture , the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. The Christian and Islamic worlds would eventually clash, with
4653-474: The Homo genus. The name " Homo sapiens " means 'wise man' or 'knowledgeable man'. There is disagreement if certain extinct members of the genus, namely Neanderthals , should be included as a separate species of humans or as a subspecies of H. sapiens . Human is a loanword of Middle English from Old French humain , ultimately from Latin hūmānus , the adjectival form of homō ('man' – in
4752-579: The Kingdom of England , the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire declaring a series of holy wars to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims . In the Americas, between 200 and 900 CE Mesoamerica was in its Classic Period , while further north, complex Mississippian societies would arise starting around 800 CE. The Mongol Empire would conquer much of Eurasia in the 13th and 14th centuries. Over this same time period,
4851-854: The Mali Empire in Africa grew to be the largest empire on the continent, stretching from Senegambia to Ivory Coast . Oceania would see the rise of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire which expanded across many islands in the South Pacific. By the late 15th century, the Aztecs and Inca had become the dominant power in Mesoamerica and the Andes , respectively. The early modern period in Europe and
4950-587: The Old World over the following millennia. It also occurred independently in Mesoamerica (about 6,000 years ago), China, Papua New Guinea , and the Sahel and West Savanna regions of Africa. Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements , the domestication of animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture and sedentary lifestyle led to
5049-652: The Poverty Point culture , Minoans and the Shang dynasty , rose to prominence in new areas. The Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BCE resulted in the disappearance of a number of civilizations and the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages . During this period iron started replacing bronze, leading to the Iron Age . In the 5th century BCE, history started being recorded as a discipline , which provided
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#17327795613005148-795: The colonization of the Americas and the Columbian Exchange . This expansion led to the Atlantic slave trade and the genocide of Native American peoples . This period also marked the Scientific Revolution , with great advances in mathematics , mechanics , astronomy and physiology . The late modern period (1800–present) saw the Technological and Industrial Revolution bring such discoveries as imaging technology , major innovations in transport and energy development . Influenced by Enlightenment ideals,
5247-518: The Americas and Europe experienced a period of political revolutions known as the Age of Revolution . The Napoleonic Wars raged through Europe in the early 1800s, Spain lost most of its colonies in the New World , while Europeans continued expansion into Africa – where European control went from 10% to almost 90% in less than 50 years – and Oceania. In the 19th century,
5346-876: The Mediterranean. In West Asia, the Achaemenid Empire 's system of centralized governance became the precursor to many later empires, while the Gupta Empire in India and the Han dynasty in China have been described as golden ages in their respective regions. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Europe entered the Middle Ages . During this period, Christianity and
5445-832: The Near East ( c. 1450 –1800) began with the final defeat of the Byzantine Empire , and the rise of the Ottoman Empire . Meanwhile, Japan entered the Edo period , the Qing dynasty rose in China and the Mughal Empire ruled much of India. Europe underwent the Renaissance , starting in the 15th century, and the Age of Discovery began with the exploring and colonizing of new regions. This included
5544-478: The Sri Yukteswar ayanamsa were around 23 degrees behind tropical zodiacal signs. Per these calculations, persons born between March 12 - April 12, for instance, would have the sun sign of Pisces. By contrast, persons born between March 21 - April 19 would have the sun sign of Aries per tropical calculations. Sidereal Units: ( प्राण ) According to Sūrya Siddhānta : Small units of time used in
5643-498: The Sun and the Moon is an integer multiple of 12°. Tithis begin at varying times of day and vary in duration approximately from 19 to 26 hours . Every day of a lunar month is called tithi. Traditional A Hindu muhurta (forty-eight minute duration) can be represented in five attributes of Hindu astronomy namely, vara the weekday, tithi , nakshatra the Moon's asterism, yoga
5742-483: The Sun, Moon and Jupiter residing in the "Pushya" sector. The history of humanity is divided up into four yugas ( a.k.a. dharmic ages or world ages)— Kṛta-yuga (pronounced Krita-yuga ; a.k.a. Satya-yuga ), Tretā-yuga , Dvāpara-yuga and Kali-yuga —each with a 25% decline in dharmic practices and length, giving proportions ( caraṇas ; pronounced charanas ) of 4:3:2:1 (e.g. Satya : 100% start; Kali : 25% start, 0% end), indicating
5841-657: The Vedas: The traditional lunar calendar system measures time based on the Moon's phases and its relation to the Sun. Unlike solar calendars, it uses units such as tithi (lunar day), pakṣa (lunar fortnight), māsa (lunar month), ṛitu (season), ayanam (half-year), and varsha (lunar year) to structure the year. This system was integral to ancient cultures for tracking time, planning festivals, and guiding agricultural practices. The following section provides an overview of these key time units and their relationships: Tropical metrics are time units used to measure intervals based on
5940-456: The angular relationship between Sun and Moon and karana half of tithi. Tithi plays an important role along with nakshatra in Hindus' daily as well as special activities in selecting the muhurta . There are auspicious tithis as well as inauspicious tithis , each considered more propitious for some purposes than for other. There are 30 tithis in each lunar month , named as: Tithi
6039-478: The available food, improving aesthetics , increasing knowledge or enhancing the exchange of resources. Humans are one of the most adaptable species, despite having a low or narrow tolerance for many of the earth's extreme environments. Currently the species is present in all eight biogeographical realms , although their presence in the Antarctic realm is very limited to research stations and annually there
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#17327795613006138-645: The beginning of Brahman's [(Brahma's)] day the universe begins to come into being. During the period of universal dissolution the Creator sleeps in Yoga meditation. When the period of sleep expires, He awakes. (31) What is Brahman's [(Brahma's)] day covers a thousand such cycles. His night also covers a thousand similar cycles. They who know this are said to know the day and the night. — Mahabharata , Book 12 ( Shanti Parva ), Ch. 231 The Manusmriti ( a.k.a. Laws of Manu ; 1.64–80) describes units of time from
6237-561: The best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances. Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances. Compared to other apes, the human heart produces greater stroke volume and cardiac output and the aorta is proportionately larger. Like most animals, humans are a diploid and eukaryotic species. Each somatic cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes , each set received from one parent; gametes have only one set of chromosomes, which
6336-665: The collapse of most global empires, leading to widespread decolonization. Following the conclusion of the Second World War in 1945, the United States and the USSR emerged as the remaining global superpowers . This led to a Cold War that saw a struggle for global influence, including a nuclear arms race and a space race , ending in the collapse of the Soviet Union. The current Information Age , spurred by
6435-787: The combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century AD. Bubonic plagues , first recorded in the 6th century AD, reduced the population by 50%, with the Black Death killing 75–200 million people in Eurasia and North Africa alone. Human population is believed to have reached one billion in 1800. It has since then increased exponentially, reaching two billion in 1930 and three billion in 1960, four in 1975, five in 1987 and six billion in 1999. It passed seven billion in 2011 and passed eight billion in November 2022. It took over two million years of human prehistory and history for
6534-478: The continent, gradually replacing or interbreeding with local populations of archaic humans. Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–70,000 years ago, and possibly earlier. This development was likely selected amidst natural climate change in Middle to Late Pleistocene Africa. The "out of Africa" migration took place in at least two waves, the first around 130,000 to 100,000 years ago,
6633-678: The days and nights of human beings about which I have told you I shall speak of the day and night of Brahman [(Brahma)] and his years also. (19) I shall, in their order, tell you the number of years that are for different purposes calculated differently, in the Krita, the Treta, the Dwapara, and the Kali yugas. (20) Four thousand celestial years is the duration of the first or Krita age. The morning of that cycle consists of four hundred years and its evening
6732-423: The desire to understand and influence phenomena having motivated humanity's development of science , technology , philosophy , mythology , religion , and other frameworks of knowledge ; humans also study themselves through such domains as anthropology , social science , history , psychology , and medicine . There are estimated to be more than eight billion living humans . Although some scientists equate
6831-516: The development of the Internet and Artificial Intelligence systems, sees the world becoming increasingly globalized and interconnected. Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and – depending on the lifestyle – other natural resources used for subsistence , such as populations of animal prey for hunting and arable land for growing crops and grazing livestock. Modern humans, however, have
6930-640: The early 20th century, there has been continuous human presence in Antarctica through research stations and, since 2000, in space through habitation on the International Space Station . All modern humans are classified into the species Homo sapiens , coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 1735 work Systema Naturae . The generic name " Homo " is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin homō , which refers to humans of either sex. The word human can refer to all members of
7029-685: The emergence of early civilizations . An urban revolution took place in the 4th millennium BCE with the development of city-states , particularly Sumerian cities located in Mesopotamia . It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing, cuneiform script , appeared around 3000 BCE. Other major civilizations to develop around this time were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilisation . They eventually traded with each other and invented technology such as wheels, plows and sails. Emerging by 3000 BCE,
7128-568: The end of a maha-kalpa . His 100-year life is divided into two 50-year periods, each called a parārdha . In 100 360-day years ( maha-kalpa ), there are a total of 36,000 full days: 36,000 kalpas (days proper) and 36,000 pralayas (nights). A kalpa (day of Brahma , 12 hours) lasts for 4.32 billion years, where the current ( Shveta-Varaha Kalpa ) is the 1st of 30 in his 1st month of his 51st year: A maha-kalpa (life of Brahma ) lasts for 311.04 trillion years: The Mahabharata (12.231.12–31) describes units of time from
7227-566: The genomes of 1,184 individuals from 11 populations and identified 1.6 million single nucleotide polymorphisms . African populations harbor the highest number of private genetic variants. While many of the common variants found in populations outside of Africa are also found on the African continent, there are still large numbers that are private to these regions, especially Oceania and the Americas . By 2010 estimates, humans have approximately 22,000 genes. By comparing mitochondrial DNA , which
7326-595: The global average life expectancy at birth of a girl is estimated to be 74.9 years compared to 70.4 for a boy. There are significant geographical variations in human life expectancy, mostly correlated with economic development – for example, life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong is 87.6 years for girls and 81.8 for boys, while in the Central African Republic , it is 55.0 years for girls and 50.6 for boys. The developed world
7425-443: The human lifestyle. Genes and the environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology , disease susceptibility, mental abilities, body size, and life span. Though humans vary in many traits, humans are among the least genetically diverse species. Any two humans are at least 99.5% genetically similar. Humans are sexually dimorphic : generally, males have greater body strength and females have
7524-555: The human population to reach one billion and only 207 years more to grow to 7 billion. The combined biomass of the carbon of all the humans on Earth in 2018 was estimated at 60 million tons, about 10 times larger than that of all non-domesticated mammals. In 2018, 4.2 billion humans (55%) lived in urban areas, up from 751 million in 1950. The most urbanized regions are Northern America (82%), Latin America (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%), with Africa and Asia having nearly 90% of
7623-517: The human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs. The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years. The human genome was first sequenced in 2001 and by 2020 hundreds of thousands of genomes had been sequenced. In 2012 the International HapMap Project had compared
7722-567: The late Miocene epoch. During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from the joining of two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes. Following their split with chimpanzees and bonobos, the hominins diversified into many species and at least two distinct genera. All but one of these lineages – representing the genus Homo and its sole extant species Homo sapiens – are now extinct. The genus Homo evolved from Australopithecus . Though fossils from
7821-417: The light half of the month is their day which is for work, and the dark fortnight is their night for sleep. (17) A year (of men) is equal to a day and night of the gods. This division consists in this the half year for which the sun travels from the vernal to the autumnal equinox is the day of the gods, and the half year for which the sun moves from the latter to the former is their night. (18) Calculating by
7920-402: The main period. Lengths are given in divine years ( a.k.a. celestial or Deva years), where a divine year lasts for 360 solar (human) years. A chatur-yuga lasts for 4.32 million solar (12,000 divine) years with 1,728,000 years of Krita-yuga , 1,296,000 years of Treta-yuga , 864,000 years of Dvapara-yuga , and 432,000 years of Kali-yuga . Kali-yuga lasts for 432,000 years and
8019-501: The most common and widespread species of primate , and the last surviving species of the genus Homo . They are great apes characterized by their hairlessness , bipedalism , and high intelligence . Humans have large brains , enabling more advanced cognitive skills that enable them to thrive and adapt in varied environments, develop highly complex tools , and form complex social structures and civilizations . Humans are highly social , with individual humans tending to belong to
8118-417: The night (being intended) for the repose of created beings and the day for exertion. पित्र्ये रात्र्यहनी मासः प्रविभागस्तु पक्षयोः । कर्मचेष्टास्वहः कृष्णः शुक्लः स्वप्नाय शर्वरी ॥ ६६ ॥ pitrye rātryahanī māsaḥ pravibhāgastu pakṣayoḥ । karmaceṣṭāsvahaḥ kṛṣṇaḥ śuklaḥ svapnāya śarvarī ॥ 66 ॥ (66) A month is a day and night of the manes, but the division is according to fortnights. The dark (fortnight)
8217-402: The north will be the day, that during which it goes southwards the night. ब्राह्मस्य तु क्षपाहस्य यत् प्रमाणं समासतः । एकैकशो युगानां तु क्रमशस्तन्निबोधत ॥ ६८ ॥ brāhmasya tu kṣapāhasya yat pramāṇaṃ samāsataḥ । ekaikaśo yugānāṃ tu kramaśastannibodhata ॥ 68 ॥ (68) But hear now the brief (description of) the duration of a night and a day of Brahman [(Brahma)] and of the several ages (of
8316-696: The observed precession of equinoxes , whereas tropical astrology ignores precession. This has caused the two systems, which were aligned around 2,000 years ago, to drift apart over the centuries. Ayanamsa systems used in Hindu astrology (also known as Vedic astrology ) include the Lahiriayanamsa and the Raman ayanamsa. The Fagan-Bradley ayanamsa is an example of an ayanamsa system used in Western sidereal astrology. As of 2020, zodiacal signs calculated using
8415-509: The ongoing mass extinction of other forms of life. Within the last century, humans have explored challenging environments such as Antarctica , the deep sea , and outer space . Human habitation within these hostile environments is restrictive and expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific , military , or industrial expeditions. Humans have visited the Moon and made their presence known on other celestial bodies through human-made robotic spacecraft . Since
8514-442: The only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teeth . Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young individuals. Humans are gradually losing their third molars , with some individuals having them congenitally absent. Humans share with chimpanzees a vestigial tail, appendix , flexible shoulder joints, grasping fingers and opposable thumbs . Humans also have
8613-474: The palm of the hand and on the soles of the feet. It is estimated that the worldwide average height for an adult human male is about 171 cm (5 ft 7 in), while the worldwide average height for adult human females is about 159 cm (5 ft 3 in). Shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals but tends to be typical in the extremely aged . Throughout history, human populations have universally become taller, probably as
8712-515: The population density varies from one region to another, and large stretches of surface are almost completely uninhabited, like Antarctica and vast swathes of the ocean. Most humans (61%) live in Asia; the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%). Estimates of the population at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million. Around 50–60 million people lived in
8811-404: The second ( Southern Dispersal ) around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago. H. sapiens proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000 years ago, Australia around 65,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii , Easter Island , Madagascar , and New Zealand in the years 300 to 1280 CE. Human evolution was not
8910-547: The sense of humanity). The native English term man can refer to the species generally (a synonym for humanity ) as well as to human males. It may also refer to individuals of either sex. Despite the fact that the word animal is colloquially used as an antonym for human , and contrary to a common biological misconception , humans are animals . The word person is often used interchangeably with human , but philosophical debate exists as to whether personhood applies to all humans or all sentient beings , and further if
9009-417: The start of Brahma's days, he is re-born and creates the planets and the first living entities. At the end of his days, he and his creations are unmanifest (partial dissolution). His 100-year life (311.04 trillion years) is called a mahā-kalpa , which is followed by a mahā-pralaya (full dissolution) of equal length, where the bases of the universe, prakriti , is manifest at the start and unmanifest at
9108-433: The term "humans" with all members of the genus Homo , in common usage it generally refers to Homo sapiens , the only extant member. All other members of the genus Homo , which are now extinct, are known as archaic humans , and the term "modern human" is used to distinguish Homo sapiens from archaic humans. Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago in Africa, evolving from Homo heidelbergensis or
9207-509: The total of four (human) ages, are called one age of the gods. दैविकानां युगानां तु सहस्रं परिसङ्ख्यया । ब्राह्ममेकमहर्ज्ञेयं तावतीं रात्रिमेव च ॥ ७२ ॥ daivikānāṃ yugānāṃ tu sahasraṃ parisaṅkhyayā । brāhmamekamaharjñeyaṃ tāvatīṃ rātrimeva ca ॥ 72 ॥ (72) But know that the sum of one thousand ages of the gods (makes) one day of Brahman [(Brahma)], and that his night has the same length. Human Humans ( Homo sapiens , meaning "thinking man" or "wise man") or modern humans are
9306-427: The transition are scarce, the earliest members of Homo share several key traits with Australopithecus . The earliest record of Homo is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia , and the earliest named species are Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis which evolved by 2.3 million years ago. H. erectus (the African variant is sometimes called H. ergaster ) evolved 2 million years ago and
9405-569: The tropical year and related cycles. This system includes units such as ghaṭi (base unit), yāma (a period of 7.5 ghaṭis), and ahorātram (a full day comprising 8 yāmas). The following section explains these units and their approximate durations, offering insight into how time is organized in relation to the tropical year: The table below contains calculations of cosmic Hindu units of time as experienced by different entities, namely humans , Pitris (forefathers), Devas (gods), Manu (progenitor of humanity), and Brahma (creator god). Calculations use
9504-636: The twilight following it of the same number. इतरेषु ससन्ध्येषु ससन्ध्यांशेषु च त्रिषु । एकापायेन वर्तन्ते सहस्राणि शतानि च ॥ ७० ॥ itareṣu sasandhyeṣu sasandhyāṃśeṣu ca triṣu । ekāpāyena vartante sahasrāṇi śatāni ca ॥ 70 ॥ (70) In the other three ages with their twilights preceding and following, the thousands and hundreds are diminished by one (in each). यदेतत् परिसङ्ख्यातमादावेव चतुर्युगम् । एतद् द्वादशसाहस्रं देवानां युगमुच्यते ॥ ७१ ॥ yadetat parisaṅkhyātamādāveva caturyugam । etad dvādaśasāhasraṃ devānāṃ yugamucyate ॥ 71 ॥ (71) These twelve thousand (years) which thus have been just mentioned as
9603-440: The world's 3.4 billion rural population. Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime , especially in inner city and suburban slums . Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology. The dental formula of humans is: 2.1.2.3 2.1.2.3 . Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are
9702-407: The world, yuga) according to their order. चत्वार्याहुः सहस्राणि वर्षाणां तत् कृतं युगम् । तस्य तावत्शती सन्ध्या सन्ध्यांशश्च तथाविधः ॥ ६९ ॥ catvāryāhuḥ sahasrāṇi varṣāṇāṃ tat kṛtaṃ yugam । tasya tāvatśatī sandhyā sandhyāṃśaśca tathāvidhaḥ ॥ 69 ॥ (69) They declare that the Krita age (consists of) four thousand years (of the gods); the twilight preceding it consists of as many hundreds, and
9801-402: Was the first archaic human species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia. H. erectus also was the first to evolve a characteristically human body plan . Homo sapiens emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago from a species commonly designated as either H. heidelbergensis or H. rhodesiensis , the descendants of H. erectus that remained in Africa. H. sapiens migrated out of
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