The Titteri ( Arabic : جبل التيطري , Berber languages : Tittri ) is a historical region in Algeria . It is located in the mountainous area of the southern Tell Atlas in the Atlas Mountains .
102-513: The Titteri was a former administrative division of the Regency of Algiers . It is located in the area of Médéa , stretching across parts of Aïn Defla , Bouïra , Djelfa and M'Sila Province as well. Its northern zone corresponds to the southern slopes of the Blidean Atlas and its southern part reaches the western Bibans . The climate of the area is semi-arid . The highest summit of
204-584: A dependency because Algiers had annexed it to the Ottoman Empire, which made the appointment of its pashas a prerogative of the Algerian beylerbeys. Faced with Tunisian opposition to Algerian hegemony and its ambitions in the Constantine region , the Algerian dey took the opportunity provided by the 20 years of civil war between Murad II Bey 's sons to invade in 1694 and put a puppet bey on
306-520: A foreign policy tool to play its European counterparts against one other and hunt merchant ships, prompting European states to sign peace treaties and seek Mediterranean passes to help them secure lucrative cabotage trade. This gave the Regency's elites internal legitimacy as champions of jihad , and according to early modern European authors, international respect for the Regency's sovereignty as an established government, despite still being
408-512: A "nest of pirates". Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) noted that "Algiers exercised the jus ad bellum of a sovereign power through its corsairs". Historian Daniel Panzac stressed: Indeed, privateering was based on two fundamental priniciples: it was one of the forms of war practiced by the Maghreb against the Christian states, which conferred upon it a dimension that was at one and
510-470: A continuance of the stratocratic Prussian government. British commentators such as Sir Richard Burton described the pre- Tanzimat Ottoman Empire as a stratocratic state. The Warlord Era of China is viewed as period of stratocratic struggles with the researcher Peng Xiuliang pointing to the actions and policies of Wang Shizhen , a general and politician of the Republic of China , as an example of
612-409: A council of government, they took care to respect local institutions and customs under their dominion. The beylerbeys were usually strongmen who kept most of the Maghreb firmly under Ottoman control, garrisoning the main towns with troops and collecting taxes on land while relying heavily on privateering at sea. Because of their experience in fleet command, some beylerbeys became Kapudan Pasha and led
714-408: A kingship on campaign" (iii. 24). One of the most notable and long-lived examples of a stratocratic state is Ancient Rome , though the stratocratic system developed over time. Following the deposition of the last Roman king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , Rome became an oligarchic Republic . However, with the gradual expansion of the empire and conflicts with its rival Carthage , culminating in
816-716: A majority on the tai'fa, amongst whom were former slaves who rose to positions of power. Renegade captain Ali Bitchin became admiral of the Algerian navy in 1621 and raided Spanish harbors. After the Ottoman sultan refused to compensate Algiers for its losses against the Venetians in Valona , Ali Bitchin refused to answer a summons from the sultan to join the Cretan war in 1645, then died quite suddenly. The 17th century
918-759: A prosperous Algiers for 25 years until he died in 1791. He built fortifications, fountains and a municipal water supply; he also strengthened the navy, kept the janissaries in check and developed trade. Algerian historian Nasreddin Saidouni reports that the dey placed in the state treasury 200,000 Algerian sequins that he had saved from his private salary, which he did not reclaim, during the Spanish attacks on Algiers. His governor of Constantine , Salah Bey , managed to re-assert Regency authority as far south as Touggourt . Algiers also maintained its military superiority over its neighbors under his rule. The dey increased
1020-646: A ransom and annual tribute equal to $ 10 million over 12 years in accordance to a peace treaty with Algiers in 1795. However, Algiers was defeated in the Second Barbary War by the United States in 1815 when U.S. commodore Stephen Decatur 's squadron killed Algerian admiral Raïs Hamidou in the battle off Cape Gata on 17 June 1815, ending the Algerian threat to U.S. shipping in the Mediterranean. The new European order that emerged from
1122-432: A text that defined the rights of the subjects of Algiers and of all inhabitants of the Regency of Algiers. It codified the behavior of the different army units: janissaries, gunners, chaouchs and sipahis. In the three beyliks (provinces), the beys relied on local notables since they had a limited number of janissaries. This allowed the coulouglis to become beys. Baba Mohammed ben-Osman became dey in 1766 and ruled over
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#17327726031811224-401: A thousand European ships were captured from 1608 to 1634, with more than 25,000 people enslaved, many of whom were Dutch, German, French, Spanish and English, making the value of the spoils total about 4,752,000 pounds . Pierre Dan estimated the value of seized cargo at around 20,000,000 francs. Algiers became a thriving market in the 17th century for captives and plundered goods from all over
1326-482: A trading center known as the Bastion de France , which exported coral legally under its monopoly and wheat illegally. The bastion was fortified and turned into a military supply base and a center of espionage , which Algerians were displeased by. Khider Pasha destroyed the bastion in 1604. The Ottoman Porte had him assassinated and replaced by the more compliant Mohammed Koucha [ fr ] Pasha, but
1428-419: Is a form of government headed by military chiefs. The branches of government are administered by military forces, the government is legal under the laws of the jurisdiction at issue, and is usually carried out by military workers. The word stratocracy first appeared in 1652 from the political theorist Robert Filmer , being preceded in 1649 by stratokratia used by Claudius Salmasius in reference to
1530-551: Is known as the Franco-Algerian war , which ended when a 100-year peace treaty was signed between Dey Hussein Mezzo Morto and Louis XIV. Algiers entered a period of peaceful relations with Europe. The resulting decline in privateering forced Algiers to seek other sources of revenue. Dey Hadj Chabane set his sights on his Maghrebi neighbors, Tunis and Morocco . For historical reasons, Algiers considered Tunisia
1632-680: The Austro-Hungarian Empire ). The military frontier acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire . Located in the southern part of Hungarian crown land, the frontier was separated from local jurisdiction and was under direct Viennese central military administration from the 1500s to 1872. Unlike the rest of the Catholic dominated territory of the empire, the frontier area had relatively freer religious laws in order to attract settlements into
1734-654: The Barbary Coast of North Africa from 1516 to 1830. Founded by the privateer brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Reis (also known as the Barbarossa brothers), the Regency succeeded the Kingdom of Tlemcen as an infamous and formidable pirate base that plundered and waged maritime holy war on European Christian powers. Ottoman regents ruled as heads of a stratocracy —an autonomous military government controlled by
1836-672: The Barbary Wars at the beginning of the 19th century, when Algiers was decisively defeated for the first time. Internal central authority weakened in Algiers due to political intrigue, failed harvests and the decline of privateering. Violent tribal revolts followed, mainly led by maraboutic orders such as the Darqawis and Tijanis . In 1830, France took advantage of this domestic turmoil to invade. The resulting French conquest of Algeria led to colonial rule until 1962. Encouraged by
1938-534: The Canary Islands . Fearful of the growing authority of the beylerbeylik , the Sublime Porte replaced it with pashas who served a three-year term starting in 1587. The Ottomans also divided the Maghreb into the three regencies of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli . Earlier pashas such as Khider Pasha [ fr ] and Kose Mustafa Pasha served for multiple terms and guaranteed stability in
2040-670: The Coalition Wars and the Congress of Vienna did not tolerate Algerian raids and viewed them as a "barbaric relic of a previous age". In August 1816 Lord Exmouth carried out a bombardment of Algiers that ended in a British and Dutch victory, a weakened Algerian navy and the liberation of 1,200 slaves. Dey Ali Khodja , with support from the Kouloughlis and the Kabyles, disposed of the turbulent janissaries and transferred
2142-520: The Duke of Montemar 's forces recaptured the city . The pashas plotted in secret, created conflicts and instigated sedition to overthrow the unpopular deys and regain some of their lost authority. From 1710 the deys assumed the title of pasha at the initiative of Dey Baba Ali Chaouch and no longer accepted representatives from the Sublime Porte. When the Austrian Habsburg monarchy signed
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#17327726031812244-572: The Hafsids ; then Tripoli from the Hafsids in 1510, making other coastal cities submit to them such as Algiers, where they built an island fortress known as the Peñón of Algiers . In addition to territorial ambitions and Catholic missionary fervor, Spanish economical aims included control over the caravan trade routes from western Sudan, Tripoli and Tunis in the east and Ceuta to Melilla in
2346-902: The Israeli occupation of the West Bank , East Jerusalem (both taken from Jordan ), Sinai Peninsula , Gaza Strip (taken from Egypt ) and the Golan Heights (taken from Syria ) after the Six-Day War can be argued to have been under stratocratic rule. While the West Bank and Gaza were governed by the Israeli Military Governorate and Civil Administration which was later given to the Palestinian National Authority that governs
2448-626: The Ottoman fleet from total defeat in the battle of Lepanto in 1571. Uluç Ali's deputy Caïd Ramdan [ fr ] captured Fez in 1576 after defeating Saadian ruler Mohammed II and put Abd al-Malik on the throne as an Ottoman vassal. In 1578 his successor Hassan Veneziano led his troops deep into the Sahara to the oases of Tuat in central Algeria to respond to pleas from its inhabitants for help against Saadi-allied tribes from Tafilalt . A campaign against Morocco led by Uluç Ali
2550-465: The Peace of Passarowitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1718, Dey Ali Chaouch had Austrian ships captured despite the treaty and refused to pay compensation when an Ottoman-Austrian delegation approached him. The deys also imposed their authority on the janissaries and the raïs . The latter did not approve of treaty provisions which restricted privateering, their main source of income, and remained attached to
2652-701: The Punic Wars , the Roman political and military system experienced drastic changes. Following the so-called " Marian reforms ", de facto political power became concentrated under military leadership, as the loyalty of the legionaries shifted from the Senate to its generals. Under the First Triumvirate and during the subsequent civil wars , militarism influenced the formation of the Roman Empire ,
2754-547: The Republic of Salé in the 17th century. He conducted several raids on Spanish coasts and vanquished the Genoese fleet of Andrea Doria at Cherchell . Hayreddin also rescued over 70,000 Andalusian refugees from the Spanish inquisition and brought them to Algeria, where they contributed to the flourishing culture of the Regency. The Barbarossa brothers turned Algiers into an Islamic bastion against Catholic Spain in
2856-399: The expedition to Mostaganem of the Spanish governor of Oran Count Alcaudete 's in 1558. Beylerbey Uluç Ali Pasha, who captured Tunis from Hafsid vassals of Spain in 1569 before losing it to the Christian forces under Spanish commander John of Austria in 1573, leaving 8,000 men in the Spanish presidio of La Goletta ; Uluç Ali recaptured the city in 1574, while his ships saved
2958-675: The head of which was acclaimed as " Imperator ", previously an honorary title for distinguished military commanders. The Roman Army either approved of or acquiesced in the accession of every Roman emperor, with the Praetorian Guard having a decisive role in Imperial succession until Emperor Constantine abolished it. Militarization of the Empire increased over time and emperors were increasingly beholden to their armies and fleets, yet how active emperors were in actually commanding in
3060-604: The janissary corps —known as Garp ocakları ( lit. ' Western Garrison ' ) in Ottoman terminology. The Regency emerged in the 16th-century Ottoman–Habsburg wars as a unique corsair state that drew revenue and political power from its maritime strength. In the 17th century, when the wars between the Spanish Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire, Kingdom of France , Kingdom of England and Dutch Republic ended, Barbary corsairs started capturing merchant ships and their crews and goods from these states. When
3162-715: The praetorianism of francophone African republics can be called stratocratic, including the Côte d'Ivoire and the Central African Republic . The French historian François Raguenet wrote in 1691 of the stratocracy of Oliver Cromwell in the Protectorate , and commented that he believed William III of England was seeking to revive the stratocracy in England. The Prussian military writer Georg Henirich von Berenhorst wrote in hindsight that ever since
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3264-553: The Algerian slave market , resulting in intermittent wars followed by longlasting peace treaties whose tribute payments terms ranged from money to weapons. Under Louis XIV , France built a strong navy to fend off the corsairs who raided Corsica and were everywhere in the waters off Marseilles in the late 1650s. The country launched multiple campaigns against the Regency, first in Jijel and Collo in 1664, then several bombings of Algiers were conducted between 1682 and 1688 in what
3366-599: The Barbary", wrote Diego de Haedo [ fr ; es ; it ] , a Spanish Benedictine held captive in Algiers between 1577 and 1580. Aruj continued his conquests in western Algeria, reaching Tlemcen, but a Spanish–Zayyanid coalition cut his supply route from Algiers. Aruj was killed with his companions in 1518 when he attempted to break out during the Fall of Tlemcen . Hayreddin inherited his brother's position as sultan without opposition, although he faced threats from
3468-583: The Dutch Republic were seen as allies by the Ottoman regencies until the end of the 16th century because of their common Spanish enemy, but when James I of England and Dutch States-General opted for peace with Spain in 1604 and 1609 , respectively, and increased their shipping in the Mediterranean, Algerian and Tunisian corsairs attacked their ships. They amassed wealth from capturing slaves and goods while taking advantage of their strong fleet, maritime European weakness and Ottoman incapacity to force
3570-435: The Mediterranean as a wealthy city with over 100,000 inhabitants. The reliance on piracy and captivity served to keep Algiers financially and politically independent from Constantinople. The pashas sent by the Sublime Porte worked to multiply their wealth as quickly as possible before the end of their three-year term in office. As governance became a secondary issue, the pashas lost all influence and respect, and aversion to
3672-492: The Mediterranean. The assault's disastrous failure dealt a humiliating blow to the reorganized Spanish military. This was followed by two bombardments by Antonio Barceló in 1783 and 1784 , also ending in defeat. Led by Mohammed Kebir Bey in 1791, Algiers launched a final assault on Oran, which was retaken after negotiations between Dey Hasan III Pasha with the Spanish Count of Floridablanca . The assault marked
3774-1171: The Mediterranean. The city became a bazaar for thousands of captured Christian slaves . Algiers was known in Christian Europe as "the scourge of Christendom" and a 16th-century " rogue state ". Hayreddin's son Hasan Pasha succeeded Hasan Agha. He led campaigns against Spanish ally Saadian Morocco, decisively defeating it in Tlemcen in 1551 . He was recalled by the sultan after the French ambassador in Constantinople supported his successor Salah Rais , who would expand his rule to Berber Beni Djallab's principalities in Touggourt and Ouargla , making them tributaries. Hasan Pasha then advanced as far as Fez in January 1554 , placing Wattasid pretender Abu Hassun as an Ottoman vassal there. Salah Rais captured Spanish-held Béjaïa in 1555, and his death ignited tensions between
3876-666: The Moroccan throne was answered with several invasions by Sultan Moulay Ismail in 1678, 1692 , 1701 and 1707, all of which failed. Moulay Ismail was forced to accept the Moulouya River as his eastern border with Ottoman Algeria. By the early 18th century, Algiers established a more stable form of government. Janissary-elected deys obtained the right from the Ottoman sultan to be appointed as pashas, gaining more legitimacy. The decline in privateering, fewer janissary recruits and decreased population and slaves compelled
3978-630: The Ottoman Empire. Under Hasan Agha , Algiers repelled a naval attack from the Holy Roman Empire led by Emperor Charles V in October 1541. The victory over the Spaniards was seen as a divine mandate of the Ottoman rule. Hasan Agha subjugated Kuku in the east in 1542, extended his rule south to Biskra and gained Tlemcen's support in the west. The Spanish defeat made Algiers the center of piracy , attracting pirates from all over
4080-407: The Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean. For most of the 16th century, the beylerbeys acted as independent sovereigns despite acknowledging the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who gave them a free hand but expected Algerian ships to help enforce Ottoman foreign policy if required. However, the interests of Algiers and Constantinople eventually diverged on the matter of privateering, over which
4182-674: The Ottomans could not prevent these attacks, European powers negotiated directly with Algiers and also took military action against it. This emancipated Algiers diplomatically and increased its autonomy. The Regency held significant naval power in the 16th and 17th centuries and well into the end of the Napoleonic wars despite European naval superiority. Its institutionalised privateering dealt substantial damage to European shipping , took captives for ransom, plundered booty, hijacked ships and eventually demanded regular tribute payments. In
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4284-639: The Regency's government, allowing into office regents such as Mohammed ben-Osman , who maintained Algerian prestige thanks to his public and defensive works which increased revenue and fended off attacks on Algiers. British tribute payments no longer insured U.S. shipping traffic in the Mediterranean after the American Revolution , and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars provided an opportunity for frequent Algerian privateering. Increased demands for tribute from Algiers started
4386-403: The Regency. From the mid-17th century, pashas were isolated and deprived of local support, as they were constantly torn between the corsairs' and janissaries' demands. The corsair captains were effectively outside the pashas' control, and the janissaries' loyalty to them depended on their ability to collect taxes and meet payroll. Both groups sometimes refused orders from the sultan, or even sent
4488-504: The Spanish twice, but the citizens of Jijel offered to make Aruj king after his corsairs arrived with a shipload of wheat during a famine. Answering pleas for help from its inhabitants, the brothers captured Algiers in 1516 but failed to destroy the Peñón. Aruj executed the Algerian emir , Salim Al-Tumi, then proclaimed himself Sultan of Algiers. He also repelled an attack led by the Spanish commander Don Diego de Vera, which won him
4590-537: The Spanish, Zayyanids, Hafsids and neighboring tribes. After repelling another Spanish attack in August 1519, led by Hugo of Moncada , Hayreddin pledged allegiance to the Sublime Porte to obtain Ottoman support against his foes. In October 1519, a delegation of Algerian dignitaries and ulama went to Ottoman sultan Selim I , proposing that Algiers join the Ottoman Empire. Constantinople had doubts, but
4692-426: The Sublime Porte had no control. Beylerbeys often remained in power for several years and exercised authority over Tunis and Tripoli as well. In addition, the timar system that granted fertile land to Ottoman sipahis was not applied in Algiers; instead, the beylerbeys sent tribute to Constantinople every year after paying off the expenses of the Regency. The foreign policy of Algiers aligned completely with
4794-468: The Sublime Porte increased. In 1659, Ibrahim Pasha pocketed some of the money the Ottoman sultan had sent to the corsairs as compensation for their losses in the Cretan War , which ignited a massive revolt, and the rebellious corsairs arrested and imprisoned him. Khalil Agha, commander-in-chief of the janissaries of Algiers, took advantage of the incident and seized power, accusing the pashas sent by
4896-430: The Sublime Porte of corruption and hindering the Regency's affairs with European countries. The janissaries effectively eliminated the authority of the pasha, whose position became purely ceremonial. They assigned executive authority to Khalil Agha, provided that his rule would not exceed two months, and put legislative power in the hands of the diwan council. The sultan, forced to accept the new government, stipulated that
4998-490: The allegiance of people in the northern part of central Algeria. In the central Maghreb , Aruj built a powerful Muslim state officially named the Kingdom of Algiers at the expense of its quarreling principalities. He sought the support of the maraboutic and Sufi orders, while his absolute authority was backed by Turks and Christian renegade corsairs. "Aruj [Reis] effectively began the powerful greatness of Algiers and
5100-543: The annual tribute paid by several European states such as Britain, Sweden, the Italian states and Denmark, which sent a naval campaign against Algiers under Frederik Kaas in 1770; the campaign failed, and Denmark was forced to pay heavy war compensations and send gifts to Algiers. In 1775 Irish-born admiral of the Spanish Empire Alejandro O'Reilly led an expedition to subdue pirate activity in
5202-616: The appointees viewing their civil roles as secondary to their military positions. Ghana under Jerry Rawlings has also been described as being stratocratic in nature. Karl Marx's term of barracks socialism was retermed by the political scientist Michel Martin in their description of socialist stratocracies in the Middle East , Latin America , and Africa , including specifically the People's Republic of Benin . Martin also believes
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#17327726031815304-541: The area. The closest modern equivalent to a stratocracy, the State Peace and Development Council of Myanmar (Burma), which ruled from 1997 to 2011, arguably differed from most other military dictatorships in that it completely abolished the civilian constitution and legislature. A new constitution that came into effect in 2010 cemented the Tatmadaw 's hold on power through mechanisms such as reserving 25% of
5406-408: The corsairs killed Agha Ali, an autocrat sovereign that alienated the diwan and whose conciliation policy with European states at the expense of privateering angered the corsairs. Janissary leaders wanted to appoint another agha of a sovereign Algiers, but given the lack of candidates, they and the corsairs resorted to a method Ali Bitchin Rais had used in 1644–45: they entrusted both the Regency and
5508-427: The countries moving in that direction. This was supported by the historian Richard Kohn in 1975 commenting on the US's creation of a military state during its early independence, and by the political scientist Samuel Fitch in 1985. The historian Eric Hobsbawm has used the existence and power of the military-industrial complex in the US as evidence of it being a stratocratic state. The expansion and prioritisation of
5610-548: The death of Jewish merchant Naphtali Busnash . Public unrest, a pogrom and successive coups followed, beginning a 20-year period of instability. The Alawi Sultanate incited a massive Sufi Darqawiyya revolt in the east and west of the regency, which was quelled with difficulty by the governor of Oran, Osman Bey. Meanwhile, payment delays caused frequent janissary revolts, leading to military setbacks as Morocco took possession of Figuig in 1805, Tuat and Oujda in 1808, and Tunisia freed itself from Algerian suzerainty after
5712-437: The deys to expand and exploit the interior under their control, impose tributes and further trade with European states and Tunis. Determined to remove the Spanish from Oran, Algerian dey Mohammed Bektach took the opportunity afforded by the War of the Spanish Succession to send Mustapha Bouchelaghem Bey at the head of a contingent of janissaries and local volunteers to take the city. He succeeded in 1707, but in 1732
5814-416: The diwan pay the janissaries stationed there. Khalil Agha began his rule by building the Djamaa el Djedid mosque. The era of the aghas began and the pashalik became a military republic. However, the aghas who ruled Algiers since 1659 were all assassinated, which resulted in weakened authority. In 1671 Sir Edward Spragge 's English squadron destroyed seven ships anchored in the harbor at Algiers, and
5916-461: The end of almost 300 years of holy war between Algeria and Spain. At the beginning of the 19th century, Algiers was plagued by political unrest and economic problems. A series of crises rocked Algiers in the early 19th century, beginning with famine from 1803 to 1805. Algerian reliance on Jewish merchants to trade with Europe was so great that a crisis caused by crop failure led to the assassination of Dey Mustapha Pasha [ fr ] and
6018-526: The end of the 16th century, janissaries were allowed to join corsair ships. As the 17th century started, the corsairs adopted square-rigged sails and tapered hulls. Their ships became faster and less dependent on a steady supply of galley slaves . Many of the Moriscos expelled from Spain joined the corsairs, and they debilitated Spain, ravaging its mainland and its territories in Italy, where they captured people en masse . European converts to Islam, known in Europe as "renegades" and "turned Turks", made up
6120-492: The end of the Regency of Algiers. Historian John Douglas Ruedy believes that the early 18th-century "de turkification " could have led to a 19th-century nationalization of the Algerian regime, but the French conquest put an end to this evolution. Stratocracy List of forms of government A stratocracy (from Ancient Greek στρατός ( stratós ) ' army ' and κράτος ( krátos ) 'dominion, power'), also called stratiocracy ,
6222-404: The external prestige of the Regency. But European reactions, new treaties guaranteeing the safety of navigation and a slowdown in shipbuilding considerably reduced their activity. The raïs rebelled and killed Dey Mohamed Ben Hassan in 1724. The new dey, Baba Abdi Pasha, quickly restored order and severely punished the conspirators. He stabilised the Regency and fought corruption. The diwan
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#17327726031816324-425: The field in military campaigns varied from emperor to emperor, even from dynasty to dynasty. The vital political importance of the army persisted up until the destruction of the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire with the fall of Constantinople in 1453. From 1170 to 1270, the kingdom of Goryeo was under effective military rule , with puppet kings on the throne serving mainly as figureheads. The majority of this period
6426-400: The government under Olusegun Obasanjo , and the Armed Forces Ruling Council led by Ibrahim Babangida . Under the 1978 constitution of eSwatini Sobhuza II appointed the Swazi army commander as the country's prime minister, and the second-in-command of the army as the head of the civil service board. This fusing of military and civil power continued in subsequent appointments, with many of
6528-420: The great indigenous families. Although the revolt spread to neighboring towns, it ultimately failed. The Kouloughlis failed to start another coup against the janissaries, which won the janissaries sole power in Algiers. In the 16th century, France signed capitulation treaties with the Ottomans that established the Franco-Ottoman Alliance and gave the French trading privileges in Algiers. The French built
6630-423: The historical and cultural development of both Russia and Ukraine. The Zaporozhian Sich was a Cossack semi-autonomous polity and proto-state that existed between the 16th and 18th centuries, and existed as an independent stratocratic state as the Cossack Hetmanate for over a hundred years. The Military Frontier was a borderland of the Habsburg monarchy (which became the Austrian Empire and later
6732-419: The janissaries and the corsairs in 1556. The janissaries supported Hasan Corso , a Corsican renegade, who refused to submit to the pasha sent from Constantinople. Although the pasha murdered Hasan Corso with the corsairs' support, the janissaries killed the pasha in retribution. The subsequent instability prompted Suleiman the Magnificent to restore order by sending Hasan Pasha back to Algiers, who thwarted
6834-476: The janissaries revolted in 1606 and tortured him to death. Algiers and Constantinople had different views of relations with France. The janissaries organised into the diwan (military council), the effective government of Algiers by 1626 at the expense of the pashas, which began official acts with the phrase, "We, pasha and diwân of the invincible militia of Algiers". According to priest and historian Pierre Dan [ fr ] (1580–1649), "The state has only
6936-474: The janissaries, effective holders of both military and political power, and the corsairs as the Regency's economic powerhouse that would remunerate the janissaries through the deys. This made Algiers de facto independent of the Ottoman Empire. However, the deys' power was checked by the diwan, and both janissaries and corsairs ousted deys they did not like. Privateering operations were regulated by treaties with European powers. Algiers used privateering as
7038-412: The military during the administrations of Reagan and H. W. Bush have also been described as signs of stratocracy in the US. The futurist Paul Saffo and the researcher Robert Marzec have argued that the post 9/11 projection of the United States was trending towards stratocracy. The philosopher and economist Cornelius Castoriadis wrote in his 1980 text, Facing the War , that Russia had become
7140-429: The name of a kingdom since, in effect, they have made it into a republic." After the battle of Lapento , the corsairs broke loose from the Sublime Porte and began to prey on ships from countries at peace with the Ottomans. Their tai'fa was the embodiment of state sponsored piracy, since the economical prosperity of Algiers depended on the corsairs' looting. Algiers started strengthening and modernizing its fleet; by
7242-581: The newly declared Commonwealth of England . John Bouvier and Daniel Gleason describe a stratocracy as one where citizens with mandatory or voluntary military service, or veterans who have been honorably discharged , have the right to elect or govern. The military's administrative , judicial , and/or legislative powers are supported by law, the constitution, and the society. It does not necessarily need to be autocratic or oligarchic by nature in order to preserve its right to rule. The political scientist Samuel Finer distinguished between stratocracy which
7344-496: The pashas appointed by the sultan back to Constantinople. Algiers was the headquarters of probably the largest janissary force in the empire outside Constantinople. After Veneziano, the janissary corps grew stronger and more influential, challenging the corsairs for power. In 1596, Khider Pasha led a revolt in Algiers in an effort to subdue the janissaries with help from Kabyles and coulouglis —offspring of mixed marriage between Ottoman men and local women and having blood ties to
7446-796: The political disintegration of the Maghrebi Muslim states and fearing an alliance between the Moriscos (exiled Spanish Muslims) and the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate , the Spanish Empire captured several cities and established walled and garrisoned strongpoints called presidios in North Africa. The Spanish conquered the city of Oran in 1509 and took it from the Zayyanids , as well as Béjaïa from
7548-554: The primary world military power. To sustain this, in the context of the visible economic inferiority of the Soviet Union in the civilian sector, he proposed that the society may no longer be dominated by the one-party state bureaucracy of the Communist Party but by a "stratocracy" describing it as a separate and dominant military sector with expansionist designs on the world. He further argued that this meant there
7650-521: The prince and founder of Kuku, Ahmad ibn al-Kadi, and then destroyed the Peñón of Algiers in 1529. Hayreddin used its rubble to build Algiers's harbour, making it the headquarters of the Algerian corsair fleet. Hayreddin established the military structure of the Regency, formalising an institution known as the Corsairs of Algiers . It would become the model for Barbary corsairs in Tunis, Tripoli and
7752-777: The range is 1,485 m high Djebel Dirrah (جبل ديرة). Other notable peaks of the Titteri are 1,423 m high Djebel Guern el-Adhaoura (جبل قرن العذاورة), 1,416 m high Djebel Kef Lakhdar (جبل الكاف الأخضر) and 1,400 m high Kef Afoul (جبل كاف آفول). The main tribes inhabiting the Titteri area were the Aït Ouzera, the Aït Bou Yaagoub and the Aït Slimane, who spoke the Blidean Atlas variant of the Shenwa language . Some of
7854-398: The regencies to respect the Ottoman capitulations . Algiers's refusal to follow Ottoman foreign policy led European powers to negotiate treaties with it directly on trade, tribute and slave ransoms , recognizing Algerian autonomy despite its formal subordination to the Ottomans. France first established relations with Algiers in 1617, with a treaty signed in 1619 and another in 1628;
7956-490: The reign of the soldier king , Prussia always remained "not a country with an army, but an army with a country" (a quote often misattributed to Voltaire and Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau ). It has been argued the subsequent dominance of the Kingdom of Prussia in the North German Confederation and German Empire and the expansive militarism in their administrations and policies, saw
8058-414: The responsibility for its payroll to an old Dutch rais named Hadj Mohammed Trik and gave him the titles of dey (maternal uncle), doulateli (head of state) and hakem (military ruler). After 1671 the deys led the country and were supported by members of the diwan, of which the president seconded the dey and managed most state affairs. This centralized government institutionalized relations between
8160-678: The restored Kingdom of France pay off a 31-year-old debt dating from 1799 for providing supplies to the soldiers of Napoleon's campaign in Egypt . The response of French consul Pierre Deval displeased Hussein Dey, who hit him with a fly whisk and called him an "infidel". King Charles X took this incident as an opportunity to break off diplomatic relations and launch a full-scale invasion of Algeria on June 14, 1830. Algiers surrendered on July 5, and Hussein Dey went into exile in Naples , which marked
8262-620: The rich and bustling city of Algiers , the Barbary slave trade reached an apex. After the janissary coup of 1659, the Regency became a sovereign military republic , and its rulers were thenceforth elected by the council known as the diwan rather than appointed by the Ottoman sultan previously. Despite wars over territory with Spain and the Maghrebi states in the 18th century, Mediterranean trade and diplomatic relations with European states expanded. Bureaucratisation efforts stabilized
8364-592: The same time legitimate and religious; and it was exercised in a framework defined by a state strong enough to enact its rules and control their application. Peace between the Ottoman Empire and Spanish Habsburgs in 1580 did not concern their vassals, as both the Sovereign Order of Malta and the North African Regencies pursued their holy war. Their privateers were motivated by desires of vengeance, wealth and salvation . England, France and
8466-667: The seat of power and the treasury of the regency from the Djenina Palace to the Casbah citadel in 1817. The last deys of Algiers tried to nullify the consequences of the previous Algerian defeats by reviving buccaneering and resisting a British attack on Algiers in 1824, creating the illusion that Algiers could still defend itself against a divided Europe. In Napoleon 's time, Algiers benefited greatly from Mediterranean trade and France's massive food imports, much of which were bought on credit. In 1827, Hussein Dey demanded that
8568-653: The seats in the legislature for military personnel. The civilian constitutional government was dissolved again in the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état , with power being transferred back to the Tatmadaw through the State Administration Council . The United Kingdom overseas territory , the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus , provides another example of a stratocracy: British Forces Cyprus governs
8670-652: The stratocratic forces within the Chinese government of the time. Occupied Poland in World War I was put under the General-Militärgouvernementen (general military governments) of Germany and Austria-Hungary . This government was a stratocratic system where the military was responsible for the political administration of Poland. Various military juntas of central and south America have also been described as stratocracies. Since 1967,
8772-525: The sultan recognized Hayreddin as pasha —a regent with the title of beylerbey ( lit. ' Prince of princes ' ) —and sent him 2,000 janissaries . Algiers officially became an eyalet (called a "regency" in European sources; some historians refer to it as an Ottoman vassal state , state-province or "Imperial state" ) under Selim's successor Suleiman I in the spring of 1521. Historian Lamnouar Merouche stresses that although Algiers
8874-526: The territory, with Air vice-marshal Peter J. M. Squires serving as administrator from 2022. The territory is subject to unique laws different from both those of the United Kingdom and those of Cyprus . The political scientist Harold Lasswell wrote in 1941 of his concerns that the world was moving towards "a world of 'garrison states ' " with the United States of America being one of
8976-671: The throne. A vengeful Murad III Bey of Tunis allied with Morocco and started the Maghrebi war in 1700. He lost, and the Muradid dynasty was replaced by the Husainid ;dynasty , which failed to free Tunis from Algerian suzerainty in 1735 and 1756 . Tunis remained an Algerian tributary until the early 19th century. The Alawi Sultanate opposed the Ottomans. It also had ancient ambitions to expand in western Algeria—especially in Tlemcen. Algerian support for pretenders to
9078-512: The traditional activities of the region included beekeeping and cattle-rearing. This article about a location in Médéa Province is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Regency of Algiers French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Regency of Algiers was an early modern semi-independent Ottoman province and tributary state on
9180-630: The treaties mostly concerned the Bastion de France and the rights of French merchants in Algiers, but the bastion was razed a second time by Ali Bitchin in 1637, as armed incidents between French and Algerian vessels were frequent. Nonetheless, a treaty in 1640 allowed France to regain its North African commercial establishments. After attacks by the English in 1621 and the Dutch in 1624, Algerian corsairs took thousands of English and Dutch sailors to
9282-477: The wars of 1807 and 1813 . Internal financial problems led Algiers to re-engage in widespread piracy against American and European shipping in the early 19th century, taking full advantage of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . Algerian vessels attacked American merchant ships in 1785, claiming they were no longer under British protection and asserting an Algerian right to search and seizure . American president George Washington agreed to pay
9384-455: The west, passing through Béjaïa, Algiers, Oran and Tlemcen ; the gold and slave trades funded the Spanish treasury. After operating as Hafsid-sponsored privateers from their base in the island of Djerba , Mytilenean -born brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Reis , nicknamed the Barbarossa brothers, came to North Africa at the request of Béjaïa citizens in 1512. They failed to take the city from
9486-466: The western Mediterranean, making it the capital of what would become the early modern Algerian state. The sultan called Hayreddin to the Porte to appoint him as Kapudan Pasha (admiral) in 1533. Before departing, Hayreddin named Hasan Agha his deputy in Algiers. From 1519 onwards Algerian affairs were in the hands of beylerbeys— corsair captains appointed by the Ottoman sultan to rule. Assisted by
9588-467: Was a "golden age" for the North African corsairs. Algerian autonomy and rivalry between Christian states made the prestige and wealth of the corsairs reach its zenith as their intensified privateering significantly filled Algerian coffers. In their search for booty and slaves, corsairs traveled as far as Iceland in 1627 and Ireland in 1631. Historian Yahya Boaziz indicates that more than
9690-463: Was a stratocratic kingdom. From a young age, male Spartans were put through the agoge , necessary for full-citizenship, which was a rigorous education and training program to prepare them to be warriors. Aristotle describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. 1285a), while Isocrates refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to
9792-454: Was aborted in 1581, as Saadian ruler Al-Mansur had at first vehemently refused to serve under Ottoman sultan Murad III , but agreed to pay annual tribute afterwards. Nonetheless, the Figuig oases in the south western Maghreb were part of the Regency by 1584. Veneziano's privateers ravaged the Mediterranean and made the waters unsafe from Andalusia to Sicily . Their power reached as far as
9894-596: Was an increasingly autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire, it had at the same time all the attributes of a state. Hayreddin had to return to Jijel after a coalition of the Hafsids with the Kabyle kingdom of Kuku blockaded Algiers. He and his men used their reputation as "holy warriors" to gather support from the Kabyle tribes of Beni Abbas , who were rivals of the Kuku. Hayreddin retook Algiers in 1525 after defeating
9996-662: Was described by the political theorist P. J. Vatikiotis as a stratocratic state. The recent Egyptian governments since the Arab Spring , including that of Abdel Fattah el-Sisi , have also been called stratocratic. George commented in a 1988 paper that the military dictatorship of Idi Amin in Uganda and the apartheid regime in South Africa should be considered stratocracies. Various previous Nigerian governments have been described as stratocratic in research, including
10098-445: Was gradually weakened in favor of the dey's cabinet, known as " powers " , resulting in more stability through the implementation of a quasi- bureaucracy . Relations with Constantinople became formalised; the sultan was assured of Algerian "obedience" in return for recruiting troops from Ottoman lands, yet the dey was not bound to Ottoman foreign policy. On 3 February 1748 Dey Mohamed Ibn Bekir issued The Fundamental Pact of 1748 ,
10200-529: Was no internal class dynamic that could lead to social revolution within Russian society and that change could only occur through foreign intervention. Timothy Luke agreed that under the secretaryship of Mikhail Gorbachev this was the USSR moving towards a stratocratic state. Various countries in post-colonial Africa have been described as stratocracies. The Republic of Egypt under the leadership of Nasser
10302-479: Was rule by the army and military regimes where the army did not rule but enforced the rule of the civil leaders. Peter Lyon wrote that through history stratocracies have been relatively rare, and that in the latter half of the twentieth century there has been a noticeable increase in the number of stratocratic states due to the "rapid collapse of the West European thalassocracies ". The Diarchy of Sparta
10404-656: Was spent under the rule of the Choe family, who set up a parallel system of private administrative systems from their military forces. Cossacks were predominantly East Slavic people who became known as members of democratic, semi-military and semi-naval communities, predominantly located in Ukraine and in Southern Russia . They inhabited sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper , Don , Terek , and Ural river basins, and played an important role in
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