The Levant
86-682: [REDACTED] Look up kabyle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Kabyle people , an ethnic group in Algeria Kabyle language Kabyle alphabet , also known as Berber Latin alphabet Kabyle grammar Kabylie , the Kabyle ethnic homeland Kabyles du Pacifique , a group of Algerians deported to New Caledonia after an uprising in 1871 Kabyle (ancient city) , an ancient Thracian city in southeastern Bulgaria Kabile , Bulgaria,
172-455: A Berber chieftain. It began in southern Morocco , lasting through to 743. The rebels managed to massacre the Arab population of Tangier, its Arab governor, and capture a territory including modern Morocco, Western and Central Algeria whom were never recovered by an Oriental caliphate , but failed to capture Ifriqiya (Tunisia, East-Algeria and West- Libya ) after suffering a crushing defeat at
258-638: A Berber who was the lord and master of the Catholic tribe of Gomera." In any case, being an able diplomat who was adept in Visigothic, Berber, and Arab politics, Julian might well have surrendered to Musa on terms that allowed him to retain his title and command. At this time the population of Ceuta included many refugees from a ruinous Visigothic civil war that had broken out in Hispania (modern Portugal and Spain). These included family and confederates of
344-537: A consequence, the insurrection was a failure in 1965 because it was hugely repressed by the forces of the ALN, under Houari Boumédiène. In 1965 Aït Ahmed was sentenced to death, but later pardoned by Ben Bella. Approximately 400 deaths were counted amongst the maquis. In 1980, protesters mounted several months of demonstrations in Kabylie demanding the recognition of Berber as an official language; this period has been called
430-667: A force of 10,000 Muslims led by the Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi and enlarged by thousands of others. Departing from Damascus, the army marched into Africa and took the vanguard. In 670, the city of Kairouan (roughly 150 kilometers [80 mi] south of modern Tunis ) was established as a refuge and base for further operations. This would become the capital of the Islamic province of Ifriqiya (the Arabic pronunciation of Africa ), which would be today's western Libya , Tunisia , and eastern Algeria . After this, as Edward Gibbon writes,
516-591: A lesser extent, Canada (mainly Québec ) and United States. The Kabyle people speak Kabyle , a Berber language. Since the Berber Spring of 1980, they have been at the forefront of the fight for the official recognition of Berber languages in Algeria . The word 'Kabyle' (Kabyle: Iqbayliyen) is an exonym , and a distortion of the Arabic word qaba'il (قبائل), which means 'tribes', or 'to accept', which after
602-659: A modern village near the Thracian city Kabyle musket See also [ edit ] JS Kabylie , Algerian football team Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Kabyle . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kabyle&oldid=895250816 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
688-652: A number of oases that were the termini of trans-Saharan trade routes. These two Kabyle Kingdoms managed to maintain their independence and participated in notable battles alongside the Regency of Algiers , such as the campaign of Tlemcen and the conquest of Fez . In the early 16th century Sultan Abdelaziz of the Beni Abbes managed to defeat the Ottomans several times, notably in the First Battle of Kalaa of
774-455: A section on the western side of Tripoli beach that was not walled during their hunting routine. These seven soldiers managed to infiltrate the city through this way without being detected by the city guards, and then managed to incite riots within the city while shouting Takbir (God is the greatest), causing the confused Byzantine garrison soldiers to think the Muslim forces were already inside in
860-575: A share of power but the ALN (National Liberation Army) directed by Houari Boumédiène , joined by Ahmed Ben Bella , had the upper hand because of their military forces. In 1963 the FFS party of Hocine Aït Ahmed contested the authority of the FLN , which had promoted itself as the only party in the nation. Aït Ahmed and others considered the central government led by Ben Bella authoritarian, and on September 3, 1963,
946-585: A significant Kabyle population, where they make up more than half of the capital's population. The Kabyle region is referred to as Al Qabayel ("tribes") by the Arabic-speaking population and as Kabylie in French. Its indigenous inhabitants call it Tamurt Idurar ("Land of Mountains") or Tamurt n Iqbayliyen / Tamurt n Iqbayliyen ("Land of the Kabyle"). It is part of the Atlas Mountains and
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#17327660701561032-463: A strong following throughout France and Algeria in the 1930s. They developed militants who became vital to the fighting for an independent Algeria. This became widespread after World War II. Since Algeria gained independence in 1962, tensions have arisen between Kabylie and the central government on several occasions. In July 1962, the FLN (National Liberation Front) was split rather than united. Indeed, many actors who contributed to independence wanted
1118-437: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Language and nationality disambiguation pages Kabyle people The Kabyle people ( / k ə ˈ b aɪ l / , Kabyle : Izwawen or Leqbayel or Iqbayliyen , pronounced [iqβæjlijən] , Arabic : القبائل , romanized : al-qabā'il ) are a Berber ethnic group indigenous to Kabylia in
1204-400: Is featured in important medieval ethnographic works like Ibn Khaldun 's. After the French conquest, the French often confused the term "Arabs" and "Kabyle" thanks to the widespread usage of Kabyle all over the country. Although initially the French used the term Kabyle to refer to all Berbers, it was later specified to mean only the modern Kabyle people during the colonial era, however, Zwawa
1290-640: Is located at the edge of the Mediterranean. The Kabyle ethnic group speak Kabyle , a Berber language of the Afro-Asiatic family. It is the largest Berber language in Algeria. It was spoken by 3 million people in 2004 and has significant Arabic , French , Latin , Greek , Phoenician and Punic substratum, with Arabic loanwords representing 22.7% to 46% of the total Kabyle vocabulary, with many estimates putting it at about 35%. Many Kabyles also speak Algerian Arabic and French . During
1376-898: Is still the most used term for Kabyles in areas such as western Algeria. The Kabyles were one of the few peoples in North Africa who remained independent during successive rule by the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantines, and the Ottoman Turks. Even after the Arab conquest of North Africa, the Kabyle people still maintained possession of their mountains. Between 902 and 909, after being converted to Isma'ilism and won over by Abu Abdallah 's propaganda,
1462-481: The Berber Spring . In 1994–1995, the Kabyle conducted a school boycott, termed the "strike of the school bag". In June and July 1998, they protested, in events that turned violent, after the assassination of singer Matoub Lounès and passage of a law requiring use of the Arabic language in all fields. In the months following April 2001 (called the Black Spring ), major riots among the Kabyle took place following
1548-702: The Byzantine Africa , the Maghreb region. The invading army took Tripolitania (in present-day Libya ). Count Gregory , the local Byzantine governor, had declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire in Africa . He gathered his allies, confronted the invading Islamic Arab forces and suffered defeat (647) at the Battle of Sufetula , a city 240 kilometres (150 mi) south of Carthage . With
1634-503: The Byzantine Empire lost its last remaining strongholds to Caliph Al-Walid I . The North African campaigns were part of the century of rapid early Muslim conquests . By 642 AD, under Caliph Umar , Arab Muslim forces had laid control of Mesopotamia (638 AD), Syria (641 AD), Egypt (642 AD), and had invaded Armenia (642 AD), all territories previously split between the warring Byzantine and Sasanian empires, and were concluding their conquest of Sasanian Persia with their defeat of
1720-639: The Byzantine navy that still fought on against the Muslim invasions. So he built a navy of his own which went on to conquer the Christian islands of Ibiza , Majorca , and Menorca . Advancing into the Maghreb, his forces took Algiers in 700. By 709, all of the top half of North Africa was under the control of the Arab caliphate. The only possible exception was Ceuta at the African Pillar of Hercules . Gibbon declares: "In that age, as well as in
1806-463: The FFS (Socialist Forces front) was created by Hocine Aït Ahmed . This party grouped opponents of the regime then in place, and a few days after its proclamation, Ben Bella sent the army into Kabylie to repress the insurrection. Colonel Mohand Oulhadj also took part in the FFS and in the Maquis ( fr ) because he considered that the mujahideen were not treated as they should be. In the beginning,
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#17327660701561892-735: The Kutama Berbers from Little Kabylie helped contribute to the founding of the Fatimid Caliphate , whose support in the conquest of Ifriqiya resulted in the creation of the Caliphate, although the ruling Fatimid dynasty was Arab . After the conquest of Ifriqiya the Fatimids conquered the realm of the Rustamids on the way to Sijilmasa which they also then briefly conquered and where Abdullāh al-Mahdī Billah , who at
1978-587: The Muslim conquest was used for people who accepted the word of the Quran . The term qaba'il was used, and is still somewhat used by various peoples in Algeria to refer to various mountain dwelling tribes, including the Kabyle people. The term used for Kabyles specifically was 'Zwawa' ('Izwawen' in Kabyle, 'زواوة' in Arabic). This appellation has been used since the medieval era for the tribes of Greater Kabylia , and
2064-454: The 14th century by scholars such as ibn Idhari , ibn Khaldun and al-Nuwayri . It differs from the earlier version not only in greater detail but also in giving conflicting accounts of events. This, however, is the best-known version and is the one given below. It is recorded by Ibn Abd al-Hakam that during the siege of Tripoli by Amr ibn al-As , seven of his soldiers from the clan of Madhlij, sub branch of Kinana , unintentionally found
2150-431: The 14th century, after which trace of them was lost. The only thing that is certain is that at the beginning of French colonial rule in the Maghreb there were no longer any Romance-speaking or Christian communities. This ultimately complete Islamization of the entire population brought about the separation of the Mediterranean region into northern and southern halves, which continues to this day. The full Islamization of
2236-783: The Abbasids allowed Fatimid-Kutama power to quickly expand and in 959 Ziri ibn Manad, Jawhar the Sicilian and a Kutama army conquered Fez and Sijilmasa in Morocco. During the reign of al-Aziz Billah , the role of the Kutama in the Fatimid army was greatly weakened as he significantly reduced their size in the army and included new socio-military groups. In 969 under the command of Jawhar , the Fatimid Kutama troops conquered Egypt from
2322-457: The Arab army, receiving less pay than an Arab would have. This led to much dissatisfaction and ultimately the death of Maghreb Arab governor, Yazid ibn Abi Muslim at the hands of one of his bodyguards after ordering them to tattoo his name on their arms to signal his ownership. In 740, a Berber Revolt was prompted by the taxation of the Berbers. The rebels were lead at first by Maysara ,
2408-575: The Atlas Mountains by a man who became known to history and legend as Count Julian . Moreover, as Gibbon writes, Uqba, "this Mahometan Alexander, who sighed for new worlds, was unable to preserve his recent conquests. By the universal rebellion against muslim occupation of the Greeks and Africans he was recalled from the shores of the Atlantic." On his return, a Berber-Byzantine coalition under
2494-510: The Beni Abbes . The Kabyle were relatively independent of outside control during the period of Ottoman Empire rule in North Africa. They lived primarily in three different kingdoms: the Kingdom of Kuku , the Kingdom of Ait Abbas , and the principality of Aït Jubar. Kabylia was the last part of northern Algeria to be colonised by the French during the years 1854–1857, despite vigorous resistance. Such leaders as Lalla Fatma N'Soumer continued
2580-546: The Berber reign. Thus Hassan was welcomed upon his return, and managed to kill Kahina at the Battle of Tabarka . Gibbon writes that “the friends of civil society conspired against the savages of the land; and the royal prophetess was slain in the first battle.” The successful general Musa bin Nusair was appointed the governor of Ifriqiya . His armies brutally put down the Berbers, consisting of various faiths, who fought against
2666-735: The Church nor the ruling Byzantine veneer was able to resist the propagation of Islam , particularly since they were at odds with each other, and that without any particular persecution on the part of the Muslim rulers, who treated the Christians leniently because they were " People of the Book ". Had the first Muslim conquerors persecuted the North African Christians rather than tolerating them, Christianity may well have continued to flourish. Many causes have been seen as leading to
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2752-526: The FFS wanted to negotiate with the government but since no agreement was reached, the maquis took up arms and swore not to give them up as long as democratic principles and justice were a part of the system. But after Mohand Oulhadj's defection, Aït Ahmed could barely sustain the movement and after the FLN congress on April 16, 1964, which reinforced the government's legitimacy, he was arrested in October 1964. As
2838-576: The French carried out many arrests and deported resisters, mainly to New Caledonia in the South Pacific . Due to French colonization, many Kabyle emigrated to other areas inside and outside Algeria. Over time, immigrant workers also began to go to France. In the 1920s, Algerian immigrant workers in France organized the first party promoting Algerians independence. Messali Hadj , Imache Amar, Si Djilani Mohammed, and Belkacem Radjef rapidly built
2924-704: The Iberian Peninsula, defeated Roderic, and went on to besiege the Visigothic capital of Toledo . He and his allies also took Córdoba , Ecija , Granada , Málaga , Seville , and other cities. Due to this, the Umayyad conquest of Hispania completed the Arab conquest of North Africa. Fearing that the Byzantine Empire might reconquer it, they decided to destroy Roman Carthage in a scorched earth policy and establish their headquarters somewhere else. Its walls were torn down, its water supply cut off,
3010-508: The Ikhsidids, the general Ja'far ibn Fallah was instrumental in this success: he led the troops that crossed the river Nile and according to al-Maqrizi, captured the boats used to do this from a fleet sent by Ikhshidid loyalists from Lower Egypt. The general Ja’far then invaded Palestine and conquered Ramla , the capital, he then conquered Damascus and made himself the master of the city and then he moved north and conquered Tripoli . It
3096-462: The Islamic conquest of North Africa. It began with the renewed invasion of Ifriqiya. Gibbon writes: the standard was delivered to Hassan governor of Egypt, and the revenue of that kingdom, with an army of forty thousand men, was consecrated to the important service. In the vicissitudes of war, the interior provinces had been alternately won and lost by the Saracens. But the seacoast still remained in
3182-464: The Kabyle region played an important role in the people's history. The difficult mountainous landscape of the Tizi Ouzou and Bejaia provinces served as a refuge, to which most of the Kabyle people retreated when under pressure or occupation. They were able to preserve their cultural heritage in such isolation from other cultural influences. The area supported local dynasties (Numidia, Fatimids in
3268-532: The Kabyle). The Regency of Algiers , under Ottoman influence, tried to have indirect influence over the people ( makhzen tribes of Amraoua, and marabout). The French gradually and totally conquered the region and set up a direct administration. Algerian provinces with significant Kabyle-speaking populations include Tizi Ouzou , Béjaïa and Bouira , where they are a majority, as well as Boumerdes , Setif , Bordj Bou Arreridj , and Jijel . Algiers also has
3354-434: The Kutama periods, Zirids, Hammadids, and Hafsids of Bejaïa) or Algerian modern nationalism, and the war of independence. The region was repeatedly occupied by various conquerors. Romans and Byzantines controlled the main road and valley during the period of antiquity and avoided the mountains (Mont ferratus). During the spread of Islam , Arabs controlled plains but not all the countryside (they were called el aadua : enemy by
3440-474: The Latin and Punic speaking population began. Contrary to widespread opinion, the Latin language did not disappear promptly or completely from the Maghreb, which can be read both from Latin grave inscriptions dating back to the eleventh century and from the numerous and conspicuous Latin foreign words in today's Berber languages on site. But the special features of the dialects of Maghrebi Arabic that developed after
3526-602: The Latin script. The Kabyle people are mainly Muslim , with a small Christian minority. Many Zawaya exist all over the region; the Rahmaniyya is the most prolific. Catholics of Kabyle background generally live in France. Recently, the Protestant community has had significant growth, particularly among Evangelical denominations. The Kabyle people have a rich history of oral literature , such as asefru , performed by imusnawen . The traditional economy of
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3612-670: The Maghreb Egypt North Africa Anatolia & Constantinople Border conflicts Sicily and Southern Italy Naval warfare Byzantine reconquest The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb ( Arabic : فَتْحُ اَلْمَغْرِب , romanized : Fath al-Maghrib , lit. 'Conquest of the West';) or Arab conquest of North Africa by the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates commenced in 647 and concluded in 709, when
3698-425: The Maghreb along with the full Arabization of the non-Berber population may have been favored by the following factors: Archaeological and scholarly research has shown that Christianity existed after the Muslim conquests. The Catholic church gradually declined along with local Latin dialect . According to a view, Christianity in North Africa effectively continued a century after the Muslim conquest but that neither
3784-575: The Persian army at the Battle of Nahāvand . It was at this point that Arab military expeditions into North African regions west of Egypt were first launched, continuing for years and furthering the spread of Islam . In 644 at Medina , Umar was succeeded by Uthman , during whose twelve-year rule Armenia, Cyprus , and all of modern-day Iran , would be added to the expanding Rashidun Caliphate . With Afghanistan and North Africa being targets of major invasions and Muslim sea raids ranging from Rhodes to
3870-471: The Romans and Persians ) is said to range from 30,000 to 300,000 in various Muslim histories and some even allude to a higher number. Philip Khuri Hitti described the attribution of figures such as 300,000 slaves (also capturing 30,000 noble maidens of Spain) to him as exaggerated which was due to the high number of slaves that were available after Muslim conquests. An assertion which is confirmed by historian Kishori Saran Lal . Musa also had to deal with
3956-542: The advancing Muslims. Their conquest reached the Atlantic coast in 708. He was noted for the vast number of mawla he had amassed which consisted of Berber converts to Islam and people from other regions as well. In 698-702 AD all the major capitals in the Berber states were taken definitively by the Arabs: Christian Carthago was completely destroyed, half the inhabitants were killed (only a few hundreds could escape by boats toward Byzantine Sicily) and
4042-626: The agricultural land was ravaged and its harbors made unusable. The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to the Byzantine Empire's influence in the region. It is visible from archaeological evidence, that the town of Carthage continued to be occupied. Constantine the African was born in Carthage. The fortress of Carthage was used by the Muslims until Hafsid era and
4128-417: The area is based on arboriculture ( orchards and olive trees ) and on the craft industry ( tapestry or pottery ). Mountain and hill farming is gradually giving way to local industry (textile and agro-alimentary). In the middle of the 20th century, with the influence and funding by the Kabyle diaspora, many industries were developed in this region. It has become the second most important industrial region in
4214-418: The berber king of Altava known as Kusaila ambushed and crushed his forces near Biskra , killing Uqba and wiping out his troops. Then, adds Gibbon, "The third general or governor of Africa , Zuhayr , avenged and encountered the fate of his predecessor in the Battle of Mamma . He vanquished the native population in many battles but he was overthrown by a powerful army, which Constantinople had sent to
4300-557: The catapult platform which filled by cotton sacks. The catapult launched them one by one to the top of the wall and allowed these warriors to enter the city, opening the gates and killing the guards, thus allowing the Muslim forces to enter and capturing the city. Then caliph Umar, whose armies were already engaged in conquering the Sassanid Empire , did not want to commit his forces further in North Africa while Muslim rule in Egypt
4386-500: The character of a prophetess, they attacked the invaders with an enthusiasm similar to their own. The veteran bands of Hassan were inadequate to the defence of Africa: the conquests of an age were lost in a single day; and the Arabian chief, overwhelmed by the torrent, retired to the confines of Egypt. In 703, five years passed before Hassan received fresh troops from the caliph. Meanwhile, the people of North Africa's cities chafed under
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#17327660701564472-589: The city and to flee towards their ship leaving Tripoli, thus, allowing Amr to subdue the city easily. Later, the Muslim forces besieged Barqa ( Cyrenaica ) for about three years to no avail. Then Khalid ibn al-Walid , who was previously involved in the conquest of Oxyrhynchus , offered a radical plan to erect catapult which filled by cotton sacks. Then as the night came and the city guard slept, Khalid ordered his best warriors such as Zubayr ibn al-Awwam , his son Abdullah , Abdul-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr , Fadl ibn Abbas , Abu Mas'ud al-Badri, and Abd al-Razzaq to step into
4558-458: The conquest were also shaped primarily in the lexis of Latin. The same applies to Christianity in the Maghreb, which did not end with the Arab conquest, but is also documented afterwards by sporadic sources. In what is now Tunisia, for example, Muslims were probably in the majority towards the end of the ninth century. The decline of Christian institutions only accelerated towards the end of the eleventh century; individual communities survived until
4644-810: The country after Algiers. The Kabyle have been fierce activists in promoting the cause of Berber ( Amazigh ) identity. The movement has three groups: those Kabyle who identify as part of a larger Berber nation ( Berberists ); those who identify as part of the Algerian nation (known as "Algerianists", some view Algeria as an essentially Berber nation); and those who consider the Kabyle to be a distinct nation separate from (but akin to) other Berber peoples (known as Kabylists ). For historical and economic reasons, many Kabyles have emigrated to France, both for work and to escape political persecution. They now number around 1 million people. Some notable French people are of full or partial Kabyle descent. Muslim conquest of
4730-401: The death of Gregory, his successor, probably Gennadius , secured the Arab withdrawal in exchange for tribute. The campaign lasted fifteen months and Abdallah's force returned to Muslim territories in 648. All further Muslim conquests were soon interrupted, however, when Egyptian dissidents murdered Caliph Uthman after holding him under house arrest in 656. He was replaced by Ali , who in turn
4816-442: The decline of Christianity in Maghreb. One of them is the constant warfare, as well as persecutions. In addition, many Christians migrated to Europe. The Church at that time lacked the backbone of a monastic tradition and was still suffering from the aftermath of heresies including the so-called Donatist heresy, and this contributed to the early obliteration of the Church in the present day Maghreb. Some historians contrast this with
4902-457: The fearless general "plunged into the heart of the country, traversed the wilderness in which his successors erected the splendid capitals of Fes and Morocco , and at length penetrated to the verge of the Atlantic and the great desert ". In his conquest of the Maghreb (western North Africa), he besieged the coastal city of Bugia as well as Tingi or Tangier , overwhelming what had once been
4988-716: The first centuries of their history, Kabyles used the Libyco-Berber writing system (ancestor of the modern Tifinagh). Since the beginning of the 19th century, and under French influence, Kabyle intellectuals began to use the Latin script . It is the basis for the modern Berber Latin alphabet . After the independence of Algeria , some Kabyle activists tried to revive the Old Tifinagh alphabet. This new version of Tifinagh has been called Neo-Tifinagh , but its use remains limited. Kabyle literature has continued to be written in
5074-399: The hand of Ifriqiya governor Handhala ibn Safwan al-Kalbi . One of the unifying forces of these rebellions were the teachings of Arab Kharijite missionaries who had worked as merchants. They were able to convert some sections to their way of thinking and this provided a "unifying discipline and revolutionary zeal that powered the Berber rebellion of 739" through 743. The loss of Africa
5160-400: The hands of the Greeks; the predecessors of Hassan had respected the name and fortifications of Carthage; and the number of its defenders was recruited by the fugitives of Cabes and Tripoli . The arms of Hassan were bolder and more fortunate: he reduced and pillaged the metropolis of Africa; and the mention of scaling-ladders may justify the suspicion, that he anticipated, by a sudden assault,
5246-402: The imperial throne, for his officers, afraid of being held responsible for the defeat, elevated him to the position of anti-emperor and overthrew Leontios, who had his nose cut off. Another effect was that there were no longer any major Latin or Romance-speaking provinces in the Byzantine Empire and Greek finally prevailed. With the conquest of Carthage, the Arabs laid the basis for domination of
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#17327660701565332-401: The invading Muslim armies. The years 665 to 689 saw a new Arab invasion of North Africa . It began, according to Will Durant , to protect Egypt "from flank attack by Byzantine Cyrene". So "an army of more than 40,000 Muslims advanced through the desert to Barca , took it, and marched to the neighborhood of Carthage", defeating a defending Byzantine army of 20,000 in the process. Next came
5418-405: The killing of Masinissa Guermah, a young Kabyle, by gendarmes. At the same time, organized activism produced the Arouch , and neo-traditional local councils. The protests gradually decreased after the Kabyle won some concessions from President Abdelaziz Bouteflika . On 6 January 2016, Tamazight was officially recognized in Algeria's constitution as a language equal to Arabic. The geography of
5504-430: The late King Wittiza , Arian Christians fleeing forced conversions at the hands of the Visigothic Catholic church, and Jews . As Gibbon puts it, Musa received an unexpected message from Julian, "who offered his place, his person, and his sword" to the Muslim leader in exchange for help in the civil war. Though Julian's "estates were ample, his followers bold and numerous", he "had little to hope and much to fear from
5590-409: The more tedious operations of a regular siege. Having lost Carthage to the Muslims in 695, the Byzantine Empire responded with troops from Constantinople, joined by soldiers and ships from Sicily and a powerful contingent of Visigoths from Hispania. This forced the invading Arab army to run back to Kairouan. Then, writes Gibbon, “the Christians landed; the citizens hailed the ensign of the cross, and
5676-627: The new reign." And he was too feeble to challenge Roderic directly. So he sought Musa's aid. For Musa, Julian, "by his Andalusian and Mauritanian commands, ... held in his hands the keys of the Spanish monarchy." And so Musa ordered some initial raids on the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula in 710. In the spring of that same year, Tariq ibn Ziyad —a Berber, a freed slave, and a Muslim general—took Tangier. Musa thereupon made him governor there, backed by an army of 6,700. The next year, 711, Musa directed Tariq to invade Hispania. Disembarking from Ceuta aboard ships provided by Julian, Tariq plunged into
5762-539: The north of Algeria , spread across the Atlas Mountains , 160 kilometres (100 mi) east of Algiers . They represent the largest Berber population of Algeria and the second largest in North Africa. Many of the Kabyles have emigrated from Algeria, influenced by factors such as the Algerian Civil War , cultural repression by the central Algerian government, and overall industrial decline. Their diaspora has resulted in Kabyle people living in numerous countries. Large populations of Kabyle people settled in France and, to
5848-485: The present, the kings of Spain were possessed of the fortress of Ceuta [...] Musa, in the pride of victory, was repulsed from the walls of Ceuta, by the vigilance and courage of Count Julian, the general of the Goths." Other sources, however, maintain that Ceuta represented the last Byzantine outpost in Africa and that Julian, whom the Arabs called Ilyan, was an exarch or Byzantine governor. Valdeavellano offers another possibility, that "as appears more likely, he may have been
5934-438: The preservation of Kabyle traditional political institutions such as the village’s assemblies djemaas, this institution played a central role in the Kabyle’s self-governing. The djemaas would resolve disputes between the village’s inhabitants and edict the customary law rules. French officials confiscated much land from the more recalcitrant tribes and granted it to colonists, who became known as pieds-noirs During this period,
6020-418: The relief and liberation of Carthage ." Meanwhile, a new civil war among rivals for the monarchy raged in Arabia and Syria. It resulted in a series of four caliphs between the death of Mu'awiya in 680 and the accession of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in 685; strife ended only in 692 with the death of the rebel leader. This development brought about a return of domestic order that allowed the caliph to resume
6106-415: The resistance as late as Mokrani 's rebellion in 1871. French colonists invented the Kabyle myth in the 19th century which asserted that the Kabyle people were more predisposed than Arabs to assimilate into "French civilization." Lacoste explained that "turning the Arabs into invaders was one way of legitimizing the French presence". Kabyle villages were ruled through an indirect administration based on
6192-540: The rest enslaved, erasing forever the main center of Greco-Roman influence in the Maghreb. Musa bin Nusair, a successful Yemeni general in the campaign, was made governor of "Ifriqiya" and given the responsibility of putting down a renewed Berber rebellion and forcefully converting the population to Islam. Musa and his two sons prevailed over the rebels, slaughtered nearly all the Christian Berber civilians of his Ifriqiya and enslaved 300,000 captives (in those years
6278-628: The ruler and took over the island. When the Emirate of Sicily was split into separate taifas , Ayyub Ibn Tamim entered Sicily and united all of the taifas under his rule until he left the island. The Hammadids came to power after declaring their independence from the Zirids. They managed to conquer land in all of the Maghreb region, capturing and possessing significant territories such as: Algiers , Béjaïa , Tripoli , Sfax , Susa, Fez , Ouargla and Sijilmasa . South of Tunisia, they also possessed
6364-673: The southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula , the Byzantine navy was defeated in the eastern Mediterranean. The earliest Arab accounts are those of ibn Abd al-Hakam , al-Baladhuri , and Khalifah ibn Khayyat , all of which were written in the ninth century, some 200 years after the first invasions. These are not very detailed. In the case of the most informative, the History of the Conquest of Egypt and North Africa and Spain by Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Robert Brunschvig has shown that it
6450-591: The time was imprisoned, was then freed and then accepted as the Imam of the movement and installed as the Caliph, becoming the first Caliph and the founder of the ruling dynasty. The historian Heinz Halm describes the early Fatimid state as being "a hegemony of the Kutama and Sanhaja Berbers over the eastern and central Maghrib" and Prof. Dr. Loimeier states that rebellions against the Fatimids were also expressed through protest and opposition to Kutama rule. The weakening of
6536-561: The total population of the Maghreb was around one million, and this gives an idea of the massacre and why Christianity disappeared). The caliph's portion was 60,000 of the captives. He sold into slavery these Christian Berbers (mainly in Damascus, after a deadly deportation through the desert from southern Tunisia to Egypt): the proceeds from their sale went into the Arab public treasury. Daniel Pipes The number of slaves he took in his various campaigns (including campaigns outside Africa, against
6622-422: The traditional Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana . But here he was stopped and partially repulsed. Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano writes: In their invasions against the Byzantines and the Berbers, the Arab chieftains had greatly extended their African dominions, and as early as the year 682 Uqba had reached the shores of the Atlantic, but he was unable to occupy Tangier, for he was forced to turn back toward
6708-517: The western Mediterranean, since they could now use the African ports there as a springboard for operations against the Balearic Islands, Sardinia and Sicily. They also prepared for the invasion of Spain 13 years later by eliminating the flank threat. The capture of Septem, in turn, removed the last immediate obstacle. On the territory of the Exarchate of Carthage, after the conquest, a rather gradual but ultimately complete Arabization of
6794-478: The winter was idly wasted in the dream of victory or deliverance.” In 698, the Arabs conquered Carthage under Hassan ibn al-Nu'man and completed the conquest of the eastern Barbary coast. Anticipating attempts at Byzantine reconquest however, they decided to destroy it. The walls were torn down, the agricultural land ravaged, the aqueducts and harbors made unusable. They established their base instead at Tunis which
6880-447: Was a severe blow to the Byzantine Empire. In 698, after Egypt, the second large granary and a significant source of taxes went here was lost, which in retrospect did not detract from the empire's ability to survive, but significantly impaired the decades-long defensive struggles against the caliphate. Financially, the lost tax revenue for Eastern Rome/Byzantium could not be compensated for a long time. The fall of Carthage brought Tiberios
6966-546: Was around this time period that the Fatimid Caliphate reached its territorial peak of 4,100,000km . The Zirid Dynasty was a family of Sanhadja Berbers with origins in the Kabyle mountains. During their reign they established their rule over the entire Maghreb and also established rule in parts of Andalusia . They also had suzerainty over the Emirate of Sicily through the Kalbite emirs and later assassinated
7052-653: Was assassinated in 661. The Umayyad Caliphate of largely secular and hereditary Arab caliphs, then established itself at Damascus and Caliph Muawiyah I began consolidating the empire from the Aral Sea to the western border of Egypt. He put a governor in place in Egypt at al-Fustat , creating a subordinate seat of power that would continue for the next two centuries. He then continued the invasion of non-Muslim neighboring states, attacking Sicily and Anatolia (in Asia Minor) in 663. In 664, Kabul , Afghanistan, fell to
7138-536: Was captured by the Crusaders during the Eighth Crusade . Remnants of former Roman Carthage was used as a source to provide building materials for Kairouan and Tunis in 8th century. Although the area was under control of the caliphate, there were still some sections of the population that would resist the spread of Islam. The Berber people were thought of as inferior and made to convert to Islam and join
7224-459: Was heavily expanded, though Kairouan remained the governor's capital until late-9th century. This was immediately followed by a Berber rebellion against the new Arab overlords and a decisive victory at the Battle of Meskiana . Gibbon writes: Under the standard of their queen Kahina , the independent tribes acquired some degree of union and discipline; and as the Moors respected in their females
7310-591: Was still insecure and ordered 'Amr to consolidate the Muslims' position in Egypt and that there should be no further campaigning. 'Amr obeyed, abandoning Tripoli and Burqa and returning to Fustat towards the close of 643. The next invasion of the Maghreb , ordered by Abdallah ibn Sa'd , commenced in 647. 20,000 soldiers marched from Medina in the Arabian Peninsula , with another joining them in Memphis, Egypt where Abdallah ibn Sa'd then led them into
7396-439: Was written with a view to illustrating points of Maliki law rather than documenting history and that some of the events it describes are probably ahistorical. Beginning in the 12th century, scholars at Kairouan began to construct a new version of the history of the conquest, which was finalised by Ibrahim ibn ar-Raqiq . This version was copied in its entirety and sometimes interpolated, by later authors, reaching its zenith in
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