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63-398: Tibetan pinyin is a phonetic transcription, and as such its spelling is tied to actual pronunciation (although tone is not marked). Wylie on the other hand is a transliteration system, where mechanical conversion to and from Tibetan and Latin script is possible. Within academic circles, Wylie transliteration (with a v replacing the apostrophe ) is more commonly used. Independent onsets in

126-483: A pitch trace on a musical scale . Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with the letters to add tone and phonetic detail such as secondary articulation . There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation. There are two principal types of brackets used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions: Less common conventions include: All three of

189-487: A syllable depends mostly on its initial consonant . In this table, each initial is given in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) with the vowel a and a tone mark to present tone register (high/low). Below is a comprehensive transcription table of onsets of an initial syllable of a word. If the syllable to transcribe is not the first syllable of a word, see #Onset variation . Below

252-532: A conflicting use to delimit prosodic transcription within the Voice Quality Symbols , which are an extension of IPA used in extIPA, but are not otherwise used in IPA proper. Other delimiters sometimes seen are pipes and double pipes taken from Americanist phonetic notation . However, these conflict with the pipes used in basic IPA prosodic transcription. Other delimiters are double slashes, –

315-580: A group of French and English language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy , formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l'Association phonétique internationale ). The idea of the alphabet had been suggested to Passy by Otto Jespersen . It was developed by Passy along with other members of the association, principally Daniel Jones . The original IPA alphabet

378-452: A mix of IPA with Americanist phonetic notation or Sinological phonetic notation or otherwise use nonstandard symbols for various reasons. Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time. Many British dictionaries, including

441-695: A row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common lenition pathway of stop → fricative → approximant , as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; affricates may then be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible or not distinctive. Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on

504-452: A variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning. Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as Nico Castel 's volumes and Timothy Cheek's book Singing in Czech . Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site Visual Thesaurus , which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for

567-468: Is a comprehensive transcription table of rimes of a final syllable of a word, with IPA transcription for the Lhasa dialect. If the syllable to transcribe is not the final syllable of a word, see Coda variation . Take "ཨ" to be the consonant (not "◌"). Sometimes there is intersyllabic influence: The IETF language tag for Tibetan pinyin is bo-Latn-pinyin . Transliteration Transliteration

630-463: Is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus trans- + liter- ) in predictable ways, such as Greek ⟨ α ⟩ → ⟨ a ⟩ , Cyrillic ⟨ д ⟩ → ⟨ d ⟩ , Greek ⟨ χ ⟩ → the digraph ⟨ ch ⟩ , Armenian ⟨ ն ⟩ → ⟨ n ⟩ or Latin ⟨ æ ⟩ → ⟨ ae ⟩ . For instance, for

693-493: Is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script . It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standard written representation for the sounds of speech . The IPA is used by lexicographers , foreign language students and teachers, linguists , speech–language pathologists , singers, actors, constructed language creators, and translators . The IPA

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756-406: Is common, as for Burmese , for instance. In Modern Greek , the letters ⟨η, ι, υ⟩ and the letter combinations ⟨ει, oι, υι⟩ are pronounced [i] (except when pronounced as semivowels ), and a modern transcription renders them as ⟨i⟩. However, a transliteration distinguishes them; for example, by transliterating them as ⟨ē, i, y⟩ and ⟨ei, oi, yi⟩. (As the ancient pronunciation of ⟨η⟩ was [ɛː] , it

819-421: Is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not phonemes , though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired (⟨ ˇ ⟩, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and ⟨ ƞ ⟩, once used for the moraic nasal of Japanese), though one remains: ⟨ ɧ ⟩, used for the sj-sound of Swedish. When

882-483: Is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of lexical (and, to a limited extent, prosodic ) sounds in oral language : phones , intonation and the separation of syllables . To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth gnashing , lisping , and sounds made with a cleft palate —an extended set of symbols may be used. Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: letters and diacritics . For example,

945-495: Is elected by the membership – for further discussion and a formal vote. Many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from its standardized usage. The Journal of the IPA finds it acceptable to mix IPA and extIPA symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter ⟨ 𝼆 ⟩ , rather than ⟨ ʎ̝̊ ⟩, in an illustration of

1008-671: Is not long . Transcription , conversely, seeks to capture sound, but phonetically approximate it into the new script; ⟨ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ⟩ corresponds to [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia] in the International Phonetic Alphabet . While differentiation is lost in the case of [i] , note the allophonic realization of /k/ as a palatalized [c] when preceding front vowels /e/ and /i/ . Angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ may be used to set off transliteration, as opposed to slashes / / for phonemic transcription and square brackets for phonetic transcription. Angle brackets may also be used to set off characters in

1071-528: Is not always accessible to sight-impaired readers who rely on screen reader technology. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. Pipes are sometimes used instead of double angle brackets to denote the distinct allographs of a grapheme that are known as glyphs . For example, print | g | and script | ɡ | are two glyph variants of

1134-620: Is not present in most forms of English and is often transliterated as "kh" as in Nikita Khrushchev . Many languages have phonemic sounds, such as click consonants , which are quite unlike any phoneme in the language into which they are being transliterated. Some languages and scripts present particular difficulties to transcribers. These are discussed on separate pages. Examples of languages and writing systems and methods of transliterating include: International Phonetic Alphabet The International Phonetic Alphabet ( IPA )

1197-565: Is often transliterated as ⟨ē⟩.) On the other hand, ⟨αυ, ευ, ηυ⟩ are pronounced /af, ef, if/ , and are voiced to [av, ev, iv] when followed by a voiced consonant – a shift from Ancient Greek /au̯, eu̯, iu̯/ . A transliteration would render them all as ⟨au, eu, iu⟩ no matter the environment these sounds are in, reflecting the traditional orthography of Ancient Greek, yet a transcription would distinguish them, based on their phonemic and allophonic pronunciations in Modern Greek. Furthermore,

1260-571: Is opposed to letter transcription , which is a letter by letter conversion of one language into another writing system. Still, most systems of transliteration map the letters of the source script to letters pronounced similarly in the target script, for some specific pair of source and target language. Transliteration may be very close to letter-by-letter transcription if the relations between letters and sounds are similar in both languages. For many script pairs, there are one or more standard transliteration systems. However, unsystematic transliteration

1323-427: Is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet . For this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek , or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop , ⟨ ʔ ⟩, originally had the form of a question mark with the dot removed. A few letters, such as that of

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1386-404: Is the process of representing or intending to represent a word, phrase, or text in a different script or writing system. Transliterations are designed to convey the pronunciation of the original word in a different script, allowing readers or speakers of that script to approximate the sounds and pronunciation of the original word. Transliterations do not change the pronunciation of the word. Thus, in

1449-591: The Greek term ⟨ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ⟩ , which is usually translated as ' Hellenic Republic ', the usual transliteration into the Latin script is ⟨Hellēnikḗ Dēmokratía⟩ ; and the Russian term ⟨ Российская Республика ⟩ , which is usually translated as ' Russian Republic ', can be transliterated either as ⟨Rossiyskaya Respublika⟩ or alternatively as ⟨Rossijskaja Respublika⟩ . Transliteration

1512-466: The Handbook recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher". A braille representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed. The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in

1575-460: The Hebrew alphabet for transcription of foreign words. Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words. The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use

1638-570: The IPA extensions . In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk ⟨*⟩ might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name, but this convention was not included in the 1999 Handbook , which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol. The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in

1701-792: The Oxford English Dictionary and some learner's dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary , now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words. However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of pronunciation respelling systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without

1764-659: The soft palate but on the uvula , but the pronunciation varies between different dialects of Arabic . The letter is sometimes transliterated into "g", sometimes into "q" or " ' " (for in Egypt it is silent) and rarely even into "k" in English. Another example is the Russian letter "Х" (kha) . It is pronounced as the voiceless velar fricative /x/ , like the Scottish pronunciation of ⟨ch⟩ in "lo ch ". This sound

1827-562: The voiced pharyngeal fricative , ⟨ ʕ ⟩, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter ⟨ ﻉ ⟩, ʿayn , via the reversed apostrophe). Some letter forms derive from existing letters: The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin script , and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible. The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately Classical Latin ). Hence,

1890-542: The 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database ... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA". The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels. Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless ( tenuis ) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on

1953-454: The Greek above example, ⟨λλ⟩ is transliterated ⟨ll⟩ though it is pronounced exactly the same way as [l] , or the Greek letters, ⟨λλ⟩ . ⟨Δ⟩ is transliterated ⟨D⟩ though pronounced as [ð] , and ⟨η⟩ is transliterated ⟨ī⟩ , though it is pronounced [i] (exactly like ⟨ι⟩ ) and

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2016-681: The Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. For most Greek letters, subtly different glyph shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically ⟨ ɑ ⟩, ⟨ ꞵ ⟩, ⟨ ɣ ⟩, ⟨ ɛ ⟩, ⟨ ɸ ⟩, ⟨ ꭓ ⟩ and ⟨ ʋ ⟩, which are encoded in Unicode separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – ⟨ θ ⟩ – has only its Greek form, while for ⟨ ꞵ ~ β ⟩ and ⟨ ꭓ ~ χ ⟩, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use. The tone letters are not derived from an alphabet, but from

2079-467: The IPA Handbook , the letters ⟨ c ⟩ and ⟨ ɟ ⟩ are used for /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/ . Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent consonants and vowels , 31 diacritics are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate suprasegmental qualities such as length , tone , stress , and intonation . These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here

2142-579: The IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces . Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994. They were substantially revised in 2015. The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound ( speech segment ). This means that: The alphabet

2205-412: The IPA is used for broad phonetic or for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. The IPA has recommended that more 'familiar' letters be used when that would not cause ambiguity. For example, ⟨ e ⟩ and ⟨ o ⟩ for [ɛ] and [ɔ] , ⟨ t ⟩ for [t̪] or [ʈ] , ⟨ f ⟩ for [ɸ] , etc. Indeed, in the illustration of Hindi in

2268-682: The IPA only for sounds not found in Czech . IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the Africa Alphabet in many sub-Saharan languages such as Hausa , Fula , Akan , Gbe languages , Manding languages , Lingala , etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, Kabiyè of northern Togo has Ɖ ɖ , Ŋ ŋ , Ɣ ɣ , Ɔ ɔ , Ɛ ɛ , Ʋ ʋ . These, and others, are supported by Unicode , but appear in Latin ranges other than

2331-537: The IPA remained nearly static until the Kiel Convention in 1989, which substantially revamped the alphabet. A smaller revision took place in 1993 with the resurrection of letters for mid central vowels and the retirement of letters for voiceless implosives . The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap . Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to

2394-532: The IPA.) Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a narrow transcription . A coarser transcription with less detail is called a broad transcription. Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets. Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to

2457-499: The International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical prosodic marks in the IPA. These are illustrated in the current IPA chart , posted below in this article and on the International Phonetic Association's website. In 1886,

2520-424: The above are provided by the IPA Handbook . The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets): Also commonly seen are the braces of set theory , especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. {t d} or {t|d} or {/t/, /d/} for a conflated /t/ and /d/ . Braces have

2583-617: The alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the Journal of the IPA . (See, for example, December 2008 on an open central unrounded vowel and August 2011 on central approximants.) Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel). A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA – which

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2646-403: The conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either

2709-496: The consonant letters ⟨ b ⟩, ⟨ d ⟩, ⟨ f ⟩, ⟨ ɡ ⟩, ⟨ h ⟩, ⟨ k ⟩, ⟨ l ⟩, ⟨ m ⟩, ⟨ n ⟩, ⟨ p ⟩, ⟨ s ⟩, ⟨ t ⟩, ⟨ v ⟩, ⟨ w ⟩, and ⟨ z ⟩ have more or less their word-initial values in English ( g as in gill , h as in hill , though p t k are unaspirated as in spill, still, skill ); and

2772-731: The discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language. For example, the English word little may be transcribed broadly as [ˈlɪtəl] , approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: [ˈɫɪɾɫ] in General American , [ˈlɪʔo] in Cockney , or [ˈɫɪːɫ] in Southern US English . Phonemic transcriptions, which express

2835-608: The end of words. the alternations /f/  – /v/ in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in knife /naɪf/  – knives /naɪvz/ , which can be represented morphophonemically as {naɪV } – {naɪV+z }. The morphophoneme {V } stands for the phoneme set {/f/, /v/ }. [ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{ 𝑝 ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd 𝑝 }] — f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid. IPA letters have cursive forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but

2898-403: The form of a chart. (See History of the IPA .) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The alveolo-palatal and epiglottal consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between

2961-412: The grapheme ⟨ g ⟩ of Latin script. Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature: In some English accents, the phoneme /l/ , which is usually spelled as ⟨l⟩ or ⟨ll⟩ , is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear [l] occurs before vowels and the consonant /j/ , whereas the dark [ɫ] / [lˠ] occurs before consonants, except /j/ , and at

3024-438: The implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster ) use ⟨y⟩ for IPA [ j] and ⟨sh⟩ for IPA [ ʃ ] , reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English. (In IPA, [y] represents the sound of the French ⟨u⟩ , as in tu , and [sh] represents

3087-409: The initial letter ⟨h⟩ reflecting the historical rough breathing ⟨ ̔⟩ in words such as ⟨Hellēnikḗ⟩ would intuitively be omitted in transcription for Modern Greek, as Modern Greek no longer has the /h/ sound. A simple example of difficulties in transliteration is the Arabic letter qāf . It is pronounced, in literary Arabic, approximately like English [k], except that the tongue makes contact not on

3150-401: The initial syllable of a word are transcribed as follows: For more general case, see #Onsets . The 17 vowels of the Lhasa dialect are represented in as follows: Ending a syllable, -r is usually not pronounced, but it lengthens the preceding vowel. In the same place, -n usually nasalises the preceding vowel. Consonants at the end of a syllable are transcribed as follows: The tone of

3213-454: The left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among "other symbols" even though theoretically they belong in the main chart. They are arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals) at top, to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives), and finally minimal closure (approximants) at bottom, again with

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3276-428: The left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the "other symbols". A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal folds) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from

3339-408: The lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category. The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation , meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation , meaning where in the vocal tract

3402-400: The original script. Conventions and author preferences vary. Systematic transliteration is a mapping from one system of writing into another, typically grapheme to grapheme. Most transliteration systems are one-to-one , so a reader who knows the system can reconstruct the original spelling. Transliteration, which adapts written form without altering the pronunciation when spoken out,

3465-469: The pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the lateral flap would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols". The indefinitely large number of tone letters would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all. The procedure for modifying

3528-427: The same notation as for morphophonology, – exclamation marks, and pipes. For example, ⟨ cot ⟩ would be used for the orthography of the English word cot , as opposed to its pronunciation /ˈkɒt/ . Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with cot in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italics are sometimes ambiguous, and italic markup

3591-473: The sequence of consonants in gra ssh opper .) The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with phonemic orthographies generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use

3654-467: The sound of the English digraph ⟨ch⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: [c] , or with multiple letters plus diacritics: [t̠̺͡ʃʰ] , depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal phonemic transcription ; therefore, /tʃ/ is more abstract than either [t̠̺͡ʃʰ] or [c] and might refer to either, depending on the context and language. Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by

3717-457: The vowel letters ⟨ a ⟩, ⟨ e ⟩, ⟨ i ⟩, ⟨ o ⟩, ⟨ u ⟩ correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: [i] is like the vowel in mach i ne , [u] is as in r u le , etc. Other Latin letters, particularly ⟨ j ⟩, ⟨ r ⟩ and ⟨ y ⟩, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages. This basic Latin inventory

3780-463: The vowel of pick or the vowel of peak may be transcribed as /i/ , so that pick , peak would be transcribed as /ˈpik, ˈpiːk/ or as /ˈpɪk, ˈpik/ ; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French pique , which would also be transcribed /pik/ . By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of pick , peak , pique could be: [pʰɪk] , [pʰiːk] , [pikʲ] . IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use

3843-612: Was based on the Romic alphabet , an English spelling reform created by Henry Sweet that in turn was based on the Palaeotype alphabet of Alexander John Ellis , but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language. For example, the sound [ ʃ ] (the sh in shoe ) was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ for English but with ⟨x⟩ for French and German; with German, ⟨c⟩

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3906-446: Was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic. For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent uvular equivalents of their source letters. There are also several letters from

3969-402: Was used for the [ x ] sound of Bach . With a growing number of transcribed languages this proved impractical, and in 1888 the values of the letters were made uniform across languages. This would provide the base for all future revisions. Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After relatively frequent revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s,

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