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95-668: Tuttle Creek Lake is a reservoir on the Big Blue River 5 miles (8 km) north of Manhattan , in the Flint Hills region of northeast Kansas . It was built and is operated by the Army Corps of Engineers for the primary purpose of flood control. Secondary functions of the project include release of water stores to maintain barge traffic on the Mississippi River during seasons of drought, maintenance of

190-417: A dam constructed across a valley and rely on the natural topography to provide most of the basin of the reservoir. These reservoirs can either be on-stream reservoirs , which are located on the original streambed of the downstream river and are filled by creeks , rivers or rainwater that runs off the surrounding forested catchments, or off-stream reservoirs , which receive diverted water from

285-537: A block for migrating fish, trapping them in one area, producing food and a habitat for various water-birds. They can also flood various ecosystems on land and may cause extinctions. Creating reservoirs can alter the natural biogeochemical cycle of mercury . After a reservoir's initial formation, there is a large increase in the production of toxic methylmercury (MeHg) via microbial methylation in flooded soils and peat. MeHg levels have also been found to increase in zooplankton and in fish. Dams can severely reduce

380-658: A conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant. For instance, In 1990, the impoundment behind the Balbina Dam in Brazil (inaugurated in 1987) had over 20 times the impact on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil fuels, due to the large area flooded per unit of electricity generated. Another study published in the Global Biogeochemical Cycles also found that newly flooded reservoirs released more carbon dioxide and methane than

475-533: A drop of water seep into the ocean without benefiting mankind." He created the reservoir named Parakrama Samudra ("sea of King Parakrama"). Vast artificial reservoirs were also built by various ancient kingdoms in Bengal, Assam, and Cambodia. Many dammed river reservoirs and most bank-side reservoirs are used to provide the raw water feed to a water treatment plant which delivers drinking water through water mains. The reservoir does not merely hold water until it

570-563: A flat, arid paleoenvironment along the western margin of Pangaea with intermittent marine transgressions from the Panthalassa Ocean . Conditions there may have been analogous to the modern-day Persian Gulf coast of the Arabian Peninsula . As sea levels rose and fell over the course of many millennia, so too did the depositional environment change, resulting in repeating sequences of rock strata distinctive to

665-455: A high-level reservoir is filled with water using high-performance electric pumps at times when electricity demand is low, and then uses this stored water to generate electricity by releasing the stored water into a low-level reservoir when electricity demand is high. Such systems are called pump-storage schemes. Reservoirs can be used in a number of ways to control how water flows through downstream waterways: Reservoirs can be used to balance

760-510: A levee holding back the water. The breach flooded 14,000 acres (57 km ) of farmland, destroyed buildings, and closed a bridge. His conviction was overturned in 1997, but reinstated in 1998. He maintains his innocence behind bars. The Redwood River in Minnesota began experiencing severe flooding in May. On May 22, Sioux Falls, South Dakota , received 7.5 inches (190 mm) of rain in

855-570: A loss in both quantity and quality of water necessary for maintaining ecological balance and pose a risk of increasing severity and duration of droughts due to climate change. In summary, they consider it a misadaptation to climate change. Proponents of reservoirs or substitution reserves, on the other hand, see them as a solution for sustainable agriculture while waiting for a truly durable agricultural model. Without such reserves, they fear that unsustainable imported irrigation will be inevitable. They believe that these reservoirs should be accompanied by

950-420: A loss of $ 2 million (1993) per day in commerce. James Scott , a 23-year-old Illinois man, was convicted in 1994 for "intentionally causing a catastrophe" and sentenced to life imprisonment for his role in causing some of the flooding across the river from Quincy, Illinois . In an attempt to strand his wife on the other side of the river so he could continue partying, Scott allegedly removed several sandbags from

1045-432: A multi-use conservation pool for fish and wildlife enhancement and recreation (fishing, hunting, and boating), and release of sufficient water in droughts to maintain water quality for downstream communities. The base of the dam is bordered by Tuttle Creek State Park , which features 1,200 acres (4.9 km) of recreational areas, including nature trails, camping sites, and an artificial beach . The state park also hosted

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1140-419: A narrow valley or canyon may cover relatively little vegetation, while one situated on a plain may flood a great deal of vegetation. The site may be cleared of vegetation first or simply flooded. Tropical flooding can produce far more greenhouse gases than in temperate regions. The following table indicates reservoir emissions in milligrams per square meter per day for different bodies of water. Depending upon

1235-470: A nearby stream or aqueduct or pipeline water from other on-stream reservoirs. Dams are typically located at a narrow part of a downstream of a natural basin. The valley sides act as natural walls, with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide strength and the lowest cost of construction. In many reservoir construction projects, people have to be moved and re-housed, historical artifacts moved or rare environments relocated. Examples include

1330-780: A peak flow rate of 1,080,000 ft /s (30,600 m /s). At this rate, a bowl the size of Busch Memorial Stadium in St. Louis would be filled to the brim in 70 seconds. Some locations on the Mississippi River flooded for almost 200 days, while various regions by the Missouri neared 100 days of flooding. On the Mississippi, Grafton, Illinois , recorded flooding for 195 days; Clarksville, Missouri , for 187 days; Winfield, Missouri , for 183 days; Hannibal, Missouri , for 174 days; and Quincy, Illinois , for 152 days. The Missouri River

1425-611: A reservoir is called the "conservation pool". In the United Kingdom, "top water level" describes the reservoir full state, while "fully drawn down" describes the minimum retained volume. There is a wide variety of software for modelling reservoirs, from the specialist Dam Safety Program Management Tools (DSPMT) to the relatively simple WAFLEX , to integrated models like the Water Evaluation And Planning system (WEAP) that place reservoir operations in

1520-450: A river of variable quality or size, bank-side reservoirs may be built to store the water. Such reservoirs are usually formed partly by excavation and partly by building a complete encircling bund or embankment , which may exceed 6 km (4 miles) in circumference. Both the floor of the reservoir and the bund must have an impermeable lining or core: initially these were often made of puddled clay , but this has generally been superseded by

1615-740: A river valley, with the potential to wash away towns and villages and cause considerable loss of life, such as the devastation following the failure of containment at Llyn Eigiau which killed 17 people. (see also List of dam failures ) A notable case of reservoirs being used as an instrument of war involved the British Royal Air Force Dambusters raid on Germany in World War II (codenamed " Operation Chastise " ), in which three German reservoir dams were selected to be breached in order to damage German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from

1710-575: A state of disaster for Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois and Missouri and asked Congress to approve 2.5 billion dollars in Federal disaster relief. During this time the Army National Guard and American Red Cross set up water stations, and the local Anheuser-Busch distributor contributed water in white six-packs with their logo on it. Once running water was restored, there was enough pressure for people to bathe and flush toilets, but

1805-582: A territorial project that unites all water stakeholders with the goal of preserving and enhancing natural environments. Two main types of reservoirs can be distinguished based on their mode of supply. Circa 3000 BC, the craters of extinct volcanoes in Arabia were used as reservoirs by farmers for their irrigation water. Dry climate and water scarcity in India led to early development of stepwells and other water resource management techniques, including

1900-763: A three-hour period. From May through July, Sioux Falls, South Dakota received 22.55 inches (573 mm) of rain, the wettest three-month period in its history. As noted above, rains in South Dakota contributed to flooding downstream. In June, flooding occurred along the Black River in Wisconsin , with flooding also starting to occur along the Mississippi , Missouri , and Kansas rivers . Starting as early as June 7, reports of levees being overtopped and levee breaks became common. These breaches acted to delay

1995-402: A watercourse to form an embayment within it, excavating, or building any number of retaining walls or levees to enclose any area to store water. The term is also used technically to refer to certain forms of liquid storage, such the "coolant reservoir" that captures overflow of coolant in an automobile's cooling system. Dammed reservoirs are artificial lakes created and controlled by

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2090-476: Is a natural lake whose level was raised by a low dam and into which the River Dee flows or discharges depending upon flow conditions, as part of the River Dee regulation system . This mode of operation is a form of hydraulic capacitance in the river system. Many reservoirs often allow some recreational uses, such as fishing and boating . Special rules may apply for the safety of the public and to protect

2185-484: Is a water reservoir for agricultural use. They are filled using pumped groundwater , pumped river water or water runoff and are typically used during the local dry season. This type of infrastructure has sparked an opposition movement in France, with numerous disputes and, for some projects, protests, especially in the former Poitou-Charentes region where violent demonstrations took place in 2022 and 2023. In Spain, there

2280-679: Is fraught with substantial land submergence, coastal reservoirs are preferred economically and technically since they do not use scarce land area. Many coastal reservoirs were constructed in Asia and Europe. Saemanguem in South Korea, Marina Barrage in Singapore, Qingcaosha in China, and Plover Cove in Hong Kong are a few such coastal reservoirs. Where water is pumped or siphoned from

2375-501: Is greater acceptance because all beneficiary users are involved in the implementation of the system. The specific debate about substitution reservoirs is part of a broader discussion related to reservoirs used for agricultural irrigation, regardless of their type, and a certain model of intensive agriculture. Opponents view these reservoirs as a monopolization of resources benefiting only a few, representing an outdated model of productive agriculture. They argue that these reservoirs lead to

2470-466: Is needed: it can also be the first part of the water treatment process. The time the water is held before it is released is known as the retention time . This is a design feature that allows particles and silts to settle out, as well as time for natural biological treatment using algae , bacteria and zooplankton that naturally live in the water. However natural limnological processes in temperate climate lakes produce temperature stratification in

2565-536: Is now used by the Aquarius Golf Club. Service reservoirs perform several functions, including ensuring sufficient head of water in the water distribution system and providing water capacity to even-out peak demand from consumers, enabling the treatment plant to run at optimum efficiency. Large service reservoirs can also be managed to reduce the cost of pumping by refilling the reservoir at times of day when energy costs are low. An irrigation reservoir

2660-531: Is poorly suited to forming a single large reservoir, a number of smaller reservoirs may be constructed in a chain, as in the River Taff valley where the Llwyn-on , Cantref and Beacons Reservoirs form a chain up the valley. Coastal reservoirs are fresh water storage reservoirs located on the sea coast near a river mouth to store the flood water of a river. As the land-based reservoir construction

2755-419: Is stored in the reservoir. Any excess water can be spilled via a specifically designed spillway. Stored water may be piped by gravity for use as drinking water , to generate hydro-electricity or to maintain river flows to support downstream uses. Occasionally reservoirs can be managed to retain water during high rainfall events to prevent or reduce downstream flooding. Some reservoirs support several uses, and

2850-473: Is the portion of the reservoir that can be used for flood control, power production, navigation , and downstream releases. In addition, a reservoir's "flood control capacity" is the amount of water it can regulate during flooding. The "surcharge capacity" is the capacity of the reservoir above the spillway crest that cannot be regulated. In the United States, the water below the normal maximum level of

2945-666: Is thought to have started with the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo . It has been suggested that excess cloud condensation nuclei from the eruption were responsible for the Great Flood of 1993 in the Midwestern United States . Above-normal rainfall and below-normal temperatures beginning in the summer of 1992 resulted in above-normal soil moisture and reservoir levels in the Missouri and Upper Mississippi River basins. This weather pattern persisted throughout

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3040-623: The Country Stampede Music Festival every summer from 1996 to 2018. Excluding the 8.5 miles (13.7 km) of narrow valley below the dam, the project manages the drainage of the entire watershed of the Big Blue River, an area of 9,628 square miles (24,940 km) that ranges from just north of Manhattan to the Platte River . The border between Riley County (on the west) and Pottawatomie County (on

3135-494: The Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries, from April to October 1993. The flood is among the most costly and devastating to ever occur in the United States, with 50 dead and US$ 12–16   billion in damages (equivalent to $ 23–30   billion in 2023). The hydrographic basin affected an area approximately totaling 320,000 square miles (830,000 km ), of about 745 miles (1,199 km) in length and about 435 miles (700 km) in width. Within this zone,

3230-452: The Ruhr and Eder rivers. The economic and social impact was derived from the enormous volumes of previously stored water that swept down the valleys, wreaking destruction. This raid later became the basis for several films. All reservoirs will have a monetary cost/benefit assessment made before construction to see if the project is worth proceeding with. However, such analysis can often omit

3325-514: The St. Louis National Weather Service (NWS) forecast area encompassing eastern Missouri and southwest Illinois , 36 forecast points rose above flood stage , and 20 river-stage records were broken. The 1993 flood broke record river levels set during the 1973 Mississippi and the 1951 Missouri River floods. Civil Air Patrol crews from 21 states served more than 5,000 meals to flood victims and volunteers, and their pilots logged more than 1,500 hours in

3420-573: The West Bottoms of Kansas City. Total losses in the Kansas cities and farmland exceeded $ 725,000,000. Nevertheless, the project met with heavy opposition from landowners whose land faced flooding by the lake's construction. Residents of the Blue Valley organized opposition under the phrase "Let's quit this dam foolishness," and the campaign led to victory for Democrat Howard Shultz Miller in

3515-491: The droughts and heat waves experienced in the southeastern United States. Storms, persistent and repetitive in nature during the late spring and summer, crowded the Upper Midwest with voluminous rainfall. Portions of east-central Iowa received as much as 48 inches (120 cm) of rain between April 1 and August 31, 1993, and many areas across the central-northern plains had precipitation 400–750% above normal. In

3610-673: The 1800s, most of which are lined with brick. A good example is the Honor Oak Reservoir in London, constructed between 1901 and 1909. When it was completed it was said to be the largest brick built underground reservoir in the world and it is still one of the largest in Europe. This reservoir now forms part of the southern extension of the Thames Water Ring Main . The top of the reservoir has been grassed over and

3705-642: The Long Creek limestone bed of the Foraker Formation (now covered by a beaver dam). This area is of interest to geologists due to its superb exposure of the 300 million year old rocks of the upper- Carboniferous and lower- Permian underlying the Flint Hills. In this one location, five formations can be studied that are rarely exposed in great extent singly, let alone all together in an extended horizontal presentation. These strata attest to

3800-731: The Meroitic town of Butana . The Hafirs catch the water during rainy seasons in order to ensure water is available for several months during dry seasons to supply drinking water, irrigate fields and water cattle. The Great Reservoir near the Lion Temple in Musawwarat es-Sufra is a notable hafir in Kush. In Sri Lanka , large reservoirs were created by ancient Sinhalese kings in order to store water for irrigation. The famous Sri Lankan king Parākramabāhu I of Sri Lanka said "Do not let

3895-411: The Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, causing river gauges to malfunction along the way. The record crests met within days of each other at their confluence near St. Louis. Navigation on the Mississippi and Missouri River was closed in early July, resulting in a loss of $ 2 million (1993) per day in commerce. Mississippi River levels stabilized for a few days at April 1973 record stages. When the crest from

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3990-747: The Missouri River arrived, levels rose again. The Mississippi River broke through levees, drove people and their possessions to higher ground, and caused havoc through the floodplains. The crests, now combined as one, moved downstream through St. Louis on the way to the Upper Mississippi's confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois . Only minor flooding occurred below Cairo due to the Lower Mississippi's larger channel below that point, as well as drought conditions in

4085-460: The U.S. House of Representatives in 1952. Although the opposition was heated, it failed to ultimately stop the dam. Construction began on 1952. Closure of the dam (still under construction) occurred July 4, 1959 with diversion of the river though the completed intake tower (" The Tubes "). In 1960, dam contained a record snow melt; even though not yet finished, the dam was credited at that time with preventing $ 15,243,000 in damages. During this event,

4180-488: The US. The capacity, volume, or storage of a reservoir is usually divided into distinguishable areas. Dead or inactive storage refers to water in a reservoir that cannot be drained by gravity through a dam's outlet works , spillway, or power plant intake and can only be pumped out. Dead storage allows sediments to settle, which improves water quality and also creates an area for fish during low levels. Active or live storage

4275-399: The air inspecting utility lines and pipelines. Over 1,000 flood warnings and statements, five times the normal, were issued to notify the public and need-to-know officials of river levels. In such places as St. Louis, river levels were nearly 20 feet (6.1 m) above flood stage, the highest ever recorded there in 228 years. The 52-foot (16 m)-high St. Louis Floodwall, built to handle

4370-458: The amount of water reaching countries downstream of them, causing water stress between the countries, e.g. the Sudan and Egypt , which damages farming businesses in the downstream countries, and reduces drinking water. Great Flood of 1993 The Great Flood of 1993 (or Great Mississippi and Missouri Rivers Flood of 1993 ) was a flood that occurred in the Midwestern United States , along

4465-535: The area flooded versus power produced, a reservoir built for hydro- electricity generation can either reduce or increase the net production of greenhouse gases when compared to other sources of power. A study for the National Institute for Research in the Amazon found that hydroelectric reservoirs release a large pulse of carbon dioxide from decay of trees left standing in the reservoirs, especially during

4560-532: The area was covered with terraced soil and returned to grass. Soil pH was adjusted to further protect the reburied rock. The rock formations of the lower portion were left exposed. Although Kansas is not widely known as seismically active, the Humboldt fault line associated with the Nemaha Ridge passes through eastern Kansas, and probably the most active region on the line is in the general vicinity of

4655-428: The base of the dam or some distance away. In a flat river valley a reservoir needs to be deep enough to create a head of water at the turbines; and if there are periods of drought the reservoir needs to hold enough water to average out the river's flow throughout the year(s). Run-of-the-river hydro in a steep valley with constant flow needs no reservoir. Some reservoirs generating hydroelectricity use pumped recharge:

4750-465: The build, often through a temporary tunnel or by-pass channel. In hilly regions, reservoirs are often constructed by enlarging existing lakes. Sometimes in such reservoirs, the new top water level exceeds the watershed height on one or more of the feeder streams such as at Llyn Clywedog in Mid Wales . In such cases additional side dams are required to contain the reservoir. Where the topography

4845-556: The building of a reservoir at Girnar in 3000 BC. Artificial lakes dating to the 5th century BC have been found in ancient Greece. The artificial Bhojsagar lake in present-day Madhya Pradesh state of India, constructed in the 11th century, covered 650 square kilometres (250 sq mi). The Kingdom of Kush invented the Hafir , a type of reservoir, during the Meroitic period . 800 ancient and modern hafirs have been registered in

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4940-442: The context of system-wide demands and supplies. In many countries large reservoirs are closely regulated to try to prevent or minimize failures of containment. While much of the effort is directed at the dam and its associated structures as the weakest part of the overall structure, the aim of such controls is to prevent an uncontrolled release of water from the reservoir. Reservoir failures can generate huge increases in flow down

5035-460: The developed world Naturally occurring lakes receive organic sediments which decay in an anaerobic environment releasing methane and carbon dioxide . The methane released is approximately 8 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. As a human-made reservoir fills, existing plants are submerged and during the years it takes for this matter to decay, will give off considerably more greenhouse gases than lakes do. A reservoir in

5130-519: The downstream communities would have experienced on June 30 had the dam not been in place, an amount that would have topped the Big Blue River Levee and flooded downtown Manhattan. The roar of the water was audible half a mile (800 m) away and some people in nearby Manhattan reported hearing the noise. During 2019 there was a period consisting of a few days where there was heavy rain. The water levels rose and preparations were made in

5225-507: The downstream river to maintain river quality, support fisheries, to maintain downstream industrial and recreational uses or for a range of other purposes. Such releases are known as compensation water . The units used for measuring reservoir areas and volumes vary from country to country. In most of the world, reservoir areas are expressed in square kilometers; in the United States, acres are commonly used. For volume, either cubic meters or cubic kilometers are widely used, with acre-feet used in

5320-460: The east) is submerged underneath the lake. The dam is roughly two miles north of Manhattan, Kansas, and is crossed by Kansas Highway 13 . Near the river delta at the lake's northern end, a bridge carrying Kansas Highway 16 spans the lake. From 1903 to 1959, 25 floods damaged the areas of the Kansas River at Topeka ; but, over the same period, there were also times of critical drought. With

5415-553: The eastern U.S. If the Ohio River watershed had not been in drought while the Missouri and Upper Mississippi were in flood, the 1993 flood might have rivaled the 1927 flood in overall damage on the Lower Mississippi, beyond Cairo. On August 1, levee breaks near Columbia, Illinois , flooded 47,000 acres (190 km ) of land, inundating the Illinois towns of Valmeyer and Fults . The released water continued to flow parallel to

5510-440: The environmental impacts of dams and the reservoirs that they contain. Some impacts, such as the greenhouse gas production associated with concrete manufacture, are relatively easy to estimate. Other impacts on the natural environment and social and cultural effects can be more difficult to assess and to weigh in the balance but identification and quantification of these issues is now commonly required in major construction projects in

5605-408: The event that the spillway was to be opened. The nearby RV park and other areas near the dam's main wall were evacuated, and those in the path of the spillway's flooding and destruction radius, if it were to be opened, were evacuated as well. The rain continued and more water than usual leaked out of the spillway's gates as a result, but the spillway was not opened. In the days following the event, there

5700-499: The first decade after flooding. This elevates the global warming impact of the dams to levels much higher than would occur by generating the same power from fossil fuels . According to the World Commission on Dams report (Dams And Development), when the reservoir is relatively large and no prior clearing of forest in the flooded area was undertaken, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir could be higher than those of

5795-451: The first release of the spillway since its installation. All 18 gates on the spillway were raised 4 feet (1.2 m) during the peak of the flood, producing a flow rate of 60,000 cubic feet per second (1,700 m/s) (with the tubes closed at that time). While this controlled flow rate resulted in flooding of low-lying homes and cropland, it was significantly less than the estimated peak flow of 96,000 cubic feet per second (2,700 m/s)

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5890-470: The flood crests, temporarily storing excess water in the adjacent lowlands, but the rain kept falling. In the beginning of June, the Missouri and Mississippi rivers dropped below flood stage and were receding. During the second week of June, river levels rose to near flood stage before yet again beginning their slow recession. By the end of June, the Mississippi River was four feet (1.2 m) below flood stage at St. Louis , while many other river locations in

5985-505: The flooded area totaled around 30,000 square miles (78,000 km ) and was the worst such U.S. disaster since the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 , as measured by duration, area inundated, persons displaced, crop and property damage, and number of record river levels. In some categories, the 1993 flood even surpassed the 1927 flood, at the time the largest flood ever recorded on the Mississippi River. A volcanic winter

6080-413: The flow in highly managed systems, taking in water during high flows and releasing it again during low flows. In order for this to work without pumping requires careful control of water levels using spillways . When a major storm approaches, the dam operators calculate the volume of water that the storm will add to the reservoir. If forecast storm water will overfill the reservoir, water is slowly let out of

6175-426: The following autumn. During the winter of 1992–93, the region experienced heavy snowfall. These conditions were followed by persistent spring weather patterns that produced storms over the same locations. Soils across much of the affected area were saturated by June 1, with additional rainfall all running off into streams and rivers, instead of soaking into the ground. These wet-weather conditions contrasted sharply with

6270-527: The growth of population and industry, there was envisioned projects to both contain excessive floodwaters and conserve water for release in drought. The Flood Control Act of 1938 authorized construction of Tuttle Creek Reservoir, and funds for initial planning were authorized in 1944. The construction of Tuttle Creek Dam as a Corps of Engineers project was given particular impetus by the Great Flood of 1951 , which inundated downtown Manhattan, Topeka, and

6365-580: The hydroelectric reservoirs there do emit greenhouse gases, it is on a much smaller scale than thermal power plants of similar capacity. Hydropower typically emits 35 to 70 times less greenhouse gases per TWh of electricity than thermal power plants. A decrease in air pollution occurs when a dam is used in place of thermal power generation, since electricity produced from hydroelectric generation does not give rise to any flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion (including sulfur dioxide , nitric oxide and carbon monoxide from coal ). Dams can produce

6460-534: The lake. Studies that began in the 1980s showed that the geology of the area could potentially produce an earthquake capable of causing the dam to fail , which could risk the lives of thousands downstream in the Blue River and Kansas River valleys. To address this threat, the Army Corps of Engineers completed a project in July 2010 that reinforced the dam with more than 350 concrete walls to stop channels in

6555-432: The landscape is relatively flat. Other service reservoirs can be storage pools, water tanks or sometimes entirely underground cisterns , especially in more hilly or mountainous country. Modern reserviors will often use geomembrane liners on their base to limit seepage and/or as floating covers to limit evaporation, particularly in arid climates. In the United Kingdom, Thames Water has many underground reservoirs built in

6650-431: The late paleozoic . In periods of high sea-level, limestone and shale were deposited, while periods of low sea-level resulted in the deposition of red and green clays and paleosols , giving the exposures at the spillway "canyon" a colorful "layer cake" appearance. Impressiveness of the 1993 geologic display aside, there was concern about the durability of the spillway in future releases. The structure and strength of

6745-512: The limestone at a rate much slower than the first removal of the looser material. Each of these headcuts have a relatively resistant limestone bed on top and easily erodible rock (shale) underneath. Two particularly resistant limestone formations formed notable shelves: The limestone beds of the Red Eagle Formation topped a 26 feet (7.9 m) cliff (pictured), and from the base of that cliff stretched out 4.5 acres (1.8 ha) of

6840-470: The modern use of rolled clay. The water stored in such reservoirs may stay there for several months, during which time normal biological processes may substantially reduce many contaminants and reduce turbidity . The use of bank-side reservoirs also allows water abstraction to be stopped for some time, for instance when the river is unacceptably polluted or when flow conditions are very low due to drought . The London water supply system exhibits one example of

6935-475: The month averaged from one inch (25 mm) above normal at St. Louis and Springfield, to between six and seven inches (150 and 180 mm) above normal at Columbia and Kansas City, Missouri. In Iowa, the flood waters brought mass destruction. On July 9, four buildings on Iowa State University 's campus flooded; resulting in over 1.4 million dollars in estimated damages and six weeks of construction to reopen. The college's indoor sports arena, Hilton Coliseum ,

7030-415: The operating rules may be complex. Most modern reservoirs have a specially designed draw-off tower that can discharge water from the reservoir at different levels, both to access water as the water level falls, and to allow water of a specific quality to be discharged into the downstream river as "compensation water": the operators of many upland or in-river reservoirs have obligations to release water into

7125-481: The pre-flooded landscape, noting that forest lands, wetlands, and preexisting water features all released differing amounts of carbon dioxide and methane both pre- and post-flooding. The Tucuruí Dam in Brazil (completed in 1984) had only 0.4 times the impact on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil fuels. A two-year study of carbon dioxide and methane releases in Canada concluded that while

7220-437: The quality of the water and the ecology of the surrounding area. Many reservoirs now support and encourage less formal and less structured recreation such as natural history , bird watching , landscape painting , walking and hiking , and often provide information boards and interpretation material to encourage responsible use. Water falling as rain upstream of the reservoir, together with any groundwater emerging as springs,

7315-595: The region were near flood stage. Precipitation for the month averaged from one inch (25 mm) above normal in Kansas City , to nearly four inches (100 mm) above normal in Springfield, Missouri . July brought more heavy rain to the Missouri and upper Mississippi River basins in Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, North and South Dakota, Illinois, and Minnesota. Rainfall amounts of 5 to 7 inches (130 to 180 millimetres) in 24 hours were common. Precipitation for

7410-638: The reservoir prior to, and during, the storm. If done with sufficient lead time, the major storm will not fill the reservoir and areas downstream will not experience damaging flows. Accurate weather forecasts are essential so that dam operators can correctly plan drawdowns prior to a high rainfall event. Dam operators blamed a faulty weather forecast on the 2010–2011 Queensland floods . Examples of highly managed reservoirs are Burrendong Dam in Australia and Bala Lake ( Llyn Tegid ) in North Wales . Bala Lake

7505-495: The river, approaching the levees protecting historic Prairie du Rocher and Fort de Chartres . On August 3, officials decided to break through the stronger Mississippi River levee to allow the water back into the river. The plan worked and the historic areas were saved, although some residential areas were flooded in counties above Prairie du Rocher. The Mississippi River at St. Louis crested at 49.6 feet (15.1 m) on August 1, nearly 20 feet (6.1 m) above flood stage. It had

7600-447: The spillway was designed to release). However, the previously unexposed Roca Shale , which had demonstrated remarkable durability during the release, was expected to undergo rapid severe deterioration if left open to the effects of the Kansas climate. So, it was determined that minimal repair was to be made to the upper length of the chute. Weaker and fractured limestone shelves were grouted and then buttressed with shotcrete , and then

7695-436: The spillway's bedrock was studied to determine any necessary course of repair, reinforcement, or replacement. During the 1993 spillway release, daily photographs were taken of the rushing water at nine different locations to measure the speed of the expected head cutting. Analysis determined that the spillway could still survive 10 times the intensity of the 1993 release (the maximum 612,000 cubic feet per second (17,300 m/s)

7790-587: The temples of Abu Simbel (which were moved before the construction of the Aswan Dam to create Lake Nasser from the Nile in Egypt ), the relocation of the village of Capel Celyn during the construction of Llyn Celyn , and the relocation of Borgo San Pietro of Petrella Salto during the construction of Lake Salto . Construction of a dammed reservoir will usually require the river to be diverted during part of

7885-591: The tubes discharged 29,000 cubic feet per second (820 m/s), a record amount for the intake tower that was not matched or exceeded until the tower's estimated 30,000 cubic feet per second (850 m/s) release on May 31, 2019. When the dam was completed and the lake began filling up in 1962, it affected ten towns and entirely submerged four of them (from north to south): Cleburne at 39°31′49″N 96°38′6″W  /  39.53028°N 96.63500°W  / 39.53028; -96.63500 , Randolph , Garrison Cross and Stockdale . The only town to rebuild elsewhere

7980-440: The underlying karst , and equipped it with warning sensors . Reservoir A reservoir ( / ˈ r ɛ z ər v w ɑːr / ; from French réservoir [ʁezɛʁvwaʁ] ) is an enlarged lake behind a dam , usually built to store fresh water , often doubling for hydroelectric power generation . Reservoirs are created by controlling a watercourse that drains an existing body of water, interrupting

8075-452: The unlined chute during a spillway release was a factor of the design. As expected, the released water had rapidly scoured away all soil on the floor of the unlined chute and then quickly removed a few feet of loose, weathered rock, exposing solid, durable limestone shelves. Each of these limestone ledges experienced head cutting , where the underlying soft shale was eroded away; weakening, collapsing, and washing away some horizontal distance of

8170-499: The use of bank-side storage: here water is taken from the River Thames and River Lee into several large Thames-side reservoirs, such as Queen Mary Reservoir that can be seen along the approach to London Heathrow Airport . Service reservoirs store fully treated potable water close to the point of distribution. Many service reservoirs are constructed as water towers , often as elevated structures on concrete pillars where

8265-474: The volume of the 1844 flood, was able to keep the 1993 flood out with just over two feet (0.61 m) to spare. This floodwall was built in the 1960s, to great controversy, out of interlocking prefabricated concrete blocks. Emergency officials estimated that nearly all of the 700 privately built agricultural levees were overtopped or destroyed along the Missouri River. Navigation on the Mississippi and Missouri River had been closed since early July, resulting in

8360-547: The water was not certified potable until July 29. The final usage restrictions were lifted in August. Major sandbagging activities took place along the higher Missouri River, the River des Peres in St. Louis, the Mississippi River south of St. Louis, and on many other tributaries across Missouri and Illinois. Some of these efforts were successful, while others were not. The copious rain during July sent record-setting crests down

8455-412: The water, which tends to partition some elements such as manganese and phosphorus into deep, cold anoxic water during the summer months. In the autumn and winter the lake becomes fully mixed again. During drought conditions, it is sometimes necessary to draw down the cold bottom water, and the elevated levels of manganese in particular can cause problems in water treatment plants. In 2005, about 25% of

8550-498: The whole towns of Valmeyer, Illinois , and Rhineland, Missouri , were relocated to higher ground. Reports in 1994 set the deaths due to the flood at 38, though this had been revised to 50 deaths by 1996. The fiscal cost is estimated at $ 12–16 billion (equivalent to $ 23–30   billion in 2023). Even after the water was gone, large amounts of sand still covered the farmlands and homes. Over time, channeling and levee construction have altered how floods affect various areas along

8645-476: The world's 33,105 large dams (over 15 metres in height) were used for hydroelectricity. The U.S. produces 3% of its electricity from 80,000 dams of all sizes. An initiative is underway to retrofit more dams as a good use of existing infrastructure to provide many smaller communities with a reliable source of energy. A reservoir generating hydroelectricity includes turbines connected to the retained water body by large-diameter pipes. These generating sets may be at

8740-412: Was Randolph, where the streets are named after the submerged towns. The remnants of "Old Randolph", as it's known locally, can still be seen partially submerged to this day. The value of the dam was particularly proven during the Great Flood of 1993 , when floodwaters reaching up to 63 feet (19 m) above normal were held back. However, when the dam reached capacity in July 1993, it necessitated

8835-505: Was above flood stage for 62 days in Jefferson City, Missouri , 77 days at Hermann, Missouri , and for 94 days at St. Charles in the St. Louis metropolitan area. On October 7, 103 days after the flooding began, the Mississippi River at St. Louis finally dropped below flood stage. Approximately 100,000 homes were destroyed as a result of the flooding, 15,000,000 acres (23,000 sq mi; 61,000 km ) of farmland inundated, and

8930-580: Was flooded with as much as fourteen feet of water. From July 11 until July 22, the Des Moines Water Works was flooded by the Raccoon River . This resulted in the plant being powered down, unable to provide running water for that period. On July 13, electricity returned to more than 35,000 residents. That same day President Bill Clinton toured Iowa's capitol and neighboring cities alongside Governor Terry Branstad . He later declared

9025-547: Was some recovery from flash floods as a result of the rain. After three weeks of release in 1993, the spillway gates were closed, revealing over 32 acres (13 ha) of freshly exposed rock formations. This attraction became known locally as the Little Grand Canyon or "The Canyon". Below the gates lies 600 feet (180 m) of concrete-lined chute followed by about 7,000 feet (2,100 m) of unlined chute, originally maintained with grass cover. Erosion of

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