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77-432: The site has an area of about 40 hectares with the main mound and a few subsidiary mounds surrounded by small mounds which are the remains of a city wall. After studying texts at Mari , Georges Dossin traveled to a site he called "Tell Biya" and identified it as Tuttul, ending much speculation as to its location. Tuttul appeared often in the texts from Mari. Excavation was conducted in twelve seasons between 1980 and 1995 by

154-470: A storm god in the region of Mari , Terqa and Tuttul. His two main temples were at Tuttul and Terqa and his wife Shalash was also worshiped at Tuttul. The god Mullil (another name for Enlil ) was also said to "dwell" in Tuttul. The Hurrian version of Dagan, Kumarbi , was also worshiped there. There was also a temple of the " River-god " at Tuttul, a poorly understood entity which has been suggested as

231-642: A tell 11 kilometers north-west of Abu Kamal on the Euphrates River western bank, some 120 kilometers southeast of Deir ez-Zor . It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC. The city was built in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes between Sumer in the south and the Eblaite kingdom and the Levant in the west. Mari was first abandoned in

308-512: A defeat for Mari, and Yahdun-Lim was assassinated in c. 1798 BC by his possible son Sumu-Yamam , who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi-Adad advanced and annexed Mari. Shamshi-Adad (r. 1809-1775 BC) appointed his son Yasmah-Adad on the throne of Mari, the new king married Yahdun-Lim's daughter, while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad, and

385-524: A defensive circular internal rampart 6.7 m thick and 8 to 10 meters high, strengthened by defensive towers. Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, and residential houses. Mari had a central mound, but no temple or palace has been unearthed there. A large building was however excavated (with dimensions of 32 m x 25 m), seemingly with an administrative function. It had stone foundations and rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide. The city

462-465: A dialect similar to Eblaite . The Amorites were West Semites who began to settle the area before the 21st century BC; by the Lim dynasty (c. 1830 BC), they became the dominant population in the Fertile Crescent . Mari's discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria , due to the discovery of more than 25,000 tablets explicating

539-481: A dispute over the city of Hīt that consumed much time in negotiations, during which a war against Elam involved both kingdoms in c. 1765 BC. Finally, the kingdom was invaded by Hammurabi who defeated Zimri-Lim in battle in c. 1761 BC and ended the Lim dynasty, while Terqa became the capital of a rump state named the Kingdom of Hana . In the south, the region of Suhum became a Babylonian province. Mari survived

616-475: A few years after Terqa in c. 2300 BC, during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar . According to Alfonso Archi  [ de ] , Hidar was succeeded by Ishqi-Mari whose royal seal was discovered. It depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general. Just a decade after Ebla's destruction (c. 2300 BC middle chronology), Mari itself

693-600: A small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and the Assyrians before being abandoned and forgotten during the Hellenistic period . The Mariotes worshiped both Semitic and Sumerian deities and established their city as a major trading center. Although the pre-Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence, Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but a Semitic-speaking nation with

770-436: A small settlement until the Hellenistic period before disappearing from records. By 2015, ISIS devastated and looted systematically the site and specially the royal palace . It was one of the first archaeological sites to be occupied by this group. The founders of the first city may have been Sumerians or more probably East Semitic speaking people from Terqa in the north. I. J. Gelb relates Mari's foundation with

847-501: A team from the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft led by Eva Strommenger. The focus of the excavation has been on the central mound, Mound E. It was topped by the remains of a Byzantine -era monastery, including a church, with intact mosaic floors, and a refectory with omega-shaped benches. The level below the monastery is Old Babylonian (early 2nd millennium BC) with a palace termed the "Young/New Palace". This

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924-608: A temple to the god Shamash . He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the Mediterranean , however he later had to face a rebellion by the Yaminite nomads who were centered at Tuttul , and the rebels were supported by Yamhad 's king Sumu-Epuh , whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun-Lim and Eshnunna . Yahdun-Lim defeated the Yaminites but an open war with Yamhad

1001-583: A wall around the palace complex. A satellite survey of site in Syria showed that the site had been heavily looted. The site has been occupied since the Uruk period (late 4th millennium BC) based on pottery shards. The earliest written record of Tuttul was during the time of the Akkadian Empire when Sargon (2334–2279 BC), the first ruler of the empire, recorded in a text "Sargon, the king bowed down to

1078-457: Is still uncertain and many interpretations have been presented by scholars. The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan is Ansud , who is mentioned as attacking Ebla, the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war, and conquering many of Ebla's cities, including the land of Belan . The next king mentioned in the letter is Saʿumu , who conquered the lands of Ra'ak and Nirum . King Kun-Damu of Ebla defeated Mari in

1155-538: Is uncertain, as Hit is referenced to several times in the Mari archives via its modern name. In the Byzantine period a large monastery was built. Its period of use is unknown, but one of the mosaics is dateable to the 6th century AD. Mari, Syria Mari ( Cuneiform : 𒈠𒌷𒆠 , ma-ri , modern Tell Hariri ; Arabic : تل حريري ) was an ancient Semitic city-state in modern-day Syria . Its remains form

1232-631: The Amorite language became the dominant tongue, Akkadian remained the language of writing. The pastoral Amorites in Mari were called the Haneans , a term that indicate nomads in general, those Haneans were split into the Yaminites (sons of the south) and Sim'alites (sons of the north), with the ruling house belonging to the Sim'al branch. The kingdom was also a home to tribes of Suteans who lived in

1309-534: The First Babylonian Empire also included Tuttul in his royal tutelary. Hammurabi defeated Mari and the surrounding region in the 33rd year of his reign, presumably including Tuttul. Afterward the site apparently went into decline and occupation ceased entirely in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. Though there is no archaeological evidence at the site, Tuttul is mentioned in late 2nd millennium BC New Kingdom Hittite and Middle Assyrian texts, as

1386-620: The Kish civilization , which was a cultural entity of East Semitic speaking populations, that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant. At its height, the second city was the home of about 40,000 people. This population was East-Semitic speaking one, and used a dialect much similar to the language of Ebla (the Eblaite language ), while the Shakkanakku period had an East-Semitic Akkadian speaking population. West Semitic names started to be attested in Mari from

1463-531: The Levant with the Sumerian south. The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods, and was connected to the river by an artificial canal 7 to 10 kilometers long whose route is hard to identify today. The city is difficult to excavate as it is buried deep under later layers of habitation. A circular flood embankment was unearthed, containing an area 300 meters in length for gardens and craftsmen's quarters, and

1540-725: The National Museum of Damascus , and the Deir ez-Zor Museum . In the latter, the southern façade of the Court of the Palms room from Zimri-Lim's palace has been reconstructed, including the wall paintings. Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns in 1933–1939, 1951–1956, and since 1960. André Parrot conducted the first 21 seasons up to 1974, and was followed by Jean-Claude Margueron  [ fr ] (1979–2004), and Pascal Butterlin (starting in 2005). A journal devoted to

1617-623: The banks of the Euphrates ...". In a brick inscription from the building of the Shamash temple in Mari he recorded a revolt against his rule that included Tuttul. This revolt was supported by Sumu-Epuh , ruler of Yamhad . "... In that same year, — La'um, king of Samanum and the land of the Ubrabium, Bahlu-kullim, king of Tuttul and the land of the Amnanum, Aialum, king of Abattum and

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1694-627: The god of their city, and they built within Agade a temple (dedicated) to him." Tuttul is unrecorded during the Ur III period aside from a mention in one of the campaign records of the ruler Shu-Sin . It has been suggested that the Duduli encountered in Ur III texts on occasion is Tuttul. During the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–1600 BC), Tuttul was a sacred city to the god Dagan , who was

1771-421: The high priest . The second kingdom appears to have been a powerful and prosperous political center, its kings held the title of Lugal , and many are attested in the city, the most important source being the letter of king Enna-Dagan c. 2350 BC, which was sent to Irkab-Damu of Ebla , . In it, the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements. However, the reading of this letter

1848-477: The "temple of lions" (dedicated to Dagan ), was built by the Shakkanakku Ishtup-Ilum and attached to it, was a rectangular terrace that measured 40 x 20 meters for sacrifices. Akkad disintegrated during Shar-Kali-Sharri 's reign, and Mari gained its independence, but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following Third Dynasty of Ur period. A princess of Mari married

1925-478: The Babylonians. The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in the Upper Khabur region, which was named Idamaraz  [ ca ] , where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such as Urkesh , and Talhayum  [ ca ] , forcing them into vassalage. The expansion was met by the resistance of Qarni-Lim , the king of Andarig , whom Zimri-Lim defeated, securing

2002-536: The Mariote control over the region in c. 1771 BC, and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace. Zimri-Lim's greatest heritage was the renovation of the Royal Palace , which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms, exquisite artifacts such as The Goddess of the Vase statue, and a royal archive that contained thousands of tablets. The relations with Babylon worsened with

2079-454: The Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras. Yaggid-Lim was the ruler of Suprum before establishing himself in Mari, he entered an alliance with Ila-kabkabu of Ekallatum , but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war. The conflict ended with Ila-kabkabu capturing Yaggid-Lim's heir Yahdun-Lim and according to a tablet found in Mari, Yaggid-Lim who survived Ila-kabkabu

2156-691: The Upper Land: Mari, Iarmuti, and Ebla , as far as the Cedar Forest and the Silver Mountains Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king Manishtushu . A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title Shakkanakku (military governor). Akkad kept direct control over the city, which is evident by Naram-Sin of Akkad 's appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in

2233-493: The Yaminite nomads who were centered at Tuttul , and the rebels were supported by Yamhad 's king Sumu-Epuh , whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun-Lim and Eshnunna . Yahdun-Lim defeated the Yaminites but an open war with Yamhad was avoided, as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with Shamshi-Adad I of Shubat-Enlil , the son of the late Ila-kabkabu. The war ended in

2310-428: The annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi-Adad considered sinful acts on the side of the Lim family. To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad, Shamshi-Adad married Yasmah-Adad to Betlum, the daughter of Ishi-Addu of Qatna . However, Yasmah-Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna, and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c. 1776 BC, while

2387-428: The armies of Yarim-Lim I of Yamhad were advancing in support of Zimri-Lim , the heir of the Lim dynasty. As Zimri-Lim advanced, a leader of the Sim'alites (Zimri-Lim's tribe) overthrew Yasmah-Adad, opening the road for Zimri-Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah-Adad's escape, and married princess Shibtu the daughter of Yarim-Lim I a short time after his enthronement in c. 1776 BC. Zimri-Lim's ascension to

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2464-485: The art was indistinguishable from Sumerian art, so was the architectural style. Mesopotamian influence continued to affect Mari's culture during the Amorite period, which is evident in the Babylonian scribal style used in the city. However, it was less influential than the former periods and a distinct Syrian style prevailed, which is noticeable in the seals of kings, which reflect a clear Syrian origin. The society

2541-455: The burnt library of Zimri-Lim written in Akkadian from a period of 50 years between circa 1800 – 1750 BC. They give information about the kingdom, its customs, and the names of people who lived during that time. More than 3000 are letters, the remainder includes administrative, economic, and judicial texts. Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50 years of Mari's independence, and most have now been published. The language of

2618-582: The city, including the temple called the Massif Rouge (unknown dedication), and temples dedicated to Ninni-Zaza  [ it ] (INANA.ZA.ZA), Ishtarat , Ishtar , Ninhursag , and Shamash . All the temples were located in the center of the city except for the Ishtar temple; the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is considered to have been the administrative center of

2695-417: The city. The first member of the Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists is Ididish , who was appointed in c. 2266 BC. According to the lists, Ididish ruled for 60 years and was succeeded by his son=, making the position hereditary. The third Mari followed the second city in terms of general structure, phase P0 of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku. Another smaller palace

2772-405: The deified Euphrates, which was recorded as receiving sacrifices. Tuttul is then mentioned in a year name of Yahdun-Lim (c. 1800 BC) the Amorite ruler of Mari , "Year in which Yahdun-Lim was victorious against the Yaminites and ... at the gate of Tutul". In his royal tutelary he was named as "Yahdun-Lim, son of Iaggid-Lim, king of Mari, Tuttul, and the land of Hana, mighty king, who controls

2849-548: The destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c. 1759 BC, causing Hammurabi to destroy the whole city. However, by an act of mercy Hammurabi may have allowed Mari to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration (according to Marc Van De Mieroop). Later, Mari became part of Assyria and was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (reigned 1243–1207 BC). Afterward, Mari constantly changed hands between Assyria and Babylon. In

2926-544: The disintegration of the Akkadian Empire, and rebuilt the city as a regional center of the Euphrates valley. The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC, when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons. A short time later, Mari became the capital of the Amorite Lim dynasty. The Amorite Mari lasted only a short time before it was destroyed by Babylonia in c. 1761 BC, but it survived as

3003-415: The district of Terqa . Mari was an absolute monarchy, with the king controlling every aspect of the administration, helped by the scribes who played the role of administrators. During the Lim era, Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital, the provincial seats were located at Terqa, Saggaratum , Qattunan and Tuttul. Each province had its own bureaucracy, the government supplied

3080-1033: The god Dagan in Tuttul. He (the god Dagan) gave to him (Sargon) the Upper Land: Mari, Iarmuti, and Ebla far as the Cedar Forest and the Silver Mountains.". Tuttul was later mentioned by his Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC), as one of the cities whose god was asked for him to become deified. "In view of the fact that he protected the foundations of his city from danger, (the citizens of) his city requested from Astar in Eanna, Enlil in Nippur, Dagan in Tuttul, Ninhursag in Kes, Ea in Eridu, Sin in Ur, Samas in Sippar, (and) Nergal in Kutha, that (Naram-Sin) be (made)

3157-606: The land of the Rabbum — these kings rebelled against him. The troops of Sumu-Epuh of the land of lamhad came as auxiliary troops (to rescue him) and in the city of Samanum the tribes gathered together against him, but by means of(his) mighty weapon he defeated these three kings of ... He vanquished their troops and their auxiliaries and inflicted a defeat on them. He heaped up their dead bodies. He tore down their walls and made them into mounds of rubble." Zimri-Lim , ruler or Mari, son of Yahdun-Lim and contemporary of Hammurabi of

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3234-458: The middle of the 25th century BC. The war continued with Išhtup-Išar of Mari's conquest of Emar at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BC. King Igrish-Halam of Ebla had to pay tribute to Iblul-Il of Mari, who is mentioned in the letter, conquering many of Ebla's cities and campaigning in the Burman region. Enna-Dagan also received tribute; his reign fell entirely within

3311-487: The middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonic East Semitic state before 2500 BC. This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rival Ebla and is known for its strong affinity with Sumerian culture. It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by the Akkadians , who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor ( Shakkanakku ). The governors became independent with

3388-664: The middle of the eleventh century BC, Mari became part of Hana whose king Tukulti-Mer took the title king of Mari and rebelled against Assyria, causing the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala (r. 1074-1056 BC) to attack the city. Mari came firmly under the authority of the Neo-Assyrian Empire , and was assigned in the first half of the 8th century BC to a certain Nergal-Erish to govern under the authority of king Adad-Nirari III (r. 810–783 BC). In c. 760 BC, Shamash-Risha-Usur , an autonomous governor ruling parts of

3465-536: The north, northwest and west. The main trade was metals and tin from the Iranian Plateau exported west as far as Crete . Other goods included copper from Cyprus , silver from Anatolia , wood from Lebanon , gold from Egypt , olive oil, wine, and textiles, and even precious stones from modern Afghanistan . Mari was discovered in 1933, on the eastern flank of Syria, near the Iraqi border. A Bedouin tribe

3542-619: The period, the Late Bronze Age, Tuttul served only as a small cultic center for Dagan. This town has sometimes also been called the "Northern Tuttul" or "Tuttul on the Balih" with reference to an implied "Southern Tuttul", which was possibly located on the Middle Euphrates between the ancient cities of Mari and Babylon . However, this is a debated issue. The identification of the so-called "Southern Tuttul" with modern Hit

3619-553: The region. He led a successful campaign to the coast of the Mediterranean . Yahdun-Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders, and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur-Yahdun-Lim. Yahdun-Lim's kingdom was threatened by incursions from various nomad tribes, such as the Canaanites , but he was able to subjugate them and force them to pay tribute . After having established internal peace, he built

3696-512: The reign of Irkab-Damu of Ebla, who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute. Mari defeated Ebla's ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium 's term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia. The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa . Ebla itself suffered its first destruction

3773-529: The rest adult and semi-adult males) were identified. One was intact and was accompanied by a flat axe, two shaft-hole axes, a quiver with a bronze base, and a dagger . An extramural cemetery from the same period was found 700 m (2,300 ft) away with graves of much poorer quality. In 2002 a geomagnetic prospection of the Early Bronze Age area of Mound D was conducted. It showed a 30 m (98 ft) square building near Palace A and remains of

3850-416: The royal palace, the public baths, the temple of Ishtar, and the temple of Dagan. Based on satellite imagery, looting continued until at least 2017. Yahdun-Lim Yahdunlim (or Yakhdunlim, Yahdun-Lim ) was the king of Mari probably in 1820—1796 BC. He was of Amorite origin, and became king after the death of his father Iagitlim . Yahdunlim built Mari up to become one of the major powers of

3927-540: The second half of the 19th century BC. The second millennium BC in the Fertile Crescent was characterized by the expansion of the Amorites , which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region, including Mari which in c. 1830 BC, became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king Yaggid-Lim . However, the epigraphical and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between

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4004-432: The second kingdom era, and by the middle Bronze-Age , the west Semitic Amorite tribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates and Khabur valleys. Amorite names started to be observed in the city toward the end of the Shakkanakku period, even among the ruling dynasty members. During the Lim era, the population became predominantly Amorite but also included Akkadian named people, and although

4081-490: The second kingdom's palace have been unearthed (the oldest is designated P3 , while the latest is P0 ). The last two levels are dated to the Akkadian period . The first two levels were excavated; the findings include a temple (Enceinte Sacrée or sacred enclosure ) dedicated to an unknown deity, a pillared throne room, and a hall with three double wood pillars leading to the temple. Six smaller temples were discovered in

4158-451: The site, released in 8 volumes between 1982 and 1997, was Mari: Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires . Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends, according to French archaeologist André Parrot, "each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site's history down to virgin soil, such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed." Over 25,000 tablets were found in

4235-442: The society, temples included prophets, who gave council to the king and participated in the religious festivals. The first Mari provided the oldest wheel workshop yet discovered in Syria, and was a center of bronze metallurgy . The city also contained districts devoted to smelting , dyeing , and pottery manufacture, using charcoal brought by river boats from the upper Khabur and Euphrates area. The second kingdom's economy

4312-423: The son of king Ur-Nammu of Ur , and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony. However, the vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari, and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title Lugal in their votive inscriptions, while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur's court. The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty, which took place in

4389-581: The state administration in the 2nd millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations among the political powers of the region. They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC, which connected areas as far as Afghanistan in Southern Asia and Crete in the Mediterranean . Written in Cuneiform 𒈠𒌷𒆠 ( ma-ri ), the name of the city can be traced to Itūr-Mēr , an ancient storm deity of northern Mesopotamia and Syria, who

4466-564: The texts is official Akkadian , but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Mari's inhabitants was Northwest Semitic . Six of the tablets found were in the Hurrian language . Excavations stopped from 2011 as a result of the Syrian Civil War and have not restarted. The site came under the control of armed gangs and suffered large scale looting. A 2014 official report revealed that robbers were focusing on

4543-495: The throne with the help of Yarim-Lim I affected Mari's status, Zimri-Lim referred to Yarim-Lim as his father, and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad's main deity Hadad and Zimri-Lim, who declared himself a servant of Hadad. Zimri-Lim started his reign with a campaign against the Yaminites , he also established alliances with Eshnunna and Hammurabi of Babylon , and sent his armies to aid

4620-560: The two empires contested for that region. A number of cuneiform tablets were found at the site, mostly in the Old Babylonian palace. About 51 were used in fill and are somewhat older, thought to be from the Isin-Larsa period . The rest came from the time of Yasmah-Adad . Two tablets were somewhat later in date. There is also a bronze axe, from the antiquities market, inscribed ""Il'e-Lim, lord of Tuttul". It appears that during

4697-471: The upper middle Euphrates under the nominal authority of Ashur-dan III , styled himself the governor of the lands of Suhu and Mari, so did his son Ninurta-Kudurri-Usur . However, by that time, Mari was known to be located in the so-called Land of Laqe , making it unlikely that the Usur family actually controlled it, and suggesting that the title was employed out of historical reasons. The city continued as

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4774-578: The villagers with ploughs and agricultural equipments, in return for a share in the harvest. The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south. The society was led by an urban oligarchy , and the citizens were well known for elaborate hair styles and dress. The calendar was based on a solar year divided into twelve months, and was the same calendar used in Ebla "the old Eblaite calendar". Scribes wrote in Sumerian language and

4851-562: Was Mari's head of the Pantheon, while Mer was the patron deity. Other deities included the Semitic deities; Ishtar the goddess of fertility, Athtar , and Shamash , the Sun god who was regarded among the city most important deities, and believed to be all-knowing and all-seeing. Sumerian deities included Ninhursag, Dumuzi , Enki , Anu , and Enlil . Prophecy had an important role for

4928-498: Was a tribal one, it consisted mostly of farmers and nomads (Haneans), and in contrast to Mesopotamia, the temple had a minor role in everyday life as the power was mostly invested in the palace. Women enjoyed a relative equality to men, queen Shibtu ruled in her husband's name while he was away, and had an extensive administrative role and authority over her husband's highest officials. The Pantheon included both Sumerian and Semitic deities, and throughout most of its history, Dagan

5005-463: Was abandoned c. 2550 BC at the end of the Early Dynastic period II , for unknown reasons. Around the beginning of Early Dynastic period III (earlier than 2500 BC) Mari was rebuilt and populated again. The new city kept many of the first city's exterior features, including the internal rampart and gate. Also kept was the outer circular embankment measuring 1.9 km in diameter, which

5082-497: Was an important trading partner and rival, Mari's position made it an important trading center astride the road linking the Levant and Mesopotamia. The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy, still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley. The city remained a trading center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms, with goods from the south and east transported on riverboats bound for

5159-408: Was avoided. Yahdun-Lim then became occupied by his rivalry with Shamshi-Adad I of Shubat-Enlil , the son of the late Ila-kabkabu . He received pleas for help from kings threatened by Shamshi-Adad's expansionist plans. But before Yahdunlim could move against Shamshi-Adad, he was assassinated in c. 1798 BC by his possible son Sumu-Yamam , who himself got assassinated two years after ascending

5236-421: Was based on both agriculture and trade. It was centralized and directed through a communal organization, with grain stored in communal granaries and distributed according to social status. The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom. Some groups were direct beneficiaries of the palace instead of the communal organization, including the metal and textile producers and military officials. Ebla

5313-401: Was built in the eastern part of the city, and contained royal burials that date to the former periods. The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached 10 meters in width. The former sacred inclosure was maintained, so was the temple of Ninhursag. However, the temples of Ninni-Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared, while a new temple called

5390-499: Was considered the tutelary deity of the city, Georges Dossin noted that the name of the city was spelled identically to that of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him. It is believed that Mari did not grow from a small settlement, but was founded c. 2900 BC during the Mesopotamian Early Dynastic period I as a new city to control the waterways of the Euphrates trade routes connecting

5467-539: Was destroyed and burned by Sargon of Akkad , as shown by one of his year names (" Year in which Mari was destroyed "). Michael Astour proposed the date as c. 2265 BC ( short chronology ). Ishqi-Mari was probably the last king of Mari before the conquests by the Akkadian Empire . Sargon of Akkad collected tribute from Mari and Elam : Sargon the King bowed down to Dagan in Tuttul . He (Dagan) gave to him (Sargon)

5544-559: Was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman, when they came across a headless statue. After the news reached the French authorities currently in control of Syria, the report was investigated, and digging on the site was started on December 14, 1933, by archaeologists from the Louvre in Paris. The location of the fragment

5621-418: Was excavated, revealing the temple of Ishtar, which led to the commencing of the full scale excavations. Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the "most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture". Since the beginning of excavations, over 25,000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written in cuneiform were discovered. Finds from the excavation are on display in the Louvre , the National Museum of Aleppo ,

5698-413: Was killed by his servants. However, in c. 1820 BC Yahdun-Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari. Yahdun-Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders, and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur-Yahdun-Lim. He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the Mediterranean , however he later had to face a rebellion by

5775-463: Was reached. A few private homes adjacent to the city wall on Mound B South were also excavated. At the Early Dynastic level on the southern end of Mound E six above ground multichambered rectilinear royal tombs were found. The tombs had been looted in antiquity, but contained human and animal bones, jewelry, inlaid furniture, and a large array of pottery. Thirty two individuals (14 female,

5852-431: Was topped by a wall two meters thick capable of protecting archers. However, the internal urban structure was completely changed and the new city was carefully planned. First to be built were the streets that descended from the elevated center into the gates, ensuring the drainage of rain water. At the heart of the city, a royal palace was built that also served as a temple. Four successive architectural levels from

5929-626: Was where cuneiform tablets dated to the last years of the Ekallatum ruler (later ruler of the Upper Kingdom of Mesopotamia) Shamshi-Adad I (c. 1800 BC) were found. Below that level was an "Old Palace" of the Early Dynastic III Eblaite period and a large public building of the Akkadian Empire period. Some Early Dynastic I period remains were found below that and the water table was encountered before virgin soil

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