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70-977: Many Tupi people today are merged with the Guaraní people , forming the Tupi–Guarani languages . Guarani languages are linguistically different from the Tupian languages . The Tupi people inhabited 3/4 of all of Brazil's coast when the Portuguese first arrived there. In 1500, their population was estimated at 1 million people, nearly equal to the population of Portugal at the time. They were divided into tribes , each tribe numbering from 300 to 2,000 people. Some examples of these tribes are: Tupiniquim , Tupinambá , Potiguara , Tabajara , Caetés , Temiminó , Tamoios . The Tupi were adept agriculturalists ; they grew cassava , corn , sweet potatoes , beans , peanuts , tobacco , squash , cotton and many others. There

140-811: A smallpox epidemic killed approximately 30,000 of them. In 1765, a second outbreak killed approximately 12,000 more, and then spread westward through the tribes of the Chaco . In 1750 the Treaty of Madrid between Spain and Portugal transferred to Portugal the territory of the seven missions on the Uruguay River, and the Guaranis were ordered to leave; they refused, being familiar with the Portuguese as slave hunters. Seven years of guerrilla warfare killed thousands of them (see Guarani War ). The Jesuits secured

210-664: A Spanish conquistador , arrived in Santa Catarina in 1541, for instance, he attempted to ban cannibalistic practices in the name of the King of Spain . Because our understanding of Tupi cannibalism relies mostly on primary source accounts of primarily European writers, the very existence of cannibalism has been disputed by some in academic circles. William Arens seeks to discredit Staden's and other writers' accounts of cannibalism in his book The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology & Anthropophagy , where he claims that when concerning

280-754: A different native group that inhabits southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia and northern Argentina and speaks the distinct Guaraní languages , but these are in the same language family as Tupi. The Tupi people had a great cultural influence on the countries they inhabited. Innumerable people, streets, neighborhoods, cities, rivers, animals, fruits, plants, football clubs, companies in Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay are named in Guarani. Tupi-Guarani placenames in other countries : The Tupi people were present in almost all of South America , excluding Chile . Cabure , Aracua Ara kua ("the hole of

350-519: A fortune, who was captured by the Tupi in 1552. In his account published in 1557, he tells that the Tupi carried him to their village where it was claimed he was to be devoured at the next festivity. There, he allegedly won the friendship of a powerful chief, whom he cured of a disease, and his life was spared. Cannibalistic rituals among Tupi and other tribes in Brazil decreased steadily after European contact and religious intervention. When Cabeza de Vaca ,

420-638: A royal decree restoring the disputed mission territory to Spanish jurisdiction. Two missions in 1747 and a third in 1760 were established in the sub-tribe of the Itatínes , or Tobatines, in central Paraguay, far north of the older mission group. In one of these, San Joaquín de los Tobatines  [ es ] (founded 1747), Martin Dobrizhoffer ministered for eight years. In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish dominions by royal edict. Fearing

490-526: Is attested in 16th-century Old Tupi , by Jesuit sources, as "war, warrior, to wage war, warlord". Early Guarani villages often consisted of communal houses for 10 to 15 families. Communities were united by common interest and language, and tended to form tribal groups by dialect. It is estimated that the Guarani numbered some 400,000 people when they were first encountered by Europeans. At that time, they were sedentary and agricultural, subsisting largely on manioc , maize, wild game, and honey . Equally little

560-472: Is fictitiously portrayed in Nelson Pereira dos Santos ' satirical 1971 film How Tasty Was My Little Frenchman ( Como Era Gostoso o Meu Francês ). Its name is also adapted by science: Tupinambis is a genus of tegus , arguably the best-known lizards of Brazil. The large offshore Tupi oil field discovered off the coast of Brazil in 2006 was named in honor of the Tupi people. The Guaraní are

630-455: Is known about early Guarani society and beliefs. They practiced a form of animistic pantheism , much of which has survived in the form of folklore and numerous myths . According to the Jesuit missionary Martin Dobrizhoffer , they practiced cannibalism at one point, perhaps as a funerary ritual, but later disposed of the dead in large jars placed inverted on the ground. Guarani mythology

700-471: Is now the State of Paraná , Southern Brazil, in 1585, by land from the west. Others soon followed, and a Jesuit college was established at Asunción. In 1608, as a result of the Jesuit protest against the enslavement of the indigenous population, King Philip III of Spain gave authority to the Jesuits to convert and colonize the tribes of Guayrá. In the early period, the name Paraguay was loosely used to designate

770-606: Is still widespread in rural Paraguay. Much Guarani myth and legend were compiled by the Universidad Nacional de Misiones in northern Argentina and published as Myths and Legends: A Journey around the Guarani Lands, Anthology in 1870 (translated into the English language in 1906). Guarani myth and legend can roughly be divided into the following broad categories: The Iguazu Falls , considered sacred by

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840-697: The Ara (bird) ") , Cagua , Maracay Mbarakaja'y (" kitten "), Aragua, Taguay, Yaguaratal, Caigua, Carapita, Yaguaracual, Taguapire, Carupano, Yaguaraparo , Carupe, Irapa Yrapa ("all streams"), Tabay Táva'í ("small town"), Uracoa, Aragüita, Tucupita Tuku pytã (" red lobster "), Guarapo, Chaguaramas Jaguaráma ("land of jaguars"), Tuja, Cuyagua, Chivacoa, Urucure Urukure'a (" Burrowing owl "), Mucuragua, Cuara, Tucani Tukã'í ("small toucan"), Jacuque, Churuguara , Tacuato Taguato ("Falcon"), Aguay, Paraguaná Peninsula Paragua na ("crown-like or crown-shaped"). Arakaka , Kariakay Karia'y kaysa ("barrier of

910-806: The Guapay , Parapetí , and Ɨtɨka Guasu (or Pilcomayo) River valleys. The Bolivian Guarani are represented by the Assembly of the Guarani People . Some Guarani placenames in Bolivia: Yacuiba , Paraimiri, Itaimbeguasu , Tatarenda, Saipurú, Capirenda, Itay, Ibamiragera, Carandaytí, Ipaguasú, Abapó , Timboy, Caraparí , Urubichá , Kuruguakua , Guanay , Yaguarú and Rogagua . There are three principal subgroups of Guarani in Bolivia, marked by dialectical and historical differences: Today,

980-620: The Mamelucos discovered a new line of attack from the south. In 1638, despite some successful resistance, all twelve of the missions beyond the Uruguay River were abandoned and their people consolidated with the community of the Missions Territory. In the last raid Father Alfaro was killed. In the same year Father Montoya, after having successfully opposed the attempts of the governor and the bishop of Asunción to reduce

1050-859: The Standard Paraguayan Guarani is flourishing in Paraguay and is taught in 12 countries; The growing Paraguayan immigration to Argentina has led to a cultural enhancement of the Guarani peoples in Argentina . It can also be seen in Spain , due to the intense Paraguayan immigration to Spain The language was also used by other tribes in regions like the Paraguayan Chaco and Northern Argentina . Darcy Ribeiro Darcy Ribeiro (October 26, 1922 – February 17, 1997)

1120-542: The Yí "), Balneario Iporá ("beautiful watering place"), El Ombú , Yacuy (Salto), Sarandí del Arapey Sarãndy del Árape'y (" bushes of the daily tasks river "), Sarandí Grande , Ituzaingó and Aiguá Guaran%C3%AD people The Guarani are a group of culturally-related indigenous peoples of South America . They are distinguished from the related Tupi by their use of the Guarani language . The traditional range of

1190-720: The market economy , Brazilian society gradually started to lose its Tupi characteristics. The Portuguese language became dominant and Língua Geral virtually disappeared. The rustic indigenous techniques of production were replaced by European ones, in order to elevate the capacity of exportation . Brazilian Portuguese absorbed many words from Tupi. Some examples of Portuguese words that came from Tupi are: mingau, mirim, soco, cutucar, tiquinho, perereca, tatu . The names of several local fauna – such as arara (" macaw "), jacaré ("South American alligator "), tucano (" toucan ") – and flora – e.g. mandioca (" manioc ") and abacaxi (" pineapple ") – are also derived from

1260-604: The Academy on April 15, 1993, by author Cândido Mendes . He died in Brasília, aged 74. Darcy Ribeiro's ideas belonged to the evolutionist school of sociology and anthropology, and his main influences were Neoevolutionists Leslie White and Julian Steward , and the Marxist archeologist V. Gordon Childe . He believed that people went through a "civilizatory process" beginning as hunter-gatherers . This "civilizatory process"

1330-668: The Andes and had a different history than most other Guarani people. Noted for their warlike character, the Chiriguanos were hostile in turn to the Inca Empire , the Spanish, and the independent state of Bolivia from the late 15th to the late 19th century. The Jesuit missions had little success among the Chiriguanos, although Franciscans in the 19th century attracted numerous converts. The Chririguanos were not finally pacified until

1400-562: The Brazilian Democratic Movement Party ( PMDB ). Ribeiro was defeated, being unable to overcome the high approval rating of Moreira who was elected due to the popularity of the then-recent currency reform, the Cruzado Plan (Plano Cruzado). Another defeat was in 1994, when he was Brizola's running-mate in the presidential election ; Darcy Ribeiro was also chief of staff (Ministro-chefe da Casa Civil) in

1470-470: The Company of Jesus know how to get along with us, and we with them, we are happy serving God and the King." The Guarani request was denied, but the letter highlights the value of the relationship the Jesuits and Guarani had established in the region. The missions were turned over to priests of other orders, chiefly Franciscans , but under a code of regulations drawn up by the viceroy and modeled largely on

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1540-460: The Guarani flocked there in such numbers that twelve more missions were created in rapid succession, containing all 40,000 Guaranis. The Jesuits were seen as intermediaries between the Spanish authorities and the Guarani caciques. The Jesuit missions needed new converts and required workers to assist in the maintenance of the missions. The Guarani helped grow the crops to sustain the missions' populations and also produce goods to sell and trade to fund

1610-485: The Guarani language, still widely spoken across traditional Guarani homelands, is one of the two official languages in Paraguay, the other one being Spanish. The Paraguayan population learns Guarani both informally from social interaction and formally in public schools. In modern Spanish, Guarani also refers to any Paraguayan national in the same way that the French are sometimes called Gauls . The history and meaning of

1680-596: The Guarani people is in what is now Paraguay between the Paraná River and lower Paraguay River , the Misiones Province of Argentina, southern Brazil once as far east as Rio de Janeiro, and parts of Uruguay and Bolivia. Although their demographic dominance of the region has been reduced by European colonisation and the commensurate rise of mestizos , there are contemporary Guarani populations in Paraguay and parts of Argentina and Bolivia. Most notably,

1750-402: The Guarani, hold special significance and are the inspiration for numerous myths and legends. They reveal the sound of ancient battles at certain times, they are also the place where I-Yara —a malign Pomboro spirit—abducted Angá —a fair maiden—and hid her. The swallows that inhabit the falls to this day vainly search for her. In 1537, Gonzalo de Mendoza traversed through Paraguay to about

1820-413: The Guarani. His departure left the Jesuits alone with their missionary work, and to defend the natives against slave dealers. The Jesuit provincial Torres arrived in 1607, and "immediately placed himself at the head of those who had opposed the cruelties at all times exercised over the natives". Today, the Guarani language is an official language of Paraguay and Bolivia. As of 2012, an estimated 90% of

1890-400: The Jesuit system. Under chaotic political regulation, the missions rapidly declined. Most Guaranis returned to the countryside. According to the official census of 1801, fewer than 45,000 Guaranis remained; cattle, sheep, and horses had disappeared; the fields and orchards were overgrown or cut down, and the churches were in ruins. The long period of revolutionary struggle that followed completed

1960-572: The San Antonio mission, set fire to the church and other buildings, killed those who resisted or were too young or too old to travel, and carried the rest into slavery. San Miguel and Jesus Maria quickly met the same fate. Eventually, reinforcements gathered by Father Cataldino drove off the slavers. Within two years, all but two of the establishments were destroyed, and 60,000 Christian converts were carried off for sale to São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro . The attacks usually took place on Sunday, when

2030-404: The Tupi language. A number of places and cities in modern Brazil are named in Tupi ( Itaquaquecetuba , Pindamonhangaba , Caruaru , Ipanema ). Anthroponyms include Ubirajara , Ubiratã , Moema , Jussara , Jurema , Janaína . Tupi surnames do exist, but they do not imply any real Tupi ancestry; rather they were adopted as a manner to display Brazilian nationalism. The Tupinambá tribe

2100-411: The Tupi population largely disappeared because of European diseases to which they had no resistance or because of slavery, a large population of maternal Tupi ancestry occupied much of Brazilian territory, taking the ancient traditions to several points of the country. Darcy Ribeiro wrote that the features of the first Brazilians were much more Tupi than Portuguese, and even the language that they spoke

2170-474: The Tupi warriors, even when prisoners, it was a great honor to die valiantly during battle or to display courage during the festivities leading to the sacrifice. The Tupi have also been documented to eat the remains of dead relatives as a form of honoring them. The practice of cannibalism among the Tupi was made famous in Europe by Hans Staden , a German soldier, mariner, and mercenary, traveling to Brazil to seek

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2240-503: The Tupi were found to be of use to the Portuguese, who required laborers for cultivating and shipping their exports. This use in harvesting resources led to their eventual enslavement and in turn, the spread of fatal European diseases on the plantations they worked at. This combination of factors nearly led to their complete annihilation, with the exception of a few isolated communities. The remnants of these tribes are today confined to indigenous territories or acculturated to some degree into

2310-536: The Tupinambá, "rather than dealing with an instance of serial documentation of cannibalism, we are more likely confronting only one source of dubious testimony which has been incorporated almost verbatim into the written reports of others claiming to be eyewitnesses". Most Brazilian scholars, however, attest to the cultural centrality of cannibalism in Tupian culture. Anthropologist Darcy Ribeiro who had deeply studied

2380-758: The brave") Iguapa Yguapa ("all coves") Cayenne , the francization of the name Kỹiña ("mean chili pepper" ) Paramaribo Parama ývo ("down the sea"). (Referring to the Caribbean Sea , since although Suriname is part of the Caribbean , it is near the Amazon Delta , in the South Atlantic Ocean). Buriticá Mburiti ka ("from Mauritia flexuosa "), Ituango , Apía , Ibagué yvakue ("fallen fruit or fruit peel"), Acuata, Arauca , Tibacuy, Mocoa, El Jagua, Iguambi, Itagüí ("from

2450-467: The cabinet of President João Goulart , vice-governor of Rio de Janeiro from 1983 to 1987 and exercised the mandate of senator from Rio de Janeiro from 1991 until his death. Darcy Ribeiro was elected to the Brazilian Academy of Letters (Academia Brasileira de Letras) on October 8, 1992. His election was to Chair Number 11, which has as its Patron Fagundes Varela . He was formally received into

2520-612: The defeat in 1892 of forces led by their messianic leader Apiaguaiki Tumpa in the Battle of Kuruyuki . Indigenous Guarani in Argentina fight to protect their ancestral lands from illegal logging and government neglect. A group formed by members of the Guarani community called "Los Rumberos," or “The Patrollers,” safeguard the forest to deter further encroachment. The Guarani people and culture persist. Many are descendants of mission exiles. In Paraguay , Guarani lineage predominates in

2590-508: The destruction. In 1814, the mission Indians numbered 8,000, and in 1848 the few who remained were declared citizens. A 2018 study in The Quarterly Journal of Economics found that "in areas of former Jesuit presence—within the Guarani area—educational attainment was higher and remains so (by 10–15%) 250 years later. These educational differences have also translated into incomes that are 10% higher today. The identification of

2660-615: The development of Brazil into their discourse, Darcy Ribeiro and Leonel Brizola had already developed these ideals. In the elections of 1986, Ribeiro was the Democratic Labor Party ( PDT ) candidate for the governorship of Rio de Janeiro, running against Fernando Gabeira (at that time affiliated with the Workers’ Party ), Agnaldo Timóteo of the Social Democratic Party ( PDS ) and Moreira Franco of

2730-422: The difficulties of spreading the missions and his interactions with the Guarani in his book The Spiritual Conquest . Ruiz de Montoya wrote that one of the Guarani caciques Miguel Artiguaye initially refused to join the missions until threatened by another Indigenous group. Artiguaye then returned to the mission and begged for protection. As the mission provided the only real possible protection against enslavement,

2800-456: The direction of anthropophagy being well established as a social and cultural practice. He was particularly criticized for trying to discredit the association of the Tupi with savagery, not by realizing that the Europeans failed to comprehend the meaning of traditional practices such as cannibalism, but by promptly negating their existence altogether. Many indigenous peoples were important for

2870-562: The dominant society. According to primary source accounts by primarily European writers, the Tupi were divided into several tribes which would constantly engage in war with each other. In these wars the Tupi would normally try to capture their enemies to kill later in cannibalistic rituals. The warriors captured from other Tupi tribes were eaten as it was believed by them that this would lead to their strength being absorbed and digested; thus, in fear of absorbing weakness, they chose only to sacrifice warriors perceived to be strong and brave. For

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2940-528: The entire river basin, including parts of what are now Uruguay, Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil. Exploring expeditions were accompanied by Franciscan friars . Early in the history of Asunción, Father Luis de Bolaños translated the catechism into the Guarani language and preached to Guarani people who resided in the area around the settlement. In 1588–89 St. Francis Solanus crossed the Chaco wilderness from Peru and stopped at Asunción, but gave no attention to

3010-493: The first Europeans arrived, the phenomenon of " cunhadismo " (from Portuguese cunhado , "brother in law") began to spread by the colony. Cunhadismo was an old native tradition of incorporating strangers to their community. The Natives offered the Portuguese an Indigenous girl as wife. Once he agreed, he formed a bond of kinship with all the Natives of the tribe. Polygyny , a common practice among South American Indigenous people,

3080-472: The formation of the Brazilian people, but the main group was the Tupi. When the Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil in the 16th century, the Tupi were the first indigenous group to have contact with them. Soon, a process of mixing between Portuguese settlers and indigenous women started. The Portuguese colonists rarely brought women, making the native women the "breeding matrix of the Brazilian people". When

3150-662: The founders of the University of Brasília in the early 1960s. He also served as the first rector of that university, and the campus is named after him. He was the founder of the State University of Norte Fluminense ( Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense ) as well. He wrote numerous books, many of them about the indigenous populations of Brazil. During the first mandate of governor Leonel Brizola in Rio de Janeiro (1983–1987), Darcy Ribeiro created, planned and directed

3220-698: The historical accounts about the Tupi, reported that the Ka'apor people of the Tupi-Guaraní linguistic and cultural family confirmed that their ancestors had practiced anthropophagical rituals similar to the ones described in the 16th century. Other Brazilian scholars have criticized Arens for what they perceived as historical negationism , and for ignoring important sources ( Jesuit letters) and historical and anthropological studies ( Viveiros de Castro , Florestan Fernandes , Estevão Pinto, Hélène Clastres), many of them dealing directly with indigenous peoples, that point to

3290-407: The implementation of the "Integrated Centers for Public Instruction" (Centros Integrados de Ensino Público), a visionary and revolutionary pedagogical project of assistance for children, including recreational and cultural activities beyond formal instruction – making concrete the projects envisioned decades earlier by Anísio Teixeira. Long before politicians incorporated the importance of education for

3360-528: The interior of Brazil. They acculturated the indigenous tribes who lived in isolation, and took the language of the colonizer, which was not Portuguese yet, but Nheengatu itself, to the most inhospitable corners of the colony. Nheengatu is still spoken in certain regions of the Amazon, although the Tupi-speaking Natives did not live there. The Nheengatu language, as in other regions of the country,

3430-436: The jungle". While the term Cayua is sometimes still used to refer to settlements of indigenous peoples who have not well integrated into the dominant society, the modern usage of the name Guarani is generally extended to include all people of native origin regardless of societal status. Barbara Ganson writes that the name Guarani was given by the Spanish since it means "warrior" in the Tupi-Guaraní dialect spoken there. Guarinĩ

3500-415: The missions, the fathers themselves led a Guarani army against the enemy. In 1732, at the time of their greatest prosperity, the Guarani missions were guarded by a well-drilled and well-equipped army of 7,000 Guaranis. On more than one occasion this mission army, accompanied by their priests, defended the Spanish colony. In 1732, there were 30 Guarani missions with 141,252 converted Guaranis. Two years later

3570-451: The missions. Stimulated by this success, Father González and two companions journeyed to the east bank of the Uruguay River (now the country of Uruguay) and established two or three small missions in 1627. The local tribes killed the priests and the neophytes and burned the missions. Slave raiders saw the Guarani missions as "merely an opportunity of capturing more Indians than usual at a haul". In 1629, an army of Paulistas surrounded

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3640-491: The name Guarani are subject to dispute. Before they encountered Europeans, the Guarani referred to themselves simply as Abá , meaning "men" or "people". The term Guarani was originally applied by early Jesuit missionaries to refer to natives who had accepted conversion to the Christian religion; Cayua or Caingua ( ka'aguygua ) was used to refer to those who had refused it. Cayua is roughly translated as "the ones from

3710-400: The natives' liberties and the mission administration, sailed for Europe. On this trip he was successful in obtaining letters from Pope Urban VIII forbidding the enslavement of the missionaries under the severest church penalties, and from King Philip IV of Spain , permitting Guaranis to carry firearms for defense and to be trained in their use by veteran soldiers who had become Jesuits. When

3780-519: The next Paulista army, 800 strong, attacked the missions in 1641 they were met by a body of Christian Guarani armed with guns on the Acaray River . In two battles, the Paulista army suffered a defeat that warded off invasions for ten years. In 1651, the war between Spain and Portugal encouraged another Paulista attack to gain territory for Portugal. Before Spanish troops could arrive to help defend

3850-467: The outcome of this decision, viceroy Antonio María Bucareli y Ursúa entrusted the execution of the mandate in 1768 to two officers with a force of 500 troops. Despite their mission army of 14,000, the Jesuits submitted without resistance. Guarani caciques from Mission San Luis wrote a letter to the Governor of Buenos Aires on February 28, 1768, to ask for the Jesuits to stay. They wrote, "The fathers of

3920-465: The people in Paraguay spoke Guarani. The center depot of the slave trade was the town of São Paulo . Originally a rendezvous place for Portuguese and Dutch pirates, it later became a refuge for criminals, who mixed with Native American and African women and actively participated in the capturing and selling of Guaranis as slaves. To oppose these armed and organized robbers, the tribes had only their bows and arrows. Many Guaranis were slain or enslaved by

3990-642: The population and the Guarani language is spoken in most departments to this day. The Eastern Bolivian Guarani , being one of many indigenous peoples in Bolivia , live in the Gran Chaco , near the Pilcomayo River , in southeastern Bolivia close to the Paraguayan and Argentine borders, including portions of Santa Cruz , Chuquisaca , Tarija Departments . This region reaches nearly as far north as Santa Cruz de la Sierra and includes portions of

4060-473: The positive effect of the Guarani Jesuit missions emerges after comparing them with abandoned Jesuit missions and neighboring Franciscan Guarani missions. The enduring effects observed are consistent with transmission mechanisms of structural transformation, occupational specialization, and technology adoption in agriculture." The Guarani people in Bolivia, called Chiriguanos, lived in the foothills of

4130-618: The present Brazilian frontier. On his return, he made acquaintance with the Guarani and founded the city of Asunción , later the capital of Paraguay. The first governor of the Spanish territory of Guayrá initiated a policy of intermarriage between European men and indigenous women; the descendants of these matches characterize the Paraguayan nation today. The Laws of the Indies forbade slavery in Hispanic America . The first two Jesuits , Father Barcena and Father Angulo, came to what

4200-561: The rocks"), Yacare, Teranguara, Chachagüí, Puente Aranda , Catambuco, Aguayo Ipetí ypetĩ ("duck's beak") El Aguay Aguai ("fruit tree") Urcuqui, Timbuyacu, Ambuquí, Timbiré Aguaytía Aguai'ty ("plantation of aguai"), Curiyaca, Imambari Yacuiba , Paraimiri, Itaimbeguasu , Tatarenda, Saipurú, Capirenda, Itay, Ibamiragera, Carandaytí, Ipaguasú, Abapó , Timboy, Caraparí , Urubichá , Kuruguakua , Guanay , Yaguarú and Rogagua . Tacuarembó , Pa'i Sandu , Chapicuy ("worn out"), Sarandí del Yí Sarãndy del Y (" bushes of

4270-529: The slave hunters active in Brazil during those years. In 1607, Spanish King Philip III sent a letter to the governor of Rio de Plata Hernandarias de Saavedra to instruct him to send the newly arrived Jesuits to begin their missionary work. With Spanish royal protection, the first Guayrá mission , Loreto , was established on the Paranapanema by Father Joseph Cataldino and Father Simon Macerata in 1610. The Jesuit priest Father Ruiz de Montoya discussed

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4340-475: The whole mission population was gathered for Mass . The priests were usually spared, but several were killed. Only a few thousand natives were left of nearly 100,000 just before the Paulista invasion. Father Antonio Ruiz de Montoya purchased 10,000 cattle, and was able to convert the natives from farmers to stock raisers. Soon under Fathers Rançoncier and Romero the Uruguay missions were re-established. In 1632

4410-534: Was a Brazilian anthropologist , historian , sociologist , author and politician. His ideas have influenced several scholars of Brazilian and Latin American studies. As Minister of Education of Brazil he carried out profound reforms which led him to be invited to participate in university reforms in Chile , Peru , Venezuela , Mexico and Uruguay after leaving Brazil due to the 1964 coup d'état . Darcy Ribeiro

4480-526: Was a Tupi-based language, named Nheengatu or Língua Geral , a lingua franca in Brazil until the 18th century. The region of São Paulo was the biggest in the proliferation of Mamelucos, who in the 17th century under the name of Bandeirantes , spread throughout the Brazilian territory, from the Amazon rainforest to the extreme South . They were responsible for the major expansion of the Iberian culture in

4550-4497: Was according to him marked by technological revolutions , and among these he stress the eight more important as the following: Ribeiro proposed also a classification scheme for the world peoples, emphasizing the American countries, where he identified "New Peoples" (Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Venezuela etc.), that merged from the mix of several cultures; "Witness Peoples" (Peru, Mexico, Ecuador, Guatemala etc), remnants of ancient civilizations; and "Transplanted Peoples" (USA, Canada, Argentina and Uruguay), European diasporas without significative other people influences. 1 ( Adelino Fontoura ): Luís Murat ► Afonso d'Escragnolle Taunay ► Ivan Monteiro de Barros Lins ► Bernardo Élis ► Evandro Lins e Silva ► Ana Maria Machado 2 ( Álvares de Azevedo ): Coelho Neto ► João Neves da Fontoura ► João Guimarães Rosa ► Mário Palmério ► Tarcísio Padilha ► Eduardo Giannetti da Fonseca 3 ( Artur de Oliveira ): Filinto de Almeida ► Roberto Simonsen ► Aníbal Freire da Fonseca ► Herberto Sales ► Carlos Heitor Cony ► Joaquim Falcão 4 ( Basílio da Gama ): Aluísio Azevedo ► Alcides Maia ► Viana Moog ► Carlos Nejar 5 ( Bernardo Guimarães ): Raimundo Correia ► Oswaldo Cruz ► Aloísio de Castro ► Cândido Mota Filho ► Rachel de Queiroz ► José Murilo de Carvalho ► Ailton Krenak 6 ( Casimiro de Abreu ): Teixeira de Melo ► Artur Jaceguai ► Goulart de Andrade ► Barbosa Lima Sobrinho ► Raimundo Faoro ► Cícero Sandroni 7 ( Castro Alves ): Valentim Magalhães ► Euclides da Cunha ► Afrânio Peixoto ► Afonso Pena Júnior ► Hermes Lima ► Pontes de Miranda ► Diná Silveira de Queirós ► Sérgio Correia da Costa ► Nelson Pereira dos Santos ► Cacá Diegues 8 ( Cláudio Manuel da Costa ): Alberto de Oliveira ► Oliveira Viana ► Austregésilo de Athayde ► Antônio Calado ► Antônio Olinto ► Cleonice Berardinelli ► Ricardo Cavaliere 9 ( Gonçalves de Magalhães ): Carlos Magalhães de Azeredo ► Marques Rebelo ► Carlos Chagas Filho ► Alberto da Costa e Silva ► Lilia Moritz Schwarcz 10 ( Evaristo da Veiga ): Rui Barbosa ► Laudelino Freire ► Osvaldo Orico ► Orígenes Lessa ► Lêdo Ivo ► Rosiska Darcy de Oliveira 11 ( Fagundes Varela ): Lúcio de Mendonça ► Pedro Augusto Carneiro Lessa ► Eduardo Ramos ► João Luís Alves ► Adelmar Tavares ► Deolindo Couto ► Darcy Ribeiro ► Celso Furtado ► Hélio Jaguaribe ► Ignácio de Loyola Brandão 12 ( França Júnior ): Urbano Duarte de Oliveira ► Antônio Augusto de Lima ► Vítor Viana ► José Carlos de Macedo Soares ► Abgar Renault ► Lucas Moreira Neves ► Alfredo Bosi ► Paulo Niemeyer Filho 13 ( Francisco Otaviano ): Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay ► Francisco de Castro ► Martins Júnior ► Sousa Bandeira ► Hélio Lobo ► Augusto Meyer ► Francisco de Assis Barbosa ► Sérgio Paulo Rouanet ► Ruy Castro 14 ( Franklin Távora ): Clóvis Beviláqua ► Antônio Carneiro Leão ► Fernando de Azevedo ► Miguel Reale ► Celso Lafer 15 ( Gonçalves Dias ): Olavo Bilac ► Amadeu Amaral ► Guilherme de Almeida ► Odilo Costa Filho ► Marcos Barbosa ► Fernando Bastos de Ávila ► Marco Lucchesi 16 ( Gregório de Matos ): Araripe Júnior ► Félix Pacheco ► Pedro Calmon ► Lygia Fagundes Telles ► Jorge Caldeira 17 ( Hipólito da Costa ): Sílvio Romero ► Osório Duque-Estrada ► Edgar Roquette-Pinto ► Álvaro Lins ► Antônio Houaiss ► Affonso Arinos de Mello Franco ► Fernanda Montenegro 18 ( João Francisco Lisboa ): José Veríssimo ► Barão Homem de Melo ► Alberto Faria ► Luís Carlos ► Pereira da Silva ► Peregrino Júnior ► Arnaldo Niskier 19 ( Joaquim Caetano ): Alcindo Guanabara ► Silvério Gomes Pimenta ► Gustavo Barroso ► Silva Melo ► Américo Jacobina Lacombe ► Marcos Almir Madeira ► Antônio Carlos Secchin 20 ( Joaquim Manuel de Macedo ): Salvador de Mendonça ► Emílio de Meneses ► Humberto de Campos ► Múcio Leão ► Aurélio de Lira Tavares ► Murilo Melo Filho ► Gilberto Gil 21 ( Joaquim Serra ): José do Patrocínio ► Mário de Alencar ► Olegário Mariano ► Álvaro Moreira ► Adonias Filho ► Dias Gomes ► Roberto Campos ► Paulo Coelho 22 ( José Bonifácio

4620-678: Was born in Montes Claros , in the state of Minas Gerais , the son of Reginaldo Ribeiro dos Santos and of Josefina Augusta da Silveira. He completed his primary and secondary education in his native town, at the Grupo Escolar Gonçalves Chaves and at the Ginásio Episcopal de Montes Claros. He is best known for development work in the areas of education, sociology and anthropology and for being, along with his friend and colleague Anísio Teixeira, one of

4690-419: Was formed, which in fact occupied Brazil. Without the practice of cunhadismo , the Portuguese colonization was impractical. The number of Portuguese men in Brazil was very small and Portuguese women were even fewer in number. The proliferation of mixed-race people in the wombs of indigenous women provided for the occupation of the territory and the consolidation of the Portuguese presence in the region. Although

4760-628: Was introduced there by Bandeirantes from São Paulo in the 17th century. The way of life of the Old Paulistas could almost be confused with the Natives. Within the family, only Nheengatu was spoken. Agriculture, hunting, fishing and gathering of fruits were also based on indigenous traditions. What differentiated the Old Paulistas from the Tupi was the use of clothes, salt, metal tools, weapons and other European items. When these areas of large Tupi influence started to be integrated into

4830-493: Was not a unified Tupi identity despite the fact that they spoke a common language. Upon discovering the existence of the Tupi people, it was assumed by Portuguese settlers that they lacked any sort of religion, a belief that began the process of assimilating the Tupi to Christianity. The settlers began erecting villages for the Tupi, known as aldeias, with the intention of more disciplined religious conversion and institutionalization of European customs. Aside from being assimilated,

4900-429: Was quickly adopted by European settlers. This way, a single European man could have dozens of indigenous wives ( temericós ). Cunhadismo was used as recruitment of labour. The Portuguese could have many temericós and thus a huge number of Indigenous relatives who were induced to work for him, especially to cut pau-brasil and take it to the ships on the coast. In the process, a large mixed-race ( mameluco ) population

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