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157-551: Tuscaloosa ( / ˌ t ʌ s k ə ˈ l uː s ə / TUS -kə- LOO -sə ) is a city in and the county seat of Tuscaloosa County in west-central Alabama , United States, on the Black Warrior River where the Gulf Coastal and Piedmont plains meet. Alabama's fifth-most populous city , the population was 99,600 at the 2020 census , and was estimated to be 111,338 in 2023. It was known as Tuskaloosa until

314-531: A Superior Court and Sheriff (as an officer of the court ), both located in a designated "shire town". Bennington County, Vermont has two shire towns; the court for "North Shire" is in the shire town Manchester , and the Sheriff for the county and court for "South Shire" are in the shire town Bennington. In 2024, Connecticut , which had not defined their counties for anything but statistical, historical and weather warning purposes since 1960, along with ending

471-558: A territory . On December 13, 1819, the territorial legislature incorporated the town of Tuskaloosa, one day before Congress admitted Alabama to the Union as a U.S. state. From 1826 to 1846, Tuskaloosa was the capital of Alabama. The State House was built at the corner of 6th Street and 28th Avenue (now the site of Capitol Park). In 1831, the University of Alabama was established and the town's population and economy grew rapidly, but

628-614: A white American way of life as proposed by George Washington and Henry Knox was gaining momentum, especially among the Cherokee and Choctaw. American settlers had been pressuring the federal government to remove Indians from the Southeast; many settlers were encroaching on Indian lands, while others wanted more land made available to the settlers. Although the effort was vehemently opposed by some, including U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett of Tennessee , President Andrew Jackson

785-750: A Choctaw chief referred to their trek as a " trail of tears and death ". The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the Lake Providence swamps. Alexis de Tocqueville , the French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee , in 1831: In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't watch without feeling one's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil but somber and taciturn. There

942-548: A Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles. Other war chiefs such as Halleck Tustenuggee , Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse continued

1099-410: A county seat may be an independent city surrounded by, but not part of, the county of which it is the administrative center; for example, Fairfax City is both the county seat of Fairfax County, Virginia and completely surrounded by Fairfax County, but the city is politically independent of the county. When the county seat is in the independent city, government offices such as the courthouse may be in

1256-532: A dollar a head (equal to $ 28.61 today) to cross the river on "Berry's Ferry" which typically charged twelve cents, equal to $ 3.43 today. They were not allowed passage until the ferry had serviced all others wishing to cross and were forced to take shelter under "Mantle Rock", a shelter bluff on the Kentucky side, until "Berry had nothing better to do". Many died huddled together at Mantle Rock waiting to cross. Several Cherokee were murdered by locals. The Cherokee filed

1413-410: A female householder with no husband present, and 46.0% were non-families. 35.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.93. In the city, 19.8% of the population was under the age of 18, 24.5% was from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 18.5% from 45 to 64, and 11.8%

1570-409: A female householder with no husband present, and 51.4% were non-families. 35.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.95. In the city, 17.4% of the population was under the age of 18, 31.9% was from 18 to 24, 22.0% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 9.8%

1727-523: A land exchange treaty with the Cherokee. After this, Jackson's political opponents Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams , who supported the Worcester decision, became outraged by Jackson's alleged refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. Author and political activist Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an account of Cherokee assimilation into the American culture, declaring his support of

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1884-642: A lawsuit against the U.S. Government through the courthouse in Vienna , suing the government for $ 35 a head (equal to $ 1,001.44 today) to bury the murdered Cherokee. As they crossed southern Illinois, on December 26, Martin Davis, commissary agent for Moses Daniel's detachment, wrote: There is the coldest weather in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere. The streams are all frozen over something like 8 or 12 inches [20 or 30 cm] thick. We are compelled to cut through

2041-399: A man who believed creating fear in the native population was more desirable than cultivating friendship". In a message to Congress on the eve of Indian Removal, December 6, 1830, Jackson wrote that removal "will relieve the whole State of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama of Indian occupancy, and enable those States to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power. It will separate

2198-631: A prison ministry. St. Gregory the Theologian Eastern Orthodox Church is the only Orthodox church in West Alabama. Its congregation is made up of Russians, Greeks, Romanians, Arabs, Eastern Europeans, and converts to Eastern Christianity. Some of the oldest churches in Tuscaloosa are St. John's Roman Catholic Church (founded c. 1845), Christ Episcopal Church (c. 1828), and First Baptist Church (c. 1818). Tuscaloosa

2355-597: A sculpture known as The Walkway. According to the Tuscaloosa200.com website, the Walkway is a "replica of the route of the Black Warrior River from Demopolis to Tuscaloosa, it traces milestones in our city's existence and survival, but its twists and turns, ebbs and flows have mirrored our city's past." It was created by sculptor and architect Craig R. Wedderspoon. A hermetically sealed time capsule

2512-415: A year, and to or below 20 °F (−7 °C) on 4.4 days. While rain is abundant (January and February are on average the wettest months), measurable snowfall is rare, with most years receiving none and the average seasonal snowfall amounting to 0.7 inches (1.8 cm). Spring usually lasts from late-February to mid-May, becoming drier as the season progresses. Summers last from mid-May to mid-September, and

2669-620: Is also a Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses. Although higher education is the bedrock of Tuscaloosa's economy, it has diverse sectors of manufacturing and service. 25% of the labor force in the Tuscaloosa Metropolitan Statistical Area is employed by the federal, state and local governments; 16.7% in manufacturing; 16.4% in retail trade and transportation; 11.6% in finance, information, and private enterprise; 10.3% in mining and construction; and 9.2% in hospitality. Education and healthcare account for 7.2% of

2826-583: Is also home to many non-Christians as well. A Jewish community worships at the Chabad of Tuscaloosa as well as at Temple Emanu-El and the Hillel B'nai B'rith Center, both located on the University of Alabama campus. The Hindu Mandir Temple and Cultural Center is also found in Tuscaloosa. Muslims comprise a small percentage of the population and worship at an Islamic center located near the university campus. There

2983-466: Is associated with Andrew Jackson's famous, though apocryphal, quote "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!" In reality, this quote did not appear until 30 years after the incident and was first printed in a textbook authored by Jackson critic Horace Greeley . Fearing open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, Jackson decided not to enforce Cherokee claims against

3140-529: Is consequently convectional , i.e., caused by the warm surface heating the air above. Severe thunderstorms can bring damaging winds, large hail, and occasionally tornadoes. An F4 tornado struck Tuscaloosa County in December 2000, killing eleven people. Tuscaloosa was struck by an F2 tornado in January 1997 , which resulted in the death of one person. In April 2011, two tornadoes in a span of twelve days hit

3297-409: Is known as the seat of its county. Generally, the county legislature, county courthouse, sheriff's department headquarters, hall of records, jail and correctional facility are located in the county seat, though some functions (such as highway maintenance, which usually requires a large garage for vehicles, along with asphalt and salt storage facilities) may also be located or conducted in other parts of

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3454-500: Is land and 10.07 square miles (26.1 km), is water as of 2023. Most water within the city limits is in Lake Tuscaloosa , which is entirely in the city limits, and the Black Warrior River . This city is located at 33°12′35″N 87°34′09″W  /  33.20972°N 87.56917°W  / 33.20972; -87.56917 (33.2098407, -87.5691735), approximately 60 miles (97 km) southwest of Birmingham . It lies on

3611-582: The Beijing Games . Reportedly the name Tuscaloosa is a compound Choctaw Indian word; "tusko" meaning "warrior" and "loosa" meaning "black". The Black Warrior River flows through the north portion of the city. In 1809 Creek chief Occechemolta established a settlement at the falls of the River. (US-T125/Alabama: A Guide to the Deep South/p 244). County seat of Tuscaloosa County 1818 to 1822 and 1826 to

3768-848: The Brandywine , the Reindeer , the Talma , and the Cleopatra ) would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations. The Memphis group traveled up the Arkansas for about 60 miles (100 km) to Arkansas Post. There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock. When they reached Little Rock,

3925-522: The Creek reservation and become part of the Creek nation, who considered them deserters ; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but also from other Indian nations. Those among the nation who once were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the main band of Creek Indians. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect

4082-572: The Dade Massacre . As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the War Department for the loan of 500 muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call . Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured

4239-718: The Foster Auditorium entrance at The University of Alabama in what became known as the Stand in the Schoolhouse Door in an attempt to stop desegregation of that institution by the enrollment of two African-American students, Vivian Malone and James Hood . He had created a challenge to federal orders, when confronted by US Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and federal marshals sent in by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy , Wallace stepped aside. President John F. Kennedy had supported integration of

4396-686: The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and the removed Choctaws became the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma . The U.S. acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams–Onís Treaty and took possession in 1821. In 1832 the Seminoles were called to a meeting at Payne's Landing on the Ocklawaha River . The Treaty of Payne's Landing called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on

4553-794: The Mississippi River after the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. The Cherokee removal in 1838 was the last forced removal east of the Mississippi and was brought on by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia , in 1828, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush . The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their newly designated Indian reserve. Thousands died from disease before reaching their destinations or shortly after. A variety of scholars have classified

4710-609: The Mississippi River , but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people. There were significant changes in gender relations within the Cherokee Nation during the implementation of the Indian Removal Act during the 1830s. Cherokee historically operated on a matrilineal kinship system , where children belonged to the clan of their mother and their only relatives were those who could be traced through her. In addition to being matrilineal, Cherokees were also matrilocal. According to

4867-652: The Treaty of Fort Jackson signaled the end for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South. Friendly Creek leaders, like Shelocta and Big Warrior, addressed Sharp Knife (the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson) and reminded him that they keep the peace. Nevertheless, Jackson retorted that they did not "cut ( Tecumseh 's) throat" when they had the chance, so they must now cede Creek lands. Jackson also ignored Article 9 of

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5024-537: The Treaty of Ghent that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations. Jackson opened this first peace session by faintly acknowledging the help of the friendly Creeks. That done, he turned to the Red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil counsel. For their crime, he said, the entire Creek Nation must pay. He demanded the equivalent of all expenses incurred by the United States in prosecuting

5181-518: The Treaty of New Echota , on December 29, 1835, which granted the Cherokee two years to move to Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma). The Chickasaws and Choctaws had readily accepted and signed treaties with the U.S. government, while the Creeks did so under coercion. The negotiation of the Treaty of New Echota was largely encouraged by Jackson, and it was signed by a minority Cherokee political faction,

5338-509: The War of 1812 and the Treaty of Fort Jackson and the subsequent availability of land previously settled by Native Americans . A small assortment of log cabins soon arose near the large Creek village at the fall line of the river, which the new settlers named in honor of the sixteenth-century Chief Tuskaloosa of a Muskogean -speaking tribe—combining the Choctaw words "tushka" or "tashka" ("warrior") and "lusa" ("black"). In 1817, Alabama became

5495-481: The Worcester decision. At the time, members of individual Indian nations were not considered United States citizens . While citizenship tests existed for Indians living in newly annexed areas before and after forced relocation, individual U.S. states did not recognize the Indian nations' land claims, only individual title under State law, and distinguished between the rights of white and non-white citizens, who often had limited standing in court; and Indian removal

5652-607: The fall line of the Black Warrior River, approximately 193 miles (311 km) upriver from the river's confluence with the Tombigbee River at Demopolis . Because of its location on the boundary between the Appalachian Highland and the Gulf Coastal Plain, the geography of the area around Tuscaloosa is diverse, varying from heavily forested hills to the northeast to a low-lying, marshy plain to

5809-419: The jet stream . Notable exceptions occur during hurricane season , where storms may move from due south to due north or even from east to west during land-falling hurricanes. The interaction between low- and high-pressure air masses is most pronounced during the severe weather seasons in the spring and fall. During the summer, the jet stream flows well to the north of the southeastern U.S., and most precipitation

5966-665: The " Five Civilized Tribes " between 1830 and 1850, and the additional thousands of Native Americans and their enslaved African Americans within that were ethnically cleansed by the United States government . As part of Indian removal , members of the Cherokee , Muscogee , Seminole , Chickasaw , and Choctaw nations were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to newly designated Indian Territory west of

6123-701: The "Hostilities of the Seminoles", assigned all the blame for the violence that came from the Seminole's resistance to the Seminoles themselves. The article accuses the Indians of not staying true to their word—the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Indian Removal Act. After the War of 1812, some Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh and Chief Shelocta signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia. The 1814 signing of

6280-512: The American Woman's Educational Association Catherine Beecher and politician Davy Crockett . Historian Francis Paul Prucha , on the other hand, writes that these assessments were put forward by Jackson's political opponents and that Jackson had benevolent intentions. According to him, Jackson's critics have been too harsh, if not wrong. He states that Jackson never developed a doctrinaire anti-Indian attitude and that his dominant goal

6437-500: The COVID-19 pandemic. The Census Bureau accepted the review, bringing the official 2020 Tuscaloosa population count to over 100,000 residents. As of the 2010 census , there were 90,468 people, 36,185 households, and 17,592 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,502.8 inhabitants per square mile (580.2/km). There were 40,842 housing units at an average density of 678.4 per square mile (261.9/km). The racial makeup of

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6594-582: The Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia , in 1829, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush , the second gold rush in U.S. history. Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure mounted to fulfill the Compact of 1802 in which the US Government promised to extinguish Indian land claims in the state of Georgia. When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee lands in 1830,

6751-593: The Cherokee in 1838. Some managed to evade the removals, however, and remained in their ancestral homelands; some Choctaw still reside in Mississippi, Creek in Alabama and Florida, Cherokee in North Carolina , and Seminole in Florida. A small group of Seminole, fewer than 500, evaded forced removal; the modern Seminole Nation of Florida is descended from these individuals. A number of non-Indians who lived with

6908-518: The Cherokee were not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore not entitled to a hearing before the court. In the years after the Indian Removal Act, the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the state of Georgia. Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court, the most influential being Worcester v. Georgia (1832). Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were convicted by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in

7065-606: The Cherokees to sign a removal treaty. The final treaty, passed in Congress by a single vote, and signed by President Andrew Jackson , was imposed by his successor President Martin Van Buren . Van Buren allowed Georgia , Tennessee , North Carolina , and Alabama an armed force of 7,000 militiamen, army regulars, and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about 13,000 Cherokees to Cleveland, Tennessee . After

7222-649: The Choctaws and the Creeks. Once in Indian Territory , the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation. By 1838, about 2,000 Cherokee had voluntarily relocated from Georgia to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma). Forcible removals began in May 1838 when General Winfield Scott received a final order from President Martin Van Buren to relocate the remaining Cherokees. Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died in

7379-408: The Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory , there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta

7536-620: The Everglades after the Seminole Wars. As a result of the Seminole Wars, the surviving Seminole band of the Everglades claims to be the only federally recognized Indian nation which never relinquished sovereignty or signed a peace treaty with the United States. In general the American people tended to view the Indian resistance as unwarranted. An article published by the Virginia Enquirer on January 26, 1836, called

7693-641: The Gulf Coast seaport of Mobile . This stimulated the economy and trade, and mining and metallurgical industries were developed in the region. By the onset of the 20th century, the growth of the University of Alabama and the mental health-care facilities in the city, along with a strong national economy, fueled a steady growth in Tuscaloosa which continued unabated for 100 years. In the post World War II era, African Americans increased their activism to ensure their constitutional civil rights and challenged southern segregation in numerous ways. In 1952, Autherine Lucy

7850-495: The Indian Removal Act of 1830 it continued into 1835 and after as in 1836 over 15,000 Creeks were driven from their land for the last time. 3,500 of those 15,000 Creeks did not survive the trip to Oklahoma where they eventually settled. The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836, the Chickasaws had reached an agreement to purchase land from

8007-584: The Indian Territory. They had already been under pressure from new settlers encroaching on their territory. Most Muscogee-speaking peoples were removed to Indian Territory during the Trail of Tears in 1834, although some remained behind. Some Muscogee in Alabama live near Poarch Creek Reservation in Atmore (northeast of Mobile ). The pace of European settlement in the Southeast increased greatly after

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8164-464: The Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites." In this way, Sturgis has argued that Jackson demarcated the Indian population as an "obstacle" to national success. Sturgis writes that Jackson's removal policies were met with pushback from respectable social figures and that "many leaders of Jacksonian reform movements were particularly disturbed by U.S policy toward American Indians". Among these opponents were women's advocate and founder of

8321-512: The July daily average temperature is 81.7 °F (27.6 °C). There are 71–72 days of 90 °F (32 °C)+ highs annually and 3.5 days of 100 °F (38 °C)+ highs. The latter part of summer tends to be drier. Autumn, which spans from mid-September to early December, tends to be similar to spring in terms of temperature and precipitation. Due to its relative distance from the Gulf moderation,

8478-447: The Mississippi, all of them forcing land cessions, including removals". In a speech regarding Indian removal, Jackson said, It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, under

8635-444: The R-Class Grand Sport Tourer in 2005. From 2006–2015 it produced the GL-Class vehicles; and since 1998 and 2015 respectively, has produced the GLS-Class and GLE-CLASS . Plants that supply components to Mercedes-Benz are also in the area. County seat In Canada , the provinces of Ontario , Quebec , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , and Nova Scotia have counties as an administrative division of government below

8792-523: The Seminole resistance against the army. The war ended, after a full decade of fighting, in 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent about $ 20,000,000 on the war, ($ 631,448,276 today). Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left fewer than 500 Seminoles in peace. Other scholars state that at least several hundred Seminoles remained in

8949-442: The Senate ratified the treaty in March 1836, and the Treaty of New Echota thus became the legal basis for the Trail of Tears. Only a fraction of the Cherokees left voluntarily. The U.S. government, with assistance from state militias, forced most of the remaining Cherokees west in 1838. The Cherokees were temporarily remanded in camps in eastern Tennessee. In November, the Cherokee were broken into groups of around 1,000 each and began

9106-448: The Trail of Tears as an example of the genocide of Native Americans ; others categorize it as ethnic cleansing . In 1830, a group of Indian nations collectively referred to as the " Five Civilized Tribes " (the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole nations), were living autonomously in what would later be termed the American Deep South . The process of cultural transformation from their traditional way of life towards

9263-410: The Treaty Party, led by Cherokee leader Elias Boudinot . However, the treaty was opposed by most of the Cherokee people, as it was not approved by the Cherokee National Council, and it was not signed by Principal Chief John Ross . The Cherokee National Council submitted a petition, signed by thousands of Cherokee citizens, urging Congress to void the agreement in February 1836. Despite this opposition,

9420-430: The Tuscaloosa Regional Airport was 107 °F (42 °C) on July 29, 1952 and August 10, 2007, and the lowest recorded temperature was −1 °F (−18 °C) on January 21, 1985 . As of the 2020 census , there were 99,600 people, 40,817 households, and 19,203 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,609.1 inhabitants per square mile (621.3/km) There were 47,465 housing units. The racial makeup of

9577-425: The US National Weather Service at 190 mph (310 km/h). Officials at DCH Regional Medical alone reported treating more than 1,000 injured people in the tornado aftermath. Officials reported dozens of unaccompanied minors being admitted for treatment at the hospital, raising questions about the possible loss of their parents. Several were taken to pediatric trauma wards, indicating serious injuries. Referring to

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9734-403: The United States after the destruction of the village of Roanoke, Georgia, located along the Chattahoochee River on the boundary between Creek and American territory, in May 1836. During the so-called " Creek War of 1836 " Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. With

9891-498: The United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty. The chief of the Choctaw nation, George W. Harkins , wrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence: It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well-improved minds would not be well entertained by

10048-830: The United States, followed by Towson , the county seat of Baltimore County, Maryland . Likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey , though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township , an incorporated municipality. In some states, often those that were among the original Thirteen Colonies , county seats include or formerly included "Court House" as part of their name, such as Spotsylvania Courthouse, Virginia . Most counties have only one county seat. However, some counties in Alabama , Arkansas , Georgia , Iowa , Kentucky , Massachusetts , Mississippi , Missouri , New Hampshire , New York , and Vermont have two or more county seats, usually located on opposite sides of

10205-477: The United States, were subject to continual cession and annexation, in part due to pressure from squatters and the threat of military force in the newly declared U.S. territories —federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Indian treaty claims. As these territories became U.S. states , state governments sought to dissolve the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders, which were independent of state jurisdiction, and to expropriate

10362-428: The University of Alabama as well. On June 9, 1964, in an event that later became known as Bloody Tuesday , a group of African-American Civil rights marchers were beaten, arrested and tear-gassed by police in Tuscaloosa while walking from the First African Baptist Church to the County Courthouse to protest against the segregated restrooms and drinking fountains of this public facility. Thirty-three people were sent to

10519-404: The University of Alabama held a delayed graduation ceremony for the class of 2011. It awarded posthumous degrees to six students who died in the tornado. The cable channel ESPN filmed a tribute in memory of the devastation. The city of Tuscaloosa celebrated its 200th birthday on December 13, 2019 with city officials holding various dedications and commemorative events throughout the city, including

10676-400: The University of Alabama remains the city's dominant economic and cultural engine, making it a college town . City leaders adopted the moniker "The City of Champions" after the Alabama Crimson Tide football team won the College Football National Championship in their 2009 , 2011 , 2012 , 2015 , 2017 and 2020 seasons. In 2008, Tuscaloosa hosted the USA Olympic Triathlon trials for

10833-418: The War, the campus of the university was burned in a battle. The larger town was also damaged in the battle, and its White population suffered economically. Its Black population was emancipated from slavery. In the 1890s the construction of a system of locks and dams on the Black Warrior River by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers improved navigation to such an extent that Tuscaloosa was effectively connected to

10990-494: The address of a Choctaw. But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have thought proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free, than live under the degrading influence of laws, which our voice could not be heard in their formation. United States Secretary of War Lewis Cass appointed George Gaines to manage

11147-414: The affected states, with more than 20% of the damage cost resulting from the tornado that struck Tuscaloosa. In the immediate aftermath of the tornado, thousands of rescue workers dug through the wreckage looking for survivors and recovering bodies. More than 450 persons were originally listed as missing in the post-disaster chaos, leading to fears that the death toll could climb rapidly and skepticism about

11304-405: The annual temperature range averages 84 °F (47 °C) between a summer high of 100 °F (38 °C) and a winter low of 16 °F (−9 °C). The 1991–2020 normals had the warmest summer night averaging 77 °F (25 °C) and the coldest winter day at 35 °F (2 °C). Ice days are very infrequent, but tend to occur a few times per decade. The highest recorded temperature at

11461-425: The annulment of a ratified treaty." However, Governor George Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over." Although

11618-667: The area's workforce, with the remainder employed in other services. The city's industrial and manufacturing base includes BFGoodrich Tire Manufacturing , GAF Materials Corporation , Hunt Refining Company , JVC America , Nucor Steel and Phifer Wire. A significant contributor to the city's economy is the Mercedes-Benz U.S. International assembly plant near Vance in Tuscaloosa County, 20 miles (32 km) east of downtown Tuscaloosa, which employs approximately 4,400 (as of 2020). It opened in 1995 and began assembling

11775-478: The city was 47.85% White, 41.03% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 2.36% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, and 2.64% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 5.46% of the population. In 2023, the City of Tuscaloosa secured an updated count for the 2020 Census, after proving an undercount of at least 1,100 University of Alabama Students who were residing temporarily off-campus due to

11932-405: The city was 53.8% White , 41.5% Black or African American , 0.2% Native American , 1.8% Asian , 0.0% Pacific Islander , 1.5% from other races , and 1.1% from two or more races. 3.0% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 36,185 households, out of which 20.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.5% were married couples living together, 16.2% had

12089-413: The city was 54.09% White , 42.73% Black or African American , 0.16% Native American , 1.49% Asian , 0.02% Pacific Islander , 0.63% from other races , and 0.87% from two or more races. 1.40% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 31,381 households, out of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.0% were married couples living together, 15.7% had

12246-457: The city, the first being an EF3 on April 15 , and the second and more devastating being an EF4 on April 27 , when more than 50 deaths resulted. The city suffered considerable infrastructure damage. Winter lasts from mid-December to late-February; the daily average temperature in January is 44.7 °F (7.1 °C). On average, the low temperature falls to the freezing mark or below on 46 days

12403-584: The city. First Baptist Church, Calvary Baptist Church, Alberta Baptist Church, Emmanuel Baptist Church, and First African Baptist Church are five of the many Baptist churches in Tuscaloosa. Holy Cross Lutheran Church is a church reflecting on the Evangelical Lutheran community of Tuscaloosa. There is the Unitarian Universalist Congregation of Tuscaloosa. The University Church of Christ has both a campus ministry and

12560-520: The common association of Andrew Jackson and the Trail of Tears, ideas for Removal began prior to Jackson's presidency. Ostler explains, "A singular focus on Jackson obscures the fact that he did not invent the idea of removal…Months after the passage of the Removal Act, Jackson described the legislation as the 'happy consummation' of a policy 'pursued for nearly 30 years ' ". James Fenimore Cooper

12717-526: The counties after his unification, there were about 1,000. Under the Eastern Han dynasty , the number of counties increased to above 1,000. About 1400 existed when the Sui dynasty abolished the commandery level (郡 jùn), which was the level just above counties, and demoted some commanderies to counties. In Imperial China, the county was a significant administrative unit because it marked the lowest level of

12874-418: The county, especially if it is geographically large. A county seat is usually an incorporated municipality . The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia , where the county seat is the entire county. Ellicott City , the county seat of Howard County, Maryland , is the largest unincorporated county seat in

13031-420: The county. Examples include Harrison County, Mississippi , which has both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats, and Hinds County, Mississippi , which has both Raymond and the state capital of Jackson . The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult. There have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of civic pride for

13188-404: The damaged areas. Obama pledged the full resources of the federal government toward aiding the recovery efforts. Bentley—himself a Tuscaloosa native—pledged additional national guard troops. Tuscaloosa Mayor Walt Maddox announced that he was requesting 500 additional National Guard troops and calling for more volunteer aid workers and cadaver teams for the recovery of bodies, in order to prevent

13345-401: The devastating Joplin, Missouri tornado of May 22. The tornado was part of the 2011 Super Outbreak that affected large parts of the eastern United States and was the largest tornado outbreak ever recorded. In total, 324 people were killed by tornadoes during the outbreak, including 238 in Alabama alone. The tornadoes and other severe weather combined for over $ 10 billion in damage throughout

13502-452: The displaying of a "bicentennial quilt" and a fireworks display following the 44th Annual West Alabama Christmas Parade, which was dedicated to the city's birthday. The University of Alabama gave two sculptures to the city, one of a 30 foot-tall, 9,500-pound statue of the Roman goddess Minerva —designed by local artist Caleb O'Connor—at Manderson Landing park along the Black Warrior River , and

13659-579: The early 20th century. It is also known as "the Druid City" because of the numerous water oaks planted in its downtown streets since the 1840s. Incorporated on December 13, 1819, it was named after Tuskaloosa , the chief of a band of Muskogean -speaking people defeated by the forces of Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto in 1540 in the Battle of Mabila , in what is now central Alabama. It served as Alabama's capital city from 1826 to 1846, where in 1846 it

13816-475: The ensuing trek to Oklahoma. In the Cherokee language , the event is called nu na da ul tsun yi ("the place where they cried") or nu na hi du na tlo hi lu i (the trail where they cried). The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota , an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which exchanged Indian land in the East for lands west of

13973-551: The events leading to removal, a variety of fraudulent schemes designed to cheat the Creeks out of their allotments, many of them organized by speculators operating out of Columbus, Georgia and Montgomery, Alabama, were perpetrated after the signing of the Treaty of Cusseta. A portion of the beleaguered Creeks, many desperately poor and feeling abused and oppressed by their American neighbors, struck back by carrying out occasional raids on area farms and committing other isolated acts of violence. Escalating tensions erupted into open war with

14130-468: The existing lands. The law also gave the president power to pay for transportation costs to the West, should the nations willingly choose to relocate. The law did not, however, allow the president to force Indian nations to move west without a mutually agreed-upon treaty. Referring to the Indian Removal Act, Martin Van Buren, Jackson's vice president and successor, is quoted as saying "There was no measure, in

14287-469: The extent and severity of the damage, Mayor Walter Maddox stated that "we have neighborhoods that have been basically removed from the map." The same tornado later went on to cause major damage in the Birmingham area. In all, the cost of damage from the tornado amounted to $ 2.45 billion, making it, at the time, the costliest tornado in U.S. history, though it would be surpassed less than a month later by

14444-429: The first Black admitted to a White public school or university in the state. During her first day of class on February 6, students and others rioted on the campus, where a mob of more than a thousand students pelted the car in which she was taken to her classes. Death threats were made against her, and the university president's home was stoned. The riots were the most violent involving a pro-segregation demonstration since

14601-420: The hospital for treatment of injuries, and 94 were arrested. The events were not witnessed by outside journalists and had little influence outside the local community. James Hood dropped out of the University of Alabama after two months. He later returned, and in 1997, received his Ph.D. in interdisciplinary studies . Malone persisted in her studies at the time and became the first Black American to graduate from

14758-461: The ice to get water for ourselves and animals. It snows here every two or three days at the fartherest. We are now camped in Mississippi [River] swamp 4 miles (6 km) from the river, and there is no possible chance of crossing the river for the numerous quantity of ice that comes floating down the river every day. We have only traveled 65 miles (105 km) on the last month, including the time spent at this place, which has been about three weeks. It

14915-476: The idea that they had found an undeveloped 'wilderness" when they arrived" in an attempt to appeal to white American values by participating in the settler colonial process themselves. Other Indian nations, such as the Quapaws and Osages had moved to Indian Territory before the "Five Tribes" and saw them as intruders. Before 1838, the fixed boundaries of these autonomous Indian nations , comprising large areas of

15072-424: The imperial bureaucratic structure; in other words, it was the lowest level that the government reached. Government below the county level was often undertaken through informal non-bureaucratic means, varying between dynasties. The head of a county was the magistrate , who oversaw both the day-to-day operations of the county as well as civil and criminal cases. The current number of counties mostly resembled that of

15229-585: The increase of Han Chinese population in Taiwan, the number of counties also grew by time. By the end of Qing era, there were 11 counties in Taiwan. Protestant missionaries in China first romanized the term as hien . When Taiwan became a Japanese colony in 1895, the hierarchy of divisions also incorporated into the Japanese system in the period when Taiwan was under Japanese rule. By September 1945, Taiwan

15386-625: The independent city under an agreement, such as in Albemarle , or may in be enclaves of the county surrounded by the independent city, such as in Fairfax . Others, such as Prince William , have the courthouse in an enclave surrounded by the independent city and have the county government, the Board of Supervisors, in a different part of the county, far from the county seat. The following counties have their county seat in an independent city: Bedford

15543-464: The initial removal efforts. The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died". The Choctaws in Mississippi were later reformed as

15700-500: The initial roundup, the U.S. military oversaw the emigration to Oklahoma. Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement. Most of the deaths during the journey were caused by disease, malnutrition, and exposure during an unusually cold winter. In the winter of 1838 the Cherokee began the 1,000-mile (1,600 km) march with scant clothing and most on foot without shoes or moccasins. The march began in Red Clay, Tennessee ,

15857-408: The journey west. They endured heavy rains, snow, and freezing temperatures. When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, they exchanged all their land east of the Mississippi for land in modern Oklahoma and a $ 5 million payment from the federal government. Many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership accepted the deal, and over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to prevent the passage of

16014-403: The land therein. These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of slavery in the South, with the rapid development of cotton cultivation in the uplands after the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney . Many people of the southeastern Indian nations had become economically integrated into the economy of the region. This included the plantation economy and

16171-594: The landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision. After the riots, the university suspended Lucy from school, stating her own safety was a concern; it later expelled her on a technicality. She was active in civil rights for a time, but withdrew later that year. Decades later, after her expulsion was annulled by the university in 1988, Lucy re-enrolled and completed her M.S. in Education and graduated, together with her daughter, in 1992. On June 11, 1963, George Wallace , governor of Alabama, stood in front of

16328-758: The later years of the Qing dynasty . Changes of location and names of counties in Chinese history have been a major field of research in Chinese historical geography, especially from the 1960s to the 1980s. There are 1,355 counties in Mainland China out of a total of 2,851 county-level divisions. In Taiwan , the first counties were first established in 1661 by the Kingdom of Tungning . The later ruler Qing empire inherited this type of administrative divisions. With

16485-530: The limits of the States they must be subject to their laws. In return for their obedience as individuals they will without doubt be protected in the enjoyment of those possessions which they have improved by their industry". The prioritization of American Indian removal and his violent past created a sense of restlessness among U.S. territories. During his presidency, "the United States made eighty-six treaties with twenty-six American Indian nations between New York and

16642-476: The location of the last Eastern capital of the Cherokee Nation. Because of the diseases, the Indians were not allowed to go into any towns or villages along the way; many times this meant traveling much farther to go around them. After crossing Tennessee and Kentucky, they arrived at the Ohio River across from Golconda in southern Illinois about the 3rd of December 1838. Here the starving Indians were charged

16799-681: The matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court . In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the Marshall court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government—not state governments—had authority in Indian affairs. Worcester v Georgia

16956-513: The nations, including over 4,000 slaves and others of African descent such as spouses or Freedmen , also accompanied the Indians on the trek westward. By 1837, 46,000 Indians from the southeastern states had been removed from their homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km ) for white settlement. When the "Five Tribes" arrived in Indian Territory, "they followed their physical appropriation of Plains Indians' land with an erasure of their predecessor's history", and "perpetuated

17113-502: The nativized settler, his adopted son ... Cooper had much to do with creating the US origin myth to which generations of historians have dedicated themselves, fortifying what historian Francis Jennings has described as "exclusion from the process of formation of American society and culture". Although Jackson was not the sole, or original, architect of Removal policy, his contributions were influential in its trajectory. Jackson's support for

17270-633: The naturalist William Bartram, "Marriage gives no right to the husband over the property of his wife; and when they part, she keeps the children and property belonging to them." In this way, the typical Cherokee family was structured in a way where the wife held possession to the property, house, and children. However, during the 1820s and 1830s, "Cherokees [began adopting] the Anglo-American concept of power—a political system dominated by wealthy, highly acculturated men and supported by an ideology that made women … subordinate". The Treaty of New Echota

17427-456: The new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832. After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, 1833, that the new land was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have

17584-550: The policy of his predecessors of treating different Indian groups as separate nations. Instead, he aggressively pursued plans to move all Indian tribes living east of the Mississippi River. Following Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act , in 1832 the Creek National Council signed the Treaty of Cusseta , ceding their remaining lands east of the Mississippi to the U.S., and accepting relocation to

17741-586: The population were below the poverty line , including 25.3% of those under age 18 and 13.4% of those age 65 or over. The city of Tuscaloosa is home to many places of worship to which people from the surrounding area of West Alabama may come; the predominant denomination is Southern Baptist. Holy Spirit Roman Catholic Church is one of three Catholic churches. First Presbyterian Church is the place of worship for many American and German residents in Tuscaloosa. There are also Presbyterian Church in America congregations in

17898-419: The population were below the poverty line , including 32.5% of those under age 18 and 12.4% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2000 census , there were 77,906 people, 31,381 households, and 16,945 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,385.2 inhabitants per square mile (534.8/km). There were 34,857 housing units at an average density of 619.8 per square mile (239.3/km). The racial makeup of

18055-531: The possession of slaves, who were also forcibly relocated during the removal. Prior to Jackson's presidency, removal policy was already in place and justified by the myth of the " Vanishing Indian ". Historian Jeffrey Ostler explains that "Scholars have exposed how the discourse of the vanishing Indian was an ideology that made declining Indigenous American populations seem to be an inevitable consequence of natural processes and so allowed Americans to evade moral responsibility for their destructive choices". Despite

18212-590: The power to decide for all the Indian nations and bands that resided on the reservation. The villages in the area of the Apalachicola River were more easily persuaded, however, and went west in 1834. On December 28, 1835, a group of Seminoles and blacks ambushed a U.S. Army company marching from Fort Brooke in Tampa to Fort King in Ocala , killing all but three of the 110 army troops. This came to be known as

18369-444: The present. State capital from 1826 to 1846. In 1828, Andrew Jackson was elected president of the United States. He had gained popularity when he defeated the Creek at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, following victories in the War of 1812. He long proposed Indian removal to an Indian Territory to be established west of the Mississippi, to make land available in the Southeast for European-American settlement. Jackson abandoned

18526-443: The previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five-year debate. They paid the Choctaws $ 530,000 (equal to $ 14,700,000 today) for the westernmost part of the Choctaw land. The first group of Chickasaws moved in 1837 and was led by John M. Millard. The Chickasaws gathered at Memphis on July 4, 1837, with all of their assets—belongings, livestock, and slaves. Once across the Mississippi River, they followed routes previously established by

18683-468: The protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community. The removals, conducted under both Presidents Jackson and Van Buren , followed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which provided the president with powers to exchange land with Indian nations and provide infrastructure improvements on

18840-775: The provincial level, and thus county seats. In the provinces of Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia the term "shire town" is used in place of county seat. County seats in China are the administrative centers of the counties in the People's Republic of China . Xian have existed since the Warring States period and were set up nationwide by the Qin dynasty . The number of counties in China proper gradually increased from dynasty to dynasty. As Qin Shi Huang reorganized

18997-491: The relatively low fatality figures in relation to the high number of casualties. Rumors abounded that refrigerated trucks were being brought to store unidentified remains, and that countless bodies were beneath area waters. But the fatality figure did not increase (and was later reduced). Most persons listed as missing were later found to have survived. During this period, The Tuscaloosa News posted an on-line people finder to aid people to find each other, as well as determine who

19154-685: The relocation of the capital to Montgomery caused a severe decline. The state legislature established Alabama State Hospital for the Insane (now Bryce Hospital ) in Tuskaloosa in the 1850s, which helped restore the city's fortunes. During the Civil War following Alabama's secession from the Union, several thousand men from Tuscaloosa fought in the Confederate armies. During the last weeks of

19311-469: The remaining country to the United States and was ratified in early 1831. The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain. The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government. President Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined. The treaty provided that

19468-460: The removal of the Indians began at least a decade before his presidency. Indian removal was Jackson's top legislative priority upon taking office. After being elected president, he wrote in his first address to Congress: "The emigration should be voluntary, for it would be as cruel as unjust to compel the aborigines to abandon the graves of their fathers and seek a home in a distant land. But they should be distinctly informed that if they remain within

19625-547: The removals. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in November 1831 and ending in 1833. The first groups met at Memphis and Vicksburg, where a harsh winter battered the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow. Initially, the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats (the Walter Scott ,

19782-711: The role of women changed dramatically within Cherokee Nation following colonial encroachment. For instance, Cherokee women played a significant role in the negotiation of land transactions as late as 1785, where they spoke at a treaty conference held at Hopewell, South Carolina to clarify and extend land cessions stemming from Cherokee support of the British in the American Revolution. The sparsely inhabited Cherokee lands were highly attractive to Georgian farmers experiencing population pressure, and illegal settlements resulted. Long-simmering tensions between Georgia and

19939-532: The southeastern United States from their traditional homelands. The establishment of the Indian Territory and the extinguishing of Indian land claims east of the Mississippi by the Indian Removal Act anticipated the U.S. Indian reservation system, which was imposed on remaining Indian lands later in the 19th century. The statutory argument for Indian sovereignty persisted until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), that

20096-602: The southwest. Major areas of Tuscaloosa city proper include: Typical of the Deep South , Tuscaloosa experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa ). The Gulf of Mexico heavily influences the climate by supplying the region with warm, moist air . During the fall , winter, and spring seasons, the interaction of this warm, moist air with cooler, drier air from the North along fronts creates precipitation. These fronts usually move from west to east as they track along

20253-553: The spread of disease. The New York Yankees organization contributed $ 500,000 to the American Red Cross and Salvation Army to aid in recovery efforts, and the Atlanta Braves organization donated $ 100,000. Actor Charlie Sheen visited the city to pay his respects on May 2 and donated supplies for relief efforts, along with several other actors, musicians and athletes. Due to the disaster, on August 6, 2011,

20410-564: The state of Georgia without a license. Worcester was sentenced to prison for four years and appealed the ruling, arguing that this sentence violated treaties made between Indian nations and the United States federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands. The Court ruled in Worcester's favor, declaring that the Cherokee Nation was subject only to federal law and that the Supremacy Clause barred legislative interference by

20567-457: The state of Georgia. Chief Justice Marshall argued, "The Cherokee nation, then, is a distinct community occupying its own territory in which the laws of Georgia can have no force. The whole intercourse between the United States and this Nation, is, by our constitution and laws, vested in the government of the United States." The Court did not ask federal marshals to carry out the decision. Worcester thus imposed no obligations on Jackson; there

20724-428: The state of Georgia. He was already embroiled in a constitutional crisis with South Carolina (i.e. the nullification crisis ) and favored Cherokee relocation over civil war. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on

20881-777: The state's area, has no borough government or borough seat. One borough, the Lake and Peninsula Borough , has its borough seat located in another borough, namely King Salmon in Bristol Bay Borough . In Louisiana , which is divided into parishes rather than counties, county seats are referred to as "parish seats". In New England , counties have served mainly as dividing lines for the states' judicial systems. Rhode Island has no county level of government and thus no county seats, and Massachusetts has dissolved many but not all of its county governments. In Vermont , Massachusetts , and Maine county government consists only of

21038-416: The towns involved, along with providing employment opportunities. There are 33 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states: Alaska is divided into boroughs rather than counties; the county seat in these case is referred to as the "borough seat"; this includes six consolidated city-borough governments (one of which is styled as a "municipality"). The Unorganized Borough, Alaska , which covers 49% of

21195-406: The treaty. By the end of the decade in 1840, tens of thousands of Cherokee and other Indian nations had been removed from their land east of the Mississippi River. The Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chicksaw were also relocated under the Indian Removal Act of 1830. One Choctaw leader portrayed the removal as "A Trail of Tears and Deaths", a devastating event that removed most of the Indian population of

21352-519: The university dedicated the home of the College of Education as Autherine Lucy Hall. On April 27, 2011, Tuscaloosa was hit by a 1.5 mi (2.4 km) wide EF4 tornado that resulted in 64 deaths, more than 1500 injuries, and massive devastation. Most of the deaths, 44, were in Tuscaloosa alone, with the rest being in Birmingham and surrounding suburbs. The tornado's top winds were estimated by

21509-481: The university. In 2000, the university granted her an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters. Later in his life, Governor Wallace apologized for his opposition at that time to racial integration . In 2010, the university formally honored Lucy, Hood and Malone by renaming the plaza in front of Foster Auditorium as Malone-Hood Plaza and erecting the Autherine Lucy Clock Tower in the plaza. In 2022,

21666-624: The use of county seats in particular, will fully transition with the permission of the United States Census Bureau to a system of councils of government for the purposes of boundary definition and as county equivalents. Two counties in South Dakota , Oglala Lakota and Todd , have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county. Their county-level services are provided by Fall River County and Tripp County , respectively. In Virginia ,

21823-471: The war, which by his calculation came to 23,000,000 acres (93,000 km ) of land. Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense . Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs , which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia. After the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh

21980-593: The whole course of [Jackson's] administration, of which he was more exclusively the author than this." According to historian Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, Jackson's intentions were outwardly violent. Dunbar-Ortiz claims that Jackson believed in "bleeding enemies to give them their senses" on his quest to "serve the goal of U.S. expansion". According to her, American Indians presented an obstacle to the fulfillment of Manifest Destiny, in his mind. Throughout his military career, according to historian Amy H. Sturgis , "Jackson earned and emphasized his reputation as an 'Indian fighter',

22137-429: Was 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $ 31,874, and the median income for a family was $ 49,588. Males had a median income of $ 36,231 versus $ 30,552 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 21,042. About 17.0% of families and 29.8% of

22294-427: Was 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $ 27,731, and the median income for a family was $ 41,753. Males had a median income of $ 31,614 versus $ 24,507 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 19,129. About 14.2% of families and 23.6% of

22451-544: Was able to gain Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the government to extinguish any Indian title to land claims in the Southeast. In 1831, the Choctaw became the first Nation to be removed, and their removal served as the model for all future relocations. After two wars , many Seminoles were removed in 1832. The Creek removal followed in 1834, the Chickasaw in 1837, and lastly

22608-524: Was admitted to the university as a graduate student, but her admission was rescinded when authorities discovered she was not White. After three years of legal wrangling, Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP got a court order preventing the university from banning Lucy and another student based on race. The following year, Lucy enrolled as a graduate student in Library Science on February 3, 1956, becoming

22765-467: Was also a key component of the maintenance of the "vanishing Indian" myth. This vanishing narrative can be seen as existing prior to the Trail of Tears through Cooper's novel The Last of the Mohicans . Scholar and author Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz shows that: Cooper has the last of the 'noble' and 'pure' Natives die off as nature would have it, with the 'last Mohican' handing the continent over to Hawkeye,

22922-430: Was an independent city from 1968 to 2013, while also being the county seat of Bedford County . Bedford reverted to an incorporated town, and remains the county seat, though is now part of the county. The state with the most counties is Texas, with 254, and the state with the fewest counties is Delaware, with 3. Trail of Tears The Trail of Tears was the forced displacement of approximately 60,000 people of

23079-468: Was assassinated on April 30, 1825, by Creeks led by Menawa. The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola , protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually, the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826) . The historian R. Douglas Hurt wrote: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again—achieve

23236-405: Was buried under a large boulder near the boat house near Manderson Landing; the time capsule is intended to capture "What was life like in Tuscaloosa during the year 2019?" and is set to be opened on December 13, 2069, the city's 250th birthday. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 72.22 square miles (187.0 km), of which 62.15 square miles (161.0 km)

23393-482: Was carried out under U.S. military jurisdiction, often by state militias. As a result, individual Indians who could prove U.S. citizenship were nevertheless displaced from newly annexed areas. The Choctaw nation resided in large portions of what are now the U.S. states of Alabama , Mississippi , and Louisiana . After a series of treaties starting in 1801, the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11 million acres (45,000 km ). The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ceded

23550-573: Was divided into 8 prefectures ( 州 and 廳 ), which remained after the Republic of China took over. There are 13 county seats in Taiwan, which function as county-administered cities , urban townships , or rural townships . In most of the United States , a county is an administrative or political subdivision of a state that consists of a geographic area with specific boundaries and usually some level of governmental authority. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government

23707-423: Was largely signed by men. While women were present at the rump council negotiating the treaty, they did not have a seat at the table to participate in the proceedings. Historian Theda Perdue explains that "Cherokee women met in their own councils to discuss their own opinions" despite not being able to participate. The inability for women to join in on the negotiation and signing of the Treaty of New Echota shows how

23864-682: Was moved to its present location in Montgomery . Tuscaloosa is the regional center of industry, commerce, healthcare and education for the area of west-central Alabama known as West Alabama. It is the principal city of the Tuscaloosa Metropolitan Statistical Area , which includes Tuscaloosa, Hale and Pickens counties. It is the home of the University of Alabama , Stillman College and Shelton State Community College . While it attracted international attention when Mercedes-Benz announced on September 30, 1993 that it would build its first North American automotive assembly plant in Tuscaloosa County,

24021-512: Was nothing for him to enforce, although Jackson's' political enemies conspired to find evidence, to be used in the forthcoming political election , to claim that he would refuse to enforce the Worcester decision. He feared that enforcement would lead to open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, which would compound the ongoing crisis in South Carolina and lead to a broader civil war. Instead, he vigorously negotiated

24178-544: Was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We ... watch the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples. Nearly 17,000 Choctaws made the move to what would be called Indian Territory and then later Oklahoma . About 2,500–6,000 died along the trail of tears. Approximately 5,000–6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after

24335-541: Was signed on March 24, 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments. Creeks could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. The Creeks were never given a fair chance to comply with the terms of the treaty, however. Rampant illegal settlement of their lands by Americans continued unabated with federal and state authorities unable or unwilling to do much to halt it. Further, as recently detailed by historian Billy Winn in his thorough chronicle of

24492-475: Was still missing. Two days after the storm, U.S. President Barack Obama and Alabama Governor Robert Bentley and their spouses, Michelle Obama and Diane Bentley, respectively, accompanied Mayor Maddox on a tour of the damage and the recovery efforts, along with FEMA Administrator Craig Fugate and several Congressional dignitaries. Remarking about the scale and severity of the damage, Obama said, "I've never seen devastation like this, it's heartbreaking", after touring

24649-483: Was to preserve the security and well-being of the United States and its Indian and white inhabitants. Corroborating Prucha's interpretation, historian Robert V. Remini argues that Jackson never intended the "monstrous result" of his policy. Remini argues further that had Jackson not orchestrated the removal of the " Five Civilized Tribes " from their ancestral homelands, they would have been totally wiped out. Jackson chose to continue with Indian removal, and negotiated

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