172-608: U-boats were naval submarines operated by Germany, particularly in the First and Second World Wars . The term is an anglicized version of the German word U-Boot [ˈuːboːt] , a shortening of Unterseeboot (under-sea boat), though the German term refers to any submarine . Austro-Hungarian Navy submarines were also known as U-boats. U-boats are most known for their unrestricted submarine warfare in both world wars , trying to disrupt merchant traffic towards
344-790: A Nordenfelt design, followed in 1890. In 1903, the Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel completed the first fully functional German-built submarine, Forelle , which Krupp sold to Russia during the Russo-Japanese War in April 1904. At the beginning of the century, the German commander of the Navy Alfred von Tirpitz was building the High Seas Fleet with which he intended to challenge
516-420: A cruise missile ); and covert insertion of frogmen or special forces . Their civilian uses include: marine science ; salvage ; exploration; and facility inspection and maintenance. Submarines can be modified for specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions and undersea cable repair. They are also used in the tourism industry and in undersea archaeology . Modern deep-diving submarines derive from
688-487: A generic trademark . It is sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage. Kerosene is widely used to power jet engines of aircraft ( jet fuel ), as well as some rocket engines in a highly refined form called RP-1 . It is also commonly used as a cooking and lighting fuel, and for fire toys such as poi . In parts of Asia, kerosene is sometimes used as fuel for small outboard motors or even motorcycles . World total kerosene consumption for all purposes
860-726: A German navy boat. Between 1910 and 1912 twenty-three diesel U-boats were ordered. At the start of World War I in 1914, Germany had 48 submarines of 13 classes in service or under construction. During that war, the Imperial German Navy used SM U-1 for training. Retired in 1919, she remains on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. During 1914, the U-boats operated against the British fleet: on 5 September 1914,
1032-465: A Navy that could act as a deterrent. Hitler wanted to invoke the escape clause of the naval agreement and to have 70,000 tons of submarines. Between May 1938 and January 1939, Raeder ordered 52 more U-boats to be completed by 1942: In 1939, the ambitious Plan Z was launched. It called for the construction of a German Navy capable of challenging the Royal Navy. The plan included 249 U-boats for
1204-475: A United States patent for the same invention. These patents were subsequently upheld in both countries in a series of lawsuits, and other producers were obliged to pay him royalties. In 1851, Samuel Martin Kier began selling lamp oil to local miners, under the name "Carbon Oil". He distilled this from crude oil by a process of his own invention. He also invented a new lamp to burn his product. He has been dubbed
1376-407: A carrying capacity of 50 to 100 passengers. In a typical operation a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area and loads them into the submarine. The submarine then visits underwater points of interest such as natural or artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of collision the location of the submarine is marked with an air release and movement to the surface
1548-549: A double hull and a single torpedo tube. It used an electric motor powered by batteries for submerged propulsion and a Körting kerosene engine for charging the batteries and propulsion on the surface. The 50%-larger SM U-2 (commissioned in 1908) had two torpedo tubes. Because speed and range were severely limited underwater while running on battery power, U-boats were required to spend most of their time surfaced, running on fuel engines, diving only when attacked or for torpedo strikes. The more ship-like hull design reflects
1720-622: A great deal of public excitement and investment drilling in new wells, not only in Pennsylvania, but also in Canada, where petroleum had been discovered at Oil Springs, Ontario in 1858, and southern Poland, where Ignacy Łukasiewicz had been distilling lamp oil from petroleum seeps since 1852. The increased supply of petroleum allowed oil refiners to entirely side-step the oil-from-coal patents of both Young and Gesner, and produce illuminating oil from petroleum without paying royalties to anyone. As
1892-475: A hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person. It was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. In 1800, France built Nautilus , a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert Fulton . They gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did
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#17327660615412064-515: A heat source during power failures. Kerosene is widely used in Japan and Chile as a home heating fuel for portable and installed kerosene heaters. In Chile and Japan, kerosene can be readily bought at any filling station or be delivered to homes in some cases. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, kerosene is often used as a heating fuel in areas not connected to a gas pipeline network. It
2236-455: A kerosene engine which was safer than gasoline and more powerful than steam , but the white exhaust of the kerosene betrayed the presence of the U-boats, robbing them of their primary asset, their stealth. Diesel engines did not have that disadvantage, but a powerful and reliable diesel engine was still under development. Finally the U-19 class of 1912–13 had the first diesel engine installed in
2408-497: A kerosene-based fuel, is used by the United States military as a replacement in diesel fueled vehicles and for powering aircraft. JP-8 is also used by the U.S. military and its NATO allies as a fuel for heaters, stoves, tanks, and as a replacement for diesel fuel in the engines of nearly all tactical ground vehicles and electrical generators. Aliphatic kerosene is a type of kerosene which has a low aromatic hydrocarbon content,
2580-463: A lack of testing. The magnetic detonator was sensitive to mechanical oscillations during the torpedo run, and to fluctuations in the Earth's magnetic field at high latitudes. These early magnetic detonators were eventually phased out. The depth-keeping problem remained problematic, not until January 1942 was the last fault discovered by accident: when ventilating the onboard torpedoes during maintenance, it
2752-540: A laxative. Paraffin wax is a waxy solid extracted from petroleum. To prevent confusion between kerosene and the much more flammable and volatile gasoline (petrol) , some jurisdictions regulate markings or colourings for containers used to store or dispense kerosene. For example, in the United States, Pennsylvania requires that portable containers used at retail service stations for kerosene be colored blue, as opposed to red (for gasoline ) or yellow (for diesel ). The World Health Organization considers kerosene to be
2924-434: A local petroleum seep . Many people knew of his work, but paid little attention to it. On the night of 31 July 1853, doctors at the local hospital needed to perform an emergency operation, virtually impossible by candlelight. They therefore sent a messenger for Łukasiewicz and his new lamps. The lamp burned so brightly and cleanly that the hospital officials ordered several lamps plus a large supply of fuel. Łukasiewicz realized
3096-540: A major political and environmental consequence. The Indian government subsidizes the fuel to keep the price very low, to around 15 U.S. cents per liter as of February 2007, as lower prices discourage dismantling of forests for cooking fuel. In Nigeria an attempt by the government to remove a fuel subsidy that includes kerosene met with strong opposition. Kerosene is used as a fuel in portable stoves , especially in Primus stoves invented in 1892. Portable kerosene stoves earn
3268-520: A more balanced expansion of the submarine fleet: Twenty-one of these twenty-three U-boats were commissioned before the start of World War II. In 1937, Britain announced it would expand its submarine fleet from 52,700 to 70,000 tons. Again, Raeder decided that the extra 7,785 tons would be divided between medium and large U-boats: During 1938, Hitler changed his attitude towards Britain. Whilst he still hoped that Britain would not interfere in his foreign policy, it became clear to him that he needed
3440-458: A much better light than a simple wick-type lamp does. Recently, a multipurpose lantern that doubles as a cook stove has been introduced in India in areas with no electricity. In countries such as Nigeria, kerosene is the main fuel used for cooking, especially by the poor, and kerosene stoves have replaced traditional wood-based cooking appliances. As such, increase in the price of kerosene can have
3612-805: A naturally occurring asphaltum called albertite . He was blocked from using it by the New Brunswick coal conglomerate because they had coal extraction rights for the province, and he lost a court case when their experts claimed albertite was a form of coal. In 1854, Gesner moved to Newtown Creek , Long Island , New York . There, he secured backing from a group of businessmen. They formed the North American Gas Light Company, to which he assigned his patents. Despite clear priority of discovery, Gesner did not obtain his first kerosene patent until 1854, two years after James Young 's United States patent. Gesner's method of purifying
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#17327660615413784-636: A noun it generally refers to a vessel that can travel underwater. The term is a contraction of submarine boat . and occurs as such in several languages, e.g. French ( sous-marin ), and Spanish ( submarino ), although others retain the original term, such as Dutch ( Onderzeeboot ), German ( Unterseeboot ), Swedish ( Undervattensbåt ), and Russian ( подводная лодка : podvodnaya lodka ), all of which mean 'submarine boat'. By naval tradition , submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships , regardless of their size. Although referred to informally as boats , U.S. submarines employ
3956-418: A number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named paraffine oil because at low temperatures, it congealed into a substance that resembled paraffin wax. Young took out a patent on his process and the resulting products in 1850, and built the first truly commercial oil-works in the world at Bathgate in 1851, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal. In 1852, he took out
4128-507: A pivotal time in submarine development, and several important technologies appeared. A number of nations built and used submarines. Diesel electric propulsion became the dominant power system and equipment such as the periscope became standardized. Countries conducted many experiments on effective tactics and weapons for submarines, which led to their large impact in World War I . The first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion
4300-440: A polluting fuel and recommends that "governments and practitioners immediately stop promoting its household use". Kerosene smoke contains high levels of harmful particulate matter , and household use of kerosene is associated with higher risks of cancer , respiratory infections, asthma , tuberculosis , cataracts , and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Kerosene is a low- viscosity , clear liquid formed from hydrocarbons obtained from
4472-415: A preset distance, then traveled in either a circular or ladder-like pattern through the convoy lanes. This increased the probability of a hit. The torpedo had one setting to regulate the length of the prerun, after which one of four other possible settings kicked in and made the torpedo zigzag towards either left or right and either on short (1200 m) or long (1900 m) legs. When fired, the firing U-boat sent out
4644-505: A public demonstration in Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island of a new process he had discovered. He heated coal in a retort , and distilled from it a clear, thin fluid that he showed made an excellent lamp fuel. He coined the name "kerosene" for his fuel, a contraction of keroselaion , meaning wax-oil . The cost of extracting kerosene from coal was high. Gesner recalled from his extensive knowledge of New Brunswick 's geology
4816-438: A reputation of reliable and durable stove in everyday use, and perform especially well under adverse conditions. In outdoor activities and mountaineering, a decisive advantage of pressurized kerosene stoves over gas cartridge stoves is their particularly high thermal output and their ability to operate at very low temperature in winter or at high altitude. Wick stoves like Perfection's or wickless like Boss continue to be used by
4988-436: A result, the illuminating oil industry in the United States completely switched over to petroleum in the 1860s. The petroleum-based illuminating oil was widely sold as Kerosene, and the trade name soon lost its proprietary status, and became the lower-case generic product "kerosene". Because Gesner's original Kerosene had been also known as "coal oil", generic kerosene from petroleum was commonly called "coal oil" in some parts of
5160-847: A single torpedo , in 1885. A reliable means of propulsion for the submerged vessel was only made possible in the 1880s with the advent of the necessary electric battery technology. The first electrically powered boats were built by Isaac Peral y Caballero in Spain (who built Peral ), Dupuy de Lôme (who built Gymnote ) and Gustave Zédé (who built Sirène ) in France, and James Franklin Waddington (who built Porpoise ) in England. Peral's design featured torpedoes and other systems that later became standard in submarines. Commissioned in June 1900,
5332-478: A spar as a torpedo charge. The Hunley also sank. The explosion's shock waves may have killed its crew instantly, preventing them from pumping the bilge or propelling the submarine. In 1866, Sub Marine Explorer was the first submarine to successfully dive, cruise underwater, and resurface under the crew's control. The design by German American Julius H. Kroehl (in German, Kröhl ) incorporated elements that are still used in modern submarines. In 1866, Flach
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5504-447: A submarine lies in its ability to remain concealed in the depths of the ocean. Early submarines could be detected by the sound they made. Water is an excellent conductor of sound (much better than air), and submarines can detect and track comparatively noisy surface ships from long distances. Modern submarines are built with an emphasis on stealth . Advanced propeller designs, extensive sound-reducing insulation, and special machinery help
5676-422: A submarine remain as quiet as ambient ocean noise, making them difficult to detect. It takes specialized technology to find and attack modern submarines. Active sonar uses the reflection of sound emitted from the search equipment to detect submarines. It has been used since WWII by surface ships, submarines and aircraft (via dropped buoys and helicopter "dipping" arrays), but it reveals the emitter's position, and
5848-550: A successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally maneuvering target using techniques which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British submarines were lost, the majority, forty-two, in the Mediterranean. The first launch of a cruise missile ( SSM-N-8 Regulus ) from a submarine occurred in July 1953, from the deck of USS Tunny , a World War II fleet boat modified to carry
6020-691: A test dive while at its operational limit, and USS Scorpion due to unknown causes. During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 , the Pakistan Navy 's Hangor sank the Indian frigate INS Khukri . This was the first sinking by a submarine since World War II. During the same war, Ghazi , a Tench -class submarine on loan to Pakistan from the US, was sunk by the Indian Navy . It
6192-808: A total of 11,108,865 tons and the loss of about 15,000 sailors. The Pour le Mérite , the highest decoration for gallantry for officers, was awarded to 29 U-boat commanders. Twelve U-boat crewmen were decorated with the Goldenes Militär-Verdienst-Kreuz , the highest bravery award for noncommissioned officers and enlisted men. The most successful U-boat commanders of World War I were Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière (189 merchant vessels and two gunboats with 446,708 tons), followed by Walter Forstmann (149 ships with 391,607 tons), and Max Valentiner (144 ships with 299,482 tons). Their records have not been surpassed in any subsequent conflict. The Treaty of Versailles ending World War I signed at
6364-468: A total of 200,000 tons. But when World War II broke out only months after the plan was announced, only a handful of the planned U-boats ended up being built. When World War II started, Germany had 56 U-boats commissioned, of which 46 were operational and only 22 had enough range for Atlantic operations, the other 24 were limited to operations on the North Sea . Compared to their World War I equivalents,
6536-479: A total of 74 submarines, though of mixed effectiveness. In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history. The U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel–electric power system developed in
6708-589: A warning to the other U-boats in the vicinity so these could dive to avoid being hit by the random running torpedo. The FAT torpedo became available end of 1942 and was in regular use during the convoy battles of March 1943. Germany also developed acoustic homing torpedoes. In February 1943 the first acoustic torpedo, the T4 "Falke", was tested on a small scale with moderate success, but this torpedo could only be used against large, slow ships. The acoustic torpedo ran straight to an arming distance of 1000 m and then turned toward
6880-567: A wide range of types and capabilities. They range from small, autonomous examples, such as one- or two-person subs that operate for a few hours, to vessels that can remain submerged for six months, such as the Russian Typhoon class , (the biggest submarines ever built). Submarines can work at depths that are greater than what is practicable (or even survivable) for human divers . The word submarine means 'underwater' or 'under-sea' (as in submarine canyon , submarine pipeline ) though as
7052-543: Is a custom-blended fuel used by the New York City Transit Authority to power its bus fleet. The transit agency started using this fuel in 2004, prior to the widespread adoption of ultra-low-sulfur diesel , which has since become the standard. In 2008, the suppliers of the custom fuel failed to tender for a renewal of the transit agency's contract, leading to a negotiated contract at a significantly increased cost. JP-8 (for "Jet Propellant 8"),
U-boat - Misplaced Pages Continue
7224-910: Is also sometimes used historically or informally to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots , or to medium-sized or smaller vessels (such as the midget submarine and the wet sub ). Submarines are referred to as boats rather than ships regardless of their size. Although experimental submarines had been built earlier, submarine design took off during the 19th century, and submarines were adopted by several navies. They were first used widely during World War I (1914–1918), and are now used in many navies , large and small. Their military uses include: attacking enemy surface ships (merchant and military) or other submarines; aircraft carrier protection; blockade running ; nuclear deterrence ; stealth operations in denied areas when gathering intelligence and doing reconnaissance ; denying or influencing enemy movements; conventional land attacks (for example, launching
7396-584: Is common in the majority of Asia and the Southeastern United States , although in Appalachia , it is also commonly referred to as " coal oil ". Confusingly, the name "paraffin" is also used to refer to a number of distinct petroleum byproducts other than kerosene. For instance, liquid paraffin (called mineral oil in the US) is a more viscous and highly refined product which is used as
7568-508: Is commonly used in metal extraction as the diluent, for example in copper extraction by LIX-84 it can be used in mixer settlers. Kerosene is used as a diluent in the PUREX extraction process, but it is increasingly being supplanted by dodecane and other artificial hydrocarbons such as TPH (Hydrogenated Propylene Trimer). Traditionally the UK plants at Sellafield used aromatic kerosene to reduce
7740-417: Is coordinated by an observer in a support craft. Kerosene Kerosene , or paraffin , is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum . It is widely used as a fuel in aviation as well as households. Its name derives from κηρός ( kērós ) meaning " wax ", and was registered as a trademark by Nova Scotia geologist and inventor Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into
7912-589: Is equivalent to about 5,500,000 barrels per day as of July 2023. The term "kerosene" is common in much of Argentina , Australia , Canada , India , New Zealand , Nigeria , and the United States , while the term paraffin (or a closely related variant) is used in Chile , East Africa , South Africa , Norway , and the United Kingdom . The term "lamp oil", or the equivalent in the local languages,
8084-518: Is liquid around room temperature : 25 °C (77 °F). The flash point of kerosene is between 37 °C (99 °F) and 65 °C (149 °F), and its autoignition temperature is 220 °C (428 °F). The freezing point of kerosene depends on grade, with commercial aviation fuel standardized at −47 °C (−53 °F). Grade 1-K kerosene freezes around −40 °C (−40 °F, 233 K). The process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds,
8256-424: Is produced by fractional distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery . It condenses at a temperature intermediate between diesel fuel , which is less volatile, and naphtha and gasoline , which are more volatile. Kerosene made up 8.5 percent by volume of petroleum refinery output in 2021 in the United States, of which nearly all was kerosene-type jet fuel (8.4 percent). The fuel, also known as heating oil in
8428-416: Is similar to that of diesel fuel ; its lower heating value is 43.1 MJ / kg (around 18,500 Btu / lb ), and its higher heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg (19,900 Btu/lb). The ASTM recognizes two grades of kerosene: 1-K (less than 0.04% sulfur by weight) and 2-K (0.3% sulfur by weight). Grade 1-K kerosene burns cleaner with fewer deposits, fewer toxins, and less frequent maintenance than 2-K, and
8600-473: Is susceptible to counter-measures. A concealed military submarine is a real threat, and because of its stealth, can force an enemy navy to waste resources searching large areas of ocean and protecting ships against attack. This advantage was vividly demonstrated in the 1982 Falklands War when the British nuclear-powered submarine HMS Conqueror sank the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano . After
8772-412: Is the preferred grade for indoor heaters and stoves. In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined. BS 2869 Class C1 is the lightest grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, and wick heaters, and mixed with petrol in some vintage combustion engines as a substitute for tractor vaporizing oil . BS 2869 Class C2 is a heavier distillate, which is used as domestic heating oil. Premium kerosene
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#17327660615418944-420: Is used less for cooking, with LPG being preferred because it is easier to light. Kerosene is often the fuel of choice for range cookers such as Rayburn . Additives such as RangeKlene can be put into kerosene to ensure that it burns cleaner and produces less soot when used in range cookers. The Amish , who generally abstain from the use of electricity, rely on kerosene for lighting at night. More ubiquitous in
9116-498: Is usually sold in 5- or 20-litre containers from hardware, camping and garden stores, and is often dyed purple. Standard kerosene is usually dispensed in bulk by a tanker and is undyed. National and international standards define the properties of several grades of kerosene used for jet fuel . Flash point and freezing point properties are particularly interesting for operation and safety; the standards also define additives for control of static electricity and other purposes. Kerosene
9288-582: The Bundesmarine focused on small coastal submarines to protect against the Soviet threat in the Baltic Sea . The Germans sought to use advanced technologies to offset the small displacement, such as amagnetic steel to protect against naval mines and magnetic anomaly detectors . The initial Type 201 was a failure because of hull cracking; the subsequent Type 205 , first commissioned in 1967,
9460-624: The Schnorchel allowed the old Type VII and IX U-boats to operate in waters which were previously denied to them. Finally, Allied radar eventually became sufficiently advanced that the Schnorchel mast could be detected. Throughout the war, an arms race evolved between the Allies and the Kriegsmarine. Sonar (ASDIC in Britain) allowed Allied warships to detect submerged U-boats, but
9632-475: The Gato , Balao , and Tench classes were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities. US submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels, a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total sunk). The Royal Navy Submarine Service was used primarily in the classic Axis blockade . Its major operating areas were around Norway, in
9804-524: The U-110 which could be boarded before she sank. A team including Alan Turing used special-purpose " Bombes " and early computers to break new German codes as they were introduced. The speedy decoding of messages allowed rerouting convoys around U-boat patrol lines. In February 1942 the naval Enigma machines were altered and this advantage was lost until the new code was broken in October 1942, when U-559
9976-408: The "prize rules" which meant they had to stop and inspect the ship, and take the crew off the ship before they could sink it. On 20 October 1914, SM U-17 sank the first merchant ship, SS Glitra , off Norway. Only ten merchants were sunk in that way before policy was changed on 18 February 1915. On the continent German hopes for a quick victory were dashed and a stalemate had settled on
10148-743: The Battle of the Atlantic , greatly disrupting Allied shipping, improved convoy and anti-submarine tactics such as high-frequency direction finding and the Hedgehog anti-submarine system began to take a toll on the German U-boat force. This ultimately came to a head in May 1943, known as Black May , in which U-boat losses began to outpace their effect on shipping. The first submarine built in Germany,
10320-846: The Grandfather of the American Oil Industry by historians. Kier's salt wells began to be fouled with petroleum in the 1840s. At first, Kier simply dumped the oil into the nearby Pennsylvania Main Line Canal as useless waste, but later he began experimenting with several distillates of the crude oil, along with a chemist from eastern Pennsylvania. Ignacy Łukasiewicz , a Polish pharmacist residing in Lviv , and his partner Jan Zeh [ pl ] had been experimenting with different distillation techniques, trying to improve on Gesner's kerosene process, but using oil from
10492-519: The Holland Torpedo Boat Company from 1901 to 1903. Construction of the boats took longer than anticipated, with the first only ready for a diving trial at sea on 6 April 1902. Although the design had been purchased entirely from the US company, the actual design used was an untested improvement to the original Holland design using a new 180 horsepower (130 kW) petrol engine. These types of submarines were first used during
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#173276606154110664-655: The Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes to North Africa), and in the Far East. In that war, British submarines sank 2 million tons of enemy shipping and 57 major warships, the latter including 35 submarines. Among these is the only documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged. This occurred when HMS Venturer engaged U-864 ; the Venturer crew manually computed
10836-496: The Paris Peace Conference in 1919 limited the surface navy of Germany's new Weimar Republic to only six battleships , six cruisers , twelve destroyers and twelve torpedo boats . The treaty also restricted the independent tonnage of ships and forbade the construction of submarines. In order to circumvent the restrictions of the treaty, a submarine design office called Ingenieurskantoor voor Scheepsbouw (IVS)
11008-470: The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Due to the blockade at Port Arthur , the Russians sent their submarines to Vladivostok , where by 1 January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first "operational submarine fleet". The new submarine fleet began patrols on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours each. The first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when
11180-562: The Type U 209PN sold to Portugal. In recent years Germany introduced new models such as the Type 216 and the Type 218 , the latter being sold to Singapore. In 2016, Germany commissioned its newest U-boat, the U-36 , a Type 212 . Submarine#Military A submarine (or sub ) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. (It differs from a submersible , which has more limited underwater capability.) The term “submarine”
11352-521: The bathyscaphe , which evolved from the diving bell . Most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical (or conical) ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes . In modern submarines, this structure is called the " sail " in American usage and "fin" in European usage. A feature of earlier designs
11524-873: The fractional distillation of petroleum between 150 and 275 °C (300 and 525 °F), resulting in a mixture with a density of 0.78–0.81 g/cm . It is miscible with petroleum solvents but immiscible with water. It is composed of hydrocarbon molecules that typically contain between 6-20 carbon atoms per molecule , predominantly containing 9 to 16 carbon atoms. Regardless of crude oil source or processing history, kerosene's major components are branched- and straight-chain alkanes (hydrocarbon chains) and naphthenes (cycloalkanes), which normally account for at least 70% of volume. Aromatic hydrocarbons such as alkylbenzenes (single ring) and alkylnaphthalenes (double ring), do not normally exceed 25% by volume of kerosene streams. Olefins are usually not present at more than 5% by volume. The heat of combustion of kerosene
11696-547: The light cruiser HMS Pathfinder was sunk by SM U-21 , the first ship to have been sunk by a submarine using a self-propelled torpedo. On 22 September , U-9 sank the armoured cruisers HMS Aboukir , HMS Cressy , and HMS Hogue . As a result, the British Grand Fleet had to withdraw to safer waters in Northern Ireland. Against merchant ships, U-boats observed
11868-711: The Allied forces developed truly effective antisubmarine warfare tactics, was referred to by German submariners as " die glückliche Zeit " or the First Happy Time . In the beginning of 1941 British countermeasures began to take effect: in March 1941 the three leading U-boat aces were sunk during convoy battles. In May 1941 the British were able to break into German secret naval Enigma communications and could henceforth reroute convoys around U-boat concentrations. When American warships started to escort Atlantic convoys,
12040-567: The Allies switched to centimetric radar (unknown to Germany), which rendered the radar detectors ineffective. U-boat radar systems were also developed, but many captains chose not to use them for fear of broadcasting their position to the enemy. Against ASDIC the Germans developed Bold , a chemical bubble-making decoy. Advances in convoy tactics, high-frequency direction finding , referred to as "Huff-Duff", radar, sonar, depth charges , anti-submarine weapons such as " Hedgehog " and " FIDO ",
12212-472: The Amish and off grid living and in natural disasters where there is no power available. In the early to mid-20th century, kerosene or tractor vaporizing oil was used as a cheap fuel for tractors and hit 'n miss engines . A petrol-paraffin engine would start on gasoline, then switch over to kerosene once the engine warmed up. On some engines a heat valve on the manifold would route the exhaust gasses around
12384-472: The Anglo-German Naval agreement and Hitler's policy of avoiding conflict with Britain, the next war would be with Britain. Based on these views he requested that the remaining 11,500 tons be used for building twenty-three medium submarines, which were in his opinion the ideal type for the commerce war against British convoys. Raeder however did not share these beliefs and opinions and opted for
12556-648: The Battle of the Atlantic. As convoying had been key in the defeat of German submarines during World War I, the British began organizing convoys at once in September 1939. The most common U-boat attack against convoys during the early years of the war was conducted on the surface and at night. During 1939 the Germans made a few attempts to attack convoys with their new 'wolfpack' tactic, but these were not successful. The invasion of Norway in April 1940 halted temporarily all U-boat operations against merchant shipping. During
12728-522: The British Isles at any time. The U-boats failed to enforce a blockade but three sinkings of liners, with loss of American lives, outraged the US so that the Kaiser had to stop the campaign in September 1915: on 7 May 1915 SM U-20 sank RMS Lusitania ; on 19 August SM U-24 sank SS Arabic ; and on 9 September SM U-20 sank RMS Hesperian . Most of the U-boats were sent to
12900-641: The British submarine base at Harwich , after which the vessels were studied, then scrapped or given to Allied navies. Stephen King-Hall wrote a detailed eyewitness account of the surrender. Of the 373 German U-boats that had been built, 179 were operational or nearly operational at the end of the war. 178 were lost by enemy action. 512 officers and 4894 enlisted men were killed. Of the surviving German submarines, 14 U-boats were scuttled and 122 surrendered. They sank 10 pre-dreadnought battleships , 18 heavy and light cruisers, and several smaller naval vessels. They further destroyed 5,708 merchant and fishing vessels for
13072-603: The British, when they reconsidered Fulton's submarine design. In 1850, Wilhelm Bauer 's Brandtaucher was built in Germany. It remains the oldest known surviving submarine in the world. In 1864, late in the American Civil War , the Confederate navy 's H. L. Hunley became the first military submarine to sink an enemy vessel, the Union sloop-of-war USS Housatonic , using a gun-powder-filled keg on
13244-533: The Chrysler Horizon that integrated many Saab components) were made. One reason to manufacture kerosene-fueled cars was that in Finland kerosene was less heavily taxed than gasoline. Kerosene is used to fuel smaller-horsepower outboard motors built by Yamaha, Suzuki, and Tohatsu. Primarily used on small fishing craft, these are dual-fuel engines that start on gasoline and then transition to kerosene once
13416-498: The Downer Company (to which Gesner had granted the right) were allowed to call their lamp oil "Kerosene" in the United States. In 1848, Scottish chemist James Young experimented with oil discovered seeping in a coal mine as a source of lubricating oil and illuminating fuel. When the seep became exhausted, he experimented with the dry distillation of coal, especially the resinous "boghead coal" ( torbanite ). He extracted
13588-511: The English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the Swedish industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt led to the first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with torpedoes and ready for military use. The first was Nordenfelt I , a 56-tonne, 19.5-metre (64 ft) vessel similar to Garrett's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240 kilometres (130 nmi; 150 mi), armed with
13760-603: The French steam and electric Narval employed the now typical double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of over 160 km (100 mi) underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914. The Royal Navy commissioned five Holland-class submarines from Vickers , Barrow-in-Furness , under licence from
13932-407: The German U-boat designs of World War II were greatly improved. By using a new steel alloy and by welding instead of riveting , they had stronger hulls and could dive deeper. The diving time was decreased to thirty seconds for a medium U-boat. The power of diesel engines was increased, so U-boats had a greater surface speed. Range was increased by installing fuel saddle tanks , which were on open to
14104-642: The German developments in submarine technology with the creation of the K-class submarines . However, these submarines were notoriously dangerous to operate due to their various design flaws and poor maneuverability. During World War II , Germany used submarines to devastating effect in the Battle of the Atlantic , where it attempted to cut Britain's supply routes by sinking more merchant ships than Britain could replace. These merchant ships were vital to supply Britain's population with food, industry with raw material, and armed forces with fuel and armaments. Although
14276-469: The Germans captured some Dutch submarines equipped with a Schnorchel (snorkel), but saw no need for them until 1943. The Schnorchel was a retractable pipe that supplied air to the diesel engines while submerged at periscope depth , allowing the boats to cruise submerged on diesel engines and recharge their batteries. It was far from a perfect solution: problems occurred with the device's valve sticking shut or closing as it dunked in rough weather; since
14448-530: The Germans could not put this design in use for a big frontline U-boat. Unlike a classic U-boat that could recharge its batteries with the diesel engines, once a Walter U-boat had consumed its hydrogen peroxide propellant it could not submerge anymore. The Germans did not possess the resources and plants to produce sufficient hydrogen peroxide to operate a fleet of Walter submarines. Despite these limitations, 24 frontline Type XVIIB coastal submarines were ordered, but only three were built and none were operational before
14620-416: The Germans to fully reapply prize rules. In September 1916 120 U-boats were in service, and again some were sent to the Mediterranean. Whilst around British Isles prize rules were observed, in the Mediterranean a new unrestricted campaign was started. The renewed German campaign was effective, sinking 1.4 million tons of shipping between October 1916 and January 1917. Despite this, the deadlock situation on
14792-618: The Mediterranean in order to support the Italians and Rommel's Afrika Korps . When the US entered war, the focus of U-boat operations shifted to the Atlantic coast of the United States and Canada, where no convoys were organized and anti-submarine measures were inadequate. There followed a Second Happy Time when U-boats could extend their successful operation to the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea . By mid 1942 an adequate defense
14964-545: The Mediterranean. At the beginning of 1916 54 U-boats were available, and the Kaiser allowed again operations around the British Isles, but with strict rules: no attacks on liners and outside the war zone around the British Isles attacks were only allowed on armed merchant ships. But on 24 March 25 Americans were killed in the torpedoing of the ferry SS Sussex , which was mistaken for a troopship by SM UB-29 . The US threatened to sever diplomatic ties , which persuaded
15136-798: The Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet. During World War II, 314 submarines served in the US Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific. When the Japanese attacked Hawaii in December 1941, 111 boats were in commission; 203 submarines from
15308-468: The Pacific in World War II. Mine -laying submarines were developed in the early part of the 20th century. The facility was used in both World Wars. Submarines were also used for inserting and removing covert agents and military forces in special operations , for intelligence gathering, and to rescue aircrew during air attacks on islands, where the airmen would be told of safe places to crash-land so
15480-583: The Russian submarine Som was fired upon by Japanese torpedo boats, but then withdrew. Military submarines first made a significant impact in World War I . Forces such as the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic , and were responsible for sinking RMS Lusitania , which was sunk as a result of unrestricted submarine warfare and is often cited among the reasons for
15652-566: The U-boats had been updated in the interwar years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the Enigma cipher machine . This allowed for mass-attack naval tactics ( Rudeltaktik , commonly known as " wolfpack "), which ultimately ceased to be effective when the U-boat's Enigma was cracked . By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen) had been sunk by U-boats. Although successful early in
15824-527: The U-boats were restricted in their operations as Hitler wanted to avoid possible conflict with the US. The campaign against merchant shipping received further impediments when Hitler interfered on two occasions: first he insisted that a small force of U-boats be kept on station in the Arctic as a precaution against a possible Allied invasion in Norway and next he ordered a substantial force of U-boats to operate in
15996-487: The U-boats: the classic G7a torpedo propelled by compressed air had a much larger warhead than its WWI equivalent, but more important was the introduction of the electric G7e torpedo . This torpedo was slower and had less range but it left no telltale bubble wake and was, hence, ideally suited for daylight attacks. During WWI the Germans had briefly experimented with magnetic pistols and these were further developed now as
16168-432: The UK and Ireland, remains widely used in kerosene lamps and lanterns in the developing world. Although it replaced whale oil , the 1873 edition of Elements of Chemistry said, "The vapor of this substance [kerosene] mixed with air is as explosive as gunpowder." This statement may have been due to the common practice of adulterating kerosene with cheaper but more volatile hydrocarbon mixtures, such as naphtha . Kerosene
16340-502: The UK and force the UK out of the war. In World War I , Germany intermittently waged unrestricted submarine warfare against the UK : a first campaign in 1915 was abandoned after strong protests from the US but in 1917 the Germans, facing deadlock on the continent, saw no other option than to resume the campaign in February 1917. The renewed campaign failed to achieve its goal mainly because of
16512-695: The US, the Soviet Union (now Russia), the UK, and France have been powered by a nuclear reactor . In 1959–1960, the first ballistic missile submarines were put into service by both the United States ( George Washington class ) and the Soviet Union ( Golf class ) as part of the Cold War nuclear deterrent strategy. During the Cold War, the US and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union lost at least four submarines during this period: K-129
16684-415: The United States well into the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, manufacturing oil from coal (or oil shale) continued into the early 20th century, although increasingly overshadowed by petroleum oils. As kerosene production increased, whaling declined. The American whaling fleet , which had been steadily growing for 50 years, reached its all-time peak of 199 ships in 1858. By 1860, just two years later,
16856-424: The aromatic content of crude oil varies greatly from oil field to oil field. However by solvent extraction it is possible to separate aromatic hydrocarbons from aliphatic (alkane) hydrocarbons. A common method is solvent extraction with methanol, DMSO or sulfolane . Aromatic kerosene is a grade of kerosene with a large concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons, an example of this would be Exon 's Solvesso 150. Kerosene
17028-516: The basis of the successful type 209, as are the Type 800 sold to Israel and the TR-1700 sold to Argentina. Germany continued to succeed as an exporter of submarines as the Klasse 210 sold to Norway, considered the most silent and maneuverable submarines in the world. This demonstrated its capacity and put its export seal on the world. Germany has brought the U-boat name into the 21st century with
17200-659: The belief that the vessel was evacuating anti-Israeli militias. The ship was hit by two torpedoes, managed to run aground but eventually sank. There were 25 dead, including her captain. The Israeli Navy disclosed the incident in November 2018. Before and during World War II , the primary role of the submarine was anti-surface ship warfare. Submarines would attack either on the surface using deck guns, or submerged using torpedoes . They were particularly effective in sinking Allied transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in disrupting Japanese supply routes and naval operations in
17372-438: The classic Diesel engines but submerged it used a revolutionary hydrogen peroxide air-independent propellant system designed by Hellmuth Walter . With this Walter-turbine a U-boat could achieve underwater speeds of more than 20 knots, much more than the 4 knot cruising and 6 knot maximum speed of electrical engines powered by batteries. Four more experimental Type XVIIA U-boats with Walter turbines were built and tested, but
17544-451: The compression ratio (making the engine less powerful and less efficient, but able to run on kerosene). The necessary equipment was sold under the trademark "Econom". During the fuel crisis of the 1970s , Saab-Valmet developed and series-produced the Saab 99 Petro that ran on kerosene, turpentine or gasoline. The project, codenamed "Project Lapponia", was headed by Simo Vuorio, and towards
17716-477: The continent frontlines demanded even greater results, and on 1 February 1917, Germany restarted the unrestricted submarine campaign around British Isles. Germany took the gamble that the U-boat campaign would force the UK out of the war before the US could effectively enter. On 3 February the US severed diplomatic relations with Germany and on 6 April the US declared war on Germany . Unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917
17888-463: The craft. A mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemen's Magazine reported that a similar design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. Further design improvement stagnated for over a century, until application of new technologies for propulsion and stability. The first military submersible was Turtle (1775),
18060-411: The days of electrically lighted road barriers, highway construction zones were marked at night by kerosene fired, pot-bellied torches. Most of these uses of kerosene created thick black smoke because of the low temperature of combustion. A notable exception, discovered in the early 19th century, is the use of a gas mantle mounted above the wick on a kerosene lamp. Looking like a delicate woven bag above
18232-570: The design of an Atlantic Walter U-boat, the Type XXI " Elektroboot " was designed to boost submerged performance. Smaller Type XXIII coastal Elektroboote were also taken into production. These Elektroboote were mass-produced, with prefabricated segments constructed at different sites and then assembled at the bigger shipyards. After the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940
18404-512: The designation USS ( United States Ship ) at the beginning of their names, such as USS Alabama . In the Royal Navy, the designation HMS can refer to "His Majesty's Ship" or "His Majesty's Submarine", though the latter is sometimes rendered "HMS/m" and submarines are generally referred to as boats rather than ships . According to a report in Opusculum Taisnieri published in 1562: Two Greeks submerged and surfaced in
18576-441: The development of the homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion , submarines also became able to hunt each other effectively. The development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons . The primary defense of
18748-562: The distillation products appears to have been superior to Young's, resulting in a cleaner and better-smelling fuel. Manufacture of kerosene under the Gesner patents began in New York in 1854 and later in Boston —being distilled from bituminous coal and oil shale . Gesner registered the word "Kerosene" as a trademark in 1854, and for several years, only the North American Gas Light Company and
18920-521: The end of the 1970s, a working prototype was produced based on the Saab 99 GL. The car was designed to run on two fuels. Gasoline was used for cold starts and when extra power was needed, but normally it ran on kerosene or turpentine. The idea was that the gasoline could be made from peat using the Fischer–Tropsch process . Between 1980 and 1984, 3,756 Saab 99 Petros and 2,385 Talbot Horizons (a version of
19092-532: The end of the war. The Walter U-boats had very large hulls in order to store the fuel for submerged propulsion. Once it became clear these Walter U-boats would not be operational in time, the Walter U-boat hull design was reused with a different approach: the space for the hydrogen peroxide tanks was used to store much larger batteries. With the much increased battery power U-boats were also able to reach much higher speeds and endurance when submerged. Based on
19264-677: The enemyes by the Grace of God and worke of expert Craftsmen I hope to perform." It is unclear whether he carried out his idea. Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont (1553–1613) created detailed designs for two types of air-renovated submersible vehicles. They were equipped with oars, autonomous floating snorkels worked by inner pumps, portholes and gloves used for the crew to manipulate underwater objects. Ayanaz planned to use them for warfare, using them to approach enemy ships undetected and set up timed gunpowder charges on their hulls. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information
19436-484: The engine reaches optimum operating temperature . Multiple fuel Evinrude and Mercury Racing engines also burn kerosene, as well as jet fuel. Today, kerosene is mainly used in fuel for jet engines in several grades. One highly refined form of the fuel is known as RP-1 , and is often burned with liquid oxygen as rocket fuel . These fuel grade kerosenes meet specifications for smoke points and freeze points . The combustion reaction can be approximated as follows, with
19608-402: The entry of the United States into the war. At the outbreak of the war, Germany had only twenty submarines available for combat, although these included vessels of the diesel-engined U-19 class, which had a sufficient range of 5,000 miles (8,000 km) and speed of 8 knots (15 km/h) to allow them to operate effectively around the entire British coast., By contrast, the Royal Navy had
19780-514: The fact that these were primarily surface vessels that could submerge when necessary. This contrasts with the cylindrical profile of modern nuclear submarines , which are more hydrodynamic under water (where they spend the majority of their time), but less stable on the surface. While U-boats were faster on the surface than submerged, the opposite is generally true of modern submarines. Between 1908 and 1910 fourteen big boats with four torpedo tubes and two reload torpedoes were ordered. These boats used
19952-515: The first eight months of the war, torpedoes often ran at an improper depth, detonated prematurely, or failed to explode altogether – sometimes bouncing harmlessly off the hull of the target ship. This was most evident in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway, where various skilled U-boat commanders failed to inflict damage on British transports and warships because of faulty torpedoes. The faults were largely due to
20124-550: The first practical self-propelled or "locomotive" torpedo. The spar torpedo that had been developed earlier by the Confederate States Navy was considered to be impracticable, as it was believed to have sunk both its intended target, and H. L. Hunley , the submarine that deployed it. The Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine in 1876 and in 1878 demonstrated the Holland I prototype. This
20296-455: The fleet had dropped to 167 ships. The Civil War cut into American whaling temporarily, but only 105 whaling ships returned to sea in 1866, the first full year of peace, and that number dwindled until only 39 American ships set out to hunt whales in 1876. Kerosene, made first from coal and oil shale, then from petroleum, had largely taken over whaling's lucrative market in lamp oil. Electric lighting started displacing kerosene as an illuminant in
20468-451: The front. The Germans hoped to break the deadlock by starting an unrestricted submarine campaign against shipping in the waters around the British Isles. This was also cited as a retaliation for British minefields and shipping blockades . Under the instructions given to U-boat captains, they could sink merchant ships, even neutral ones, without warning. Only 29 U-boats were available for the campaign, and not more than seven were active around
20640-432: The heavier hydrocarbons that previously went into kerosene were incorporated into diesel fuel. Kerosene kept some market share by being increasingly used in stoves and portable heaters. A pilot project by ETH Zurich used solar power to produce kerosene from carbon dioxide and water in July 2022. The product can be used in existing aviation applications, and "can also be blended with fossil-derived kerosene." Kerosene
20812-521: The highest submerged speeds during World War II ( I-201 -class submarines) and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft ( I-400 -class submarines). They were also equipped with one of the most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95 . Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan chose to use its submarines for fleet warfare, and consequently were relatively unsuccessful, as warships were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. The submarine force
20984-606: The increasingly apparent breaches of the Versailles Treaty and it concluded in 1935 the Anglo-German Naval Agreement . This ended officially the limitation of the Versailles Treaty and allowed Germany to build ships in a 100:35 tonnage ratio to the British fleet. For submarines the Germans obtained a parity in tonnage, but promised a 45 percent limit unless special circumstances arose. This allowed 24,000 tons for U-boat building. Only one week after
21156-483: The intake pipe, heating the kerosene to the point where it was vaporized and could be ignited by an electric spark . In Europe following the Second World War, automobiles were similarly modified to run on kerosene rather than gasoline, which they would have to import and pay heavy taxes on. Besides additional piping and the switch between fuels, the head gasket was replaced by a much thicker one to diminish
21328-543: The intermittent cracking of the German Naval Enigma code , the introduction of the Leigh Light , long range patrol aircraft, escort carriers and the enormous US shipbuilding capacity, all turned the tide against the U-boats. At the same time, the Allies targeted the U-boat shipyards and their bases with strategic bombing . In May 1941 code books, an Enigma machine and its settings were captured from
21500-580: The introduction of convoys . Instead the campaign ensured final defeat as the campaign was a contributing factor to the entry of the US in the First World War. In World War II , Karl Dönitz , supreme commander of the Kriegsmarine 's U-boat arm ( Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote ) , was convinced the UK and its convoys could be defeated by new tactics , and tried to focus on convoy battles . Though U-boat tactics initially saw success in
21672-525: The invasion many technical problems with the German torpedoes were exposed and only in August 1940 could the campaign against convoys be revived. There were now fewer U-boats operational than at the beginning of the war, but thanks to the new bases in France and Norway U-boats could reach their operation grounds far more easily. During the following months the U-boats put their 'wolfpack' tactic against convoy in practice with spectacular results. This period, before
21844-482: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, kerosene space heaters were often built into kitchen ranges, and kept many farm and fishing families warm and dry through the winter. At one time, citrus growers used a smudge pot fueled by kerosene to create a pall of thick smoke over a grove in an effort to prevent freezing temperatures from damaging crops. " Salamanders " are kerosene space heaters used on construction sites to dry out building materials and to warm workers. Before
22016-461: The late 19th century, especially in urban areas. However, kerosene remained the predominant commercial end-use for petroleum refined in the United States until 1909, when it was exceeded by motor fuels. The rise of the gasoline-powered automobile in the early 20th century created a demand for the lighter hydrocarbon fractions, and refiners invented methods to increase their output of gasoline, while decreasing their output of kerosene. In addition, some of
22188-503: The loudest noise detected. Its successor, the T5 "Zaunkönig ", was designed to combat small and fast warships, and entered service in September 1943. The Allies countered acoustic torpedoes with noisemaker decoys such as Foxer , FXR , CAT , and Fanfare . In 1940 the Germans made successful tests with the V-80 experimental submarine featuring a new type of propulsion: on the surface it used
22360-435: The missile with a nuclear warhead . Tunny and its sister boat, Barbero , were the United States' first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel–electric propulsion. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months. Most of the naval submarines built since that time in
22532-627: The molecular formula C 12 H 26 ( dodecane ): In the initial phase of liftoff, the Saturn V launch vehicle was powered by the reaction of liquid oxygen with RP-1. For the five 6.4 meganewton sea-level thrust F-1 rocket engines of the Saturn V, burning together, the reaction generated roughly 1.62 × 10 watts (J/s) (162 gigawatt) or 217 million horsepower. Kerosene is sometimes used as an additive in diesel fuel to prevent gelling or waxing in cold temperatures. Ultra-low sulfur kerosene
22704-497: The new Type 212 ; it features an air-independent propulsion system using hydrogen fuel cells . This system is safer than previous closed-cycle diesel engines and steam turbines, cheaper than a nuclear reactor, and quieter than either. While the Type 212 is also being purchased by Italy and Norway, the Type 214 has been designed as the follow-on export model and has been sold to Greece, South Korea, and Turkey, and based on it would get
22876-534: The potential of his work and quit the pharmacy to find a business partner, and then traveled to Vienna to register his technique with the government. Łukasiewicz moved to the Gorlice region of Poland in 1854, and sank several wells across southern Poland over the following decade, setting up a refinery near Jasło in 1859. The petroleum discovery by Edwin Drake - Drake Well in western Pennsylvania in 1859 caused
23048-405: The preceding years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats operated primarily on the surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow. During World War I more than 5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats. The British responded to
23220-633: The prototypes for the subsequent German Type VII U-boat. In 1933 a small 250-ton submarine, the Vesikko was built. This submarine was nearly identical to the subsequent German Type II U-boat. A fifth very small 100-ton submarine, the Saukko was built in 1933 as well. In Spain a large 750-ton boat was built between 1929 and 1930. After the Spanish lost interest in the U-boat, they sold it to Turkey where it entered service as Gür . German sailors assisted in
23392-456: The radiolysis of TBP while the French nuclear industry tended to use diluents with very little aromatic content. The French nuclear reprocessing plants typically use TPH as their diluent. In recent times it has been shown by Mark Foreman at Chalmers that aliphatic kerosene can be replaced in solvent extraction with HVO100 which is a second generation biodiesel made by Neste . In X-ray crystallography , kerosene can be used to store crystals. When
23564-694: The river Tagus near the City of Toledo several times in the presence of The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , without getting wet and with the flame they carried in their hands still alight. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle. A few years later the Scottish mathematician and theologian John Napier wrote in his Secret Inventions (1596) that "These inventions besides devises of sayling under water with divers, other devises and strategems for harming of
23736-401: The sea on the bottom in order to balance pressure, with the diesel fuel floating freely on the seawater within the saddle tank. Also, a technique was developed for economical cruising where only one of the two diesel engines would be run and would drive the two propeller shafts through a coupling with the two electro engines. Another vast improvement was the introduction of new torpedo types for
23908-600: The shallow Baltic Sea, resulting in the Type 206 . Three of the improved Type 206 boats were later sold to the Israeli Navy , becoming the Type 540 . The German Type 209 diesel-electric submarine was the most popular export-sales submarine in the world from the late 1960s into the first years of the 21st century. With a larger 1,000–1,500 tonne displacement, the class was very customizable and has seen service with 14 navies, with 51 examples being built as of 2006. Germany continued to reap successes with derivations or on
24080-538: The signature of the agreement, the first of six Type II U-boats, U-1 was commissioned in the German Navy, which changed name from Reichsmarine (Imperial Navy) to Kriegsmarine (War Navy). Within the year, the Germans commissioned a total of 36 U-boats for a total of 12,500 tons: Karl Dönitz was appointed as head of the submarine section of the Kriegsmarine . He believed firmly that in spite of
24252-631: The sinking the Argentine Navy recognized that they had no effective defense against submarine attack, and the Argentine surface fleet withdrew to port for the remainder of the war. An Argentine submarine remained at sea, however. Although the majority of the world's submarines are military, there are some civilian submarines, which are used for tourism, exploration, oil and gas platform inspections, and pipeline surveys. Some are also used in illegal activities. The Submarine Voyage ride opened at Disneyland in 1959, but although it ran under water it
24424-608: The southern African coasts and even as far east as the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean . By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships; 2,825 merchant ships) had been sunk by U-boat torpedoes. In total 1131 U-boats entered service before the German surrender, of which 863 have executed war patrols, and 785 were lost. Of the 154 U-boats surrendered, 121 were scuttled in deep water off Lisahally , Northern Ireland, or Loch Ryan , Scotland, in late 1945 and early 1946 during Operation Deadlight . The U-boats' main weapon
24596-698: The standard pistol for torpedoes. The classic contact pistol required a torpedo to detonate against the ship's hull, whilst a magnetic torpedo could detonate below a ship, resulting in a much more damaging explosion. Thus, it was hoped that one torpedo would suffice to break the back of a ship, and a U-boat could sink many more ships with its supply of torpedoes. All U-boats were now also equipped with long- and short-wave transmitters, which enabled them to communicate with bases ashore and with fellow U-boats at sea. This allowed for better operational information and guidance. From bow to stern, A typical U-boat design comprised these sections: During World War II, U-boat warfare
24768-476: The submarines could rescue them. Submarines could carry cargo through hostile waters or act as supply vessels for other submarines. Submarines could usually locate and attack other submarines only on the surface, although HMS Venturer managed to sink U-864 with a four torpedo spread while both were submerged. The British developed a specialized anti-submarine submarine in WWI, the R class . After WWII, with
24940-578: The supremacy of the Royal Navy . He focused on expensive battleships and there was no role for submarines in his fleet. Only when Krupp exported its submarines to Russia, Italy, Norway and Austria-Hungary did Tirpitz order one submarine. The SM U-1 was a completely redesigned Karp -class submarine and when the Imperial German Navy commissioned it on 14 December 1906, it was the last major navy to adopt submarines. The U-1 had
25112-484: The system used the entire pressure hull as a buffer, the diesels would instantaneously suck huge volumes of air from the boat's compartments, and the crew often suffered painful ear injuries. Speed was limited to 8 knots (15 km/h), lest the device snap from stress. Whilst running submerged with the Schnorchel , the Gruppenhorchgerät was useless because of interference with the noisy diesel engines. But
25284-411: The three-man Brandtaucher , sank to the bottom of Kiel Harbor on 1 February 1851 during a test dive. Inventor and engineer Wilhelm Bauer had designed this vessel in 1850, and Schweffel and Howaldt constructed it in Kiel. Dredging operations in 1887 rediscovered Brandtaucher ; she was later raised and put on historical display in Germany. The boats Nordenfelt I and Nordenfelt II , built to
25456-650: The trials for these submarines. These secret programs were exposed in the Lohmann Affair and as a result the Head of the Reichsmarine Hans Zenker had to resign. His successor Erich Raeder continued the policy of secretly breaching the Versailles treaty. On 15 November 1932 a plan was approved for an expansion of the German navy which included U-boats. In 1935, Britain sought to control
25628-466: The war, Germany's U-boat fleet suffered heavy casualties, losing 793 U-boats and about 28,000 submariners out of 41,000, a casualty rate of about 70%. The Imperial Japanese Navy operated the most varied fleet of submarines of any navy, including Kaiten crewed torpedoes, midget submarines ( Type A Ko-hyoteki and Kairyu classes ), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines and long-range fleet submarines . They also had submarines with
25800-445: The woven cotton wick, the mantle is a residue of mineral materials (mostly thorium dioxide ), heated to incandescence by the flame from the wick. The thorium and cerium oxide combination produces both a whiter light and a greater fraction of the energy in the form of visible light than a black body at the same temperature would. These types of lamps are still in use today in areas of the world without electricity, because they give
25972-415: Was a significant fire risk; in 1880, nearly two of every five New York City fires were caused by defective kerosene lamps. In less-developed countries kerosene is an important source of energy for cooking and lighting. It is used as a cooking fuel in portable stoves for backpackers . As a heating fuel, it is often used in portable stoves, and is sold in some filling stations . It is sometimes used as
26144-584: Was a success, so 12 were built for the German navy. To continue the U-boat tradition, the new boats received the classic "U" designation starting with the U-1 . With the Danish government's purchase of two Type 205 boats, the West German government realized the potential for the submarine as an export, developing a customized version Type 207 . Small and agile submarines were built during the Cold War to operate in
26316-544: Was boarded as she was sinking, and crucial code books were salvaged. From 1955, the West German Bundesmarine was allowed to have a small navy. Initially, two sunken Type XXIIIs and a Type XXI were raised and repaired. In the 1960s, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) restarted building submarines. Because West Germany was initially restricted to a 450-tonne displacement limit,
26488-633: Was built at the Chilean government's request by Karl Flach , a German engineer and immigrant. It was the fifth submarine built in the world and, along with a second submarine, was intended to defend the port of Valparaiso against attack by the Spanish Navy during the Chincha Islands War . Submarines could not be put into widespread or routine service use by navies until suitable engines were developed. The era from 1863 to 1904 marked
26660-440: Was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel , a Dutchman in the service of James I of England . It was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England. In 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge
26832-457: Was first written about in the ninth century by the Persian scholar Rāzi (or Rhazes). In his Kitab al-Asrar ( Book of Secrets ), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed naft abyad (نفط ابيض"white naphtha"), using an apparatus called an alembic . One method used clay as an absorbent , and later the other method using chemicals like ammonium chloride ( sal ammoniac ). The distillation process
27004-480: Was followed by a number of unsuccessful designs. In 1896, he designed the Holland Type VI submarine, which used internal combustion engine power on the surface and electric battery power underwater. Launched on 17 May 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon 's Crescent Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey , Holland VI was purchased by the United States Navy on 11 April 1900, becoming the Navy's first commissioned submarine, christened USS Holland . Discussions between
27176-565: Was lost in 1968 (a part of which the CIA retrieved from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes -designed ship Glomar Explorer ), K-8 in 1970, K-219 in 1986, and Komsomolets in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines—1,000 m (3,300 ft)). Many other Soviet subs, such as K-19 (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: USS Thresher due to equipment failure during
27348-443: Was not a true submarine, as it ran on tracks and was open to the atmosphere. The first tourist submarine was Auguste Piccard , which went into service in 1964 at Expo64 . By 1997, there were 45 tourist submarines operating around the world. Submarines with a crush depth in the range of 400–500 feet (120–150 m) are operated in several areas worldwide, typically with bottom depths around 100 to 120 feet (30 to 37 m), with
27520-444: Was not effective against a surfaced vessel; thus, early in the war, a U-boat at night or in bad weather was actually safer on the surface. Advancements in radar became deadly for the U-boat crews, especially once aircraft-mounted units were developed. As a countermeasure, U-boats were fitted with radar warning receivers, to give them ample time to dive before the enemy closed in, as well as more antiaircraft guns, but by early to mid-1943,
27692-450: Was organized in these regions and then U-boats returned to their original and crucial hunting grounds on the North Atlantic convoy lanes. The renewed offensive against convoys reached its climax in March 1943, when two thirds of all ships sunk, were ships sailing in convoys. But the Allies put effective countermeasures into effect and only two months later on 24 May Dönitz had to stop the campaign due to heavy losses. U-boats operated also off
27864-425: Was possible that the excess internal air-pressure in the U-boat offset the depth setting mechanism in the balance chamber of the torpedo. In order to give U-boats better opportunities against well-defended convoys, several types of "pattern-running" torpedoes were developed. The FAT ( Flächen-Absuch-Torpedo or Federapparat-Torpedo ) and LUT ( LageUnabhängiger Torpedo) was an electric torpedo which ran straight out to
28036-551: Was repeated until most of the volatile hydrocarbon fractions had been removed and the final product was perfectly clear and safe to burn. Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled. During the Chinese Ming Dynasty , the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum and then converted it into lamp fuel. The Chinese made use of petroleum for lighting lamps and heating homes as early as 1500 BC. Although "coal oil"
28208-426: Was set up in the Netherlands The IVS was run by Krupp and made it possible to maintain a lead in submarine technology by designing and constructing submarines in Holland for other nations. The IVS made designs for small 250-ton U-boats, medium 500-ton U-boats and large 750-ton U-boats. The IVS constructed three 500-ton medium submarines in Finland between 1927 and 1931, known as the Vetehinen-class . These ships were
28380-456: Was the torpedo , though mines and deck guns (while surfaced) were also used. Early German World War II torpedoes were fitted with one of two types of pistol triggers – impact, which detonated the warhead upon contact with a solid object, and magnetic , which detonated upon sensing a change in the magnetic field within a few meters. Initially, the depth-keeping equipment and magnetic and contact exploders were notoriously unreliable. During
28552-488: Was the " conning tower ": a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that enabled the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins. Smaller, deep-diving, and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional design. Submarines dive and resurface by using diving planes and by changing the amount of water and air in ballast tanks to affect their buoyancy . Submarines encompass
28724-437: Was the French Plongeur ( Diver ), launched in 1863, which used compressed air at 1,200 kPa (180 psi ). Narcís Monturiol designed the first air-independent and combustion -powered submarine, Ictíneo II , which was launched in Barcelona , Spain in 1864. The submarine became feasible as potential weapon with the development of the Whitehead torpedo , designed in 1866 by British engineer Robert Whitehead ,
28896-449: Was the first submarine combat loss since World War II. In 1982 during the Falklands War , the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by the British submarine HMS Conqueror , the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war. Some weeks later, on 16 June, during the Lebanon War , an unnamed Israeli submarine torpedoed and sank the Lebanese coaster Transit , which was carrying 56 Palestinian refugees to Cyprus , in
29068-416: Was the major component of the Battle of the Atlantic, which began in 1939 and ended with Germany's surrender in 1945. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later wrote "The only thing that really frightened me during the war was the U-boat peril." Cross-Atlantic trade in war supplies and food was extensive and critical for Britain's survival. The continuous action surrounding Allied shipping became known as
29240-413: Was the most effective anti-ship weapon in the American arsenal. Submarines, though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. US submarines also destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and industrial war effort. Allied submarines in
29412-470: Was very successful, sinking more than 500,000 tons a month. With the introduction of convoys in August 1917 shipping losses declined to 300,000 a month on average, which was not sufficient to force the UK out of the war. With deteriorating conditions on the continent, all U-boats were recalled on 31 October 1918. An armistice became effective on 11 November 1918. Under the terms of armistice, all U-boats were to immediately surrender. Those in home waters sailed to
29584-567: Was well known by industrial chemists at least as early as the 1700s as a byproduct of making coal gas and coal tar, it burned with a smoky flame that prevented its use for indoor illumination. In cities, much indoor illumination was provided by piped-in coal gas , but outside the cities, and for spot lighting within the cities, the lucrative market for fueling indoor lamps was supplied by whale oil , specifically that from sperm whales , which burned brighter and cleaner. Canadian geologist Abraham Pineo Gesner claimed that in 1846, he had given
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