59-536: The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda ( UNAMIR ) was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 872 on 5 October 1993. It was intended to assist in the implementation of the Arusha Accords , signed on 4 August 1993, which was meant to end the Rwandan Civil War . The mission lasted from October 1993 to March 1996. Its activities were meant to aid the peace process between
118-468: A "failure". Its most significant contribution was to provide refuge for thousands of Tutsi and moderate Hutu at its headquarters in Amahoro Stadium , as well as other secure UN sites. UNAMIR also assisted with the evacuation of foreign nationals; a group of Belgian soldiers, who had been sheltering 2,000 Rwandans at the École Technique Officielle , were ordered to abandon their station to assist in
177-604: A bureaucratic "talking shop" with little power. It struggled to enforce its decisions, and its lack of armed force made intervention exceedingly difficult. Civil wars in Nigeria and Angola continued unabated for years, and the OAU could do nothing to stop them. The policy of non-interference in the affairs of member states also limited the effectiveness of the OAU. Thus, when human rights were violated, as in Uganda under Idi Amin in
236-486: A ceasefire, the government because it was controlled by the génocidaires, and the RPF because it considered it necessary to fight to stop the killings. UNAMIR's Chapter VI mandate rendered it powerless to intervene militarily, and most of its Rwandan staff were killed in the early days of the genocide, severely limiting its ability to operate. UNAMIR was therefore largely reduced to a bystander role, and Dallaire later labelled it
295-439: A comprehensive agreement to create a power-sharing government, on the fourth of August. Both the RPF and Rwandan government requested UN assistance in implementing the agreement. In early August, NMOG I was replaced by NMOG II, consisting of about 130 members, in preparation for a UN-led peacekeeping force. UNAMIR mandate was: Its authorised strength was 2,500 personnel, but it took some five months of piecemeal commitments for
354-702: A forerunner to the Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines , which was created immediately after the invasion. The first plans for mass murder of Tutsi were also developed toward the end of 1990, mostly in a series of secret meetings in Gisenyi prefecture of the Akazu , a network of associates based around Agathe Habyarimana , the First Lady. A number of ceasefire agreements were signed by
413-762: A mandate to oversee the implementation of the Arusha Accords. UNAMIR commander Dallaire learned of the Hutu Power movement during the early phase of deployment; in January 1994, a government informant alerted Dallaire to a group who were rapidly arming militias and planning mass extermination of Tutsi, and led UNAMIR to a secret arms cache. Dallaire sent a cable to the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) in New York, requesting permission to raid
472-550: A modicum of self-respect and effectiveness on the ground". Unfortunately, in the face of the mayhem in Rwanda and this diplomatic watering down of UNAMIR's mandate, many UN member states delayed contributing personnel for some time, until the main wave of killings ceased. In July 1994, the RPF swept into Kigali and ended the genocide that had lasted 100 days, and RPF leader Paul Kagame (who became president several years later—and still
531-412: A number of African states expressed a growing desire for more unity within the continent. Not everyone was agreed on how this unity could be achieved, however, and two opinionated groups emerged in this respect: Some of the initial discussions took place at Sanniquellie , Liberia. The dispute was eventually resolved when Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie I invited the two groups to Addis Ababa , where
590-557: A plane carrying President Habyarimana and President Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi was shot down near Kigali. What followed was the collapse of the unstable peace in Rwanda and the Rwandan genocide , estimated to have claimed between 800,000 and 1,017,100 Tutsi and Hutu victims over 100 days. Among the first targets of the genocide were Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana and ten Belgian members of 2nd Commando Battalion,
649-547: Is thus regarded as a major failure. In October 1990 the Rwandan Civil War began when the Rwandan Patriotic Front rebel group invaded across Uganda 's southern border into northern Rwanda. The RPF was composed of over 4,000 soldiers, mostly the children of Tutsi refugees who had fled anti-Tutsi purges in Rwanda between 1959 and 1963. It portrayed itself as a democratic, multi-ethnic movement and demanded an end to ethnic discrimination, to economic looting of
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#1732757872385708-477: Is today—but effectively controlled the country from July 1994 through the present) reaffirmed his commitment to the Arusha Accords. Following the end of the main killings the challenges for UNAMIR (and the many NGOs who arrived in the country) were to maintain the fragile peace, stabilise the government and, most importantly, care for the nearly 4 million displaced people in camps within Rwanda, Zaire, Tanzania, Burundi, and Uganda. The massive camps around Lake Kivu in
767-560: The Carr Center for Human Rights Policy , Harvard University , where he was studying and writing about different forms of conflict resolution. On 25 March 2005, he was appointed a Canadian senator , representing Québec as a member of the Liberal Party of Canada ; he serves on the committee for Human Rights . He also speaks publicly about his experiences relating to genocide , PTSD and suicide. While Dallaire's issues have been
826-564: The Hutu -dominated Rwandese government and the Tutsi -dominated rebel Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). The UNAMIR has received much attention for its role in failing, due to the limitations of its rules of engagement , to prevent the Rwandan genocide and outbreak of fighting. Its mandate extended past the RPF overthrow of the government and into the Great Lakes refugee crisis . The mission
885-504: The Paracommando Regiment operating as part of UNAMIR. These troops were murdered after handing over their weapons to Rwandan government troops. They were advised to do so by their battalion commander who was unclear on the legal issues with authorising them to defend themselves, even though they had already been under fire for approximately two hours. Following the death of Habyarimana, Dallaire liaised repeatedly with both
944-508: The 1970s, the OAU was powerless to stop them. The Organisation was praised by Ghanaian former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan for bringing Africans together. Nevertheless, critics argue that, in its 39 years of existence, the OAU did little to protect the rights and liberties of African citizens from their own political leaders, often dubbing it as a "Dictators' Club" or "Dictators' Trade Union". The OAU was, however, successful in some respects. Many of its members were members of
1003-470: The Crisis Committee and the RPF, in an attempt to re-establish peace. He addressed the government forces during the night of 6 April, expressing regret at Habyarimana's death but urging them to restrain the killings that had commenced; he also urged Kagame not to resume the civil war, to avoid escalating the violence and to give UNAMIR a chance to rein in the killings. Neither side was interested in
1062-559: The OAU and its headquarters were subsequently established. The Charter of the Organisation was signed by 32 independent African states. At the time of the OAU's disbanding, 53 out of the 54 African states were members; Morocco left on 12 November 1984 following the admission of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as the government of Western Sahara in 1982. The organisation was widely derided as
1121-604: The OAU as a forum for rhetoric, not action. Recognizing this, in September 1999 the OAU issued the Sirte Declaration , calling for a new body to take its place. On 9 July 2002, the OAU's Chairman , South African President Thabo Mbeki , formally dissolved the OAU and replaced it with the African Union (AU), its immediate successor, which upholds many of the founding principles of the OAU. The inception of
1180-792: The OAU's establishment was the Sanniquellie Pledge at the First West African Summit Conference held in Sanniquellie , Liberia on 15–19 July 1959. President Tubman of Liberia hosted President Touré of Guinea , and Prime Minister Nkrumah of Ghana , and the three pledged to work together for the formation of a "Community of Independent African States". The OAU was founded in May 1963 in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , by 32 African states with
1239-539: The RPF advance on the capital Kigali . In contrast, the government of Belgium , the former colonial power, cut all support to the Habyarimana regime, which viewed the action as abandonment. Thwarted by the French, the RPF suffered a humiliating retreat back into the Virunga Mountains along the border. After the demoralising death of Major-General Fred Rwigyema , the collapse of the RPF was prevented through
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#17327578723851298-592: The RPF and government, including one signed on 22 July 1992 in Arusha , Tanzania that resulted in the Organization of African Unity (OAU) establishing a 50-member Neutral Military Observer Group (NMOG I) led by Nigerian General Ekundayo Opaleye . The negotiations for a peace settlement continued in Arusha, interrupted by a massive RPF offensive in early February 1993. Rwanda continued to allege Ugandan support for
1357-457: The RPF invasion, which displaced approximately 600,000 people into crowded internally displaced person camps, also radicalised the Hutu populace. The Tutsi civilians in Rwanda, roughly 14% of the population, were labelled ibyitso ("accomplices") or inyenzi ("cockroaches"), who were accused of secretly aiding the RPF invaders. Anti-Tutsi propaganda was spread through the publication Kangura ,
1416-641: The RPF, which both the RPF and Uganda duly denied, but resulting in both countries sending letters to President of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) requesting that military observers be deployed along the border to verify that military supplies were not crossing. This resulted in the United Nations Observer Mission Uganda–Rwanda (UNOMUR) being approved by the UNSC on 22 June 1993 to deploy along
1475-584: The Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali was that the full cooperation of the parties with one another is essential for the United Nations to carry out its mandate. In this regard, a peace-keeping operation named UNAMIR was established for a period of six months subject to the proviso that it would be extended beyond the initial ninety days upon a review by the council as to whether progress had been made towards
1534-820: The South African government, and South African aircraft were prohibited from flying over the rest of the continent. The UN was convinced by the OAU to expel South Africa from bodies such as the World Health Organization . The OAU also worked with the UN to ease refugee problems. It set up the African Development Bank for economic projects intended to make Africa financially stronger. Although all African countries eventually won their independence , it remained difficult for them to become totally independent of their former colonisers. There
1593-462: The UN, too, and they stood together within the latter organisation to safeguard African interests – especially in respect of lingering colonialism. Its pursuit of African unity, therefore, was in some ways successful. Total unity was difficult to achieve, however, as the OAU was largely divided. The former French colonies, still dependent on France , had formed the Monrovia Group , and there
1652-551: The Ugandan side of the border. Seven days later, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali announced that Brigadier-General Dallaire was to be appointed the Chief Military Observer for UNOMUR, which reached its authorised strength of 81 observers by September. NMOG I was deployed inside Rwanda. In the meantime, talks in Arusha had reconvened on 16 March 1993, resulting in the signing of the Arusha Accords ,
1711-531: The administrative head of UNAMIR, Cameroonian Jacques-Roger Booh-Booh; the RPF accused Booh-Booh of partiality towards President Habyarimana and the Hutu elite. UNAMIR operated with very limited resources, and its efforts to install the transitional government were obstructed by President Habyarimana and the hardliners throughout early 1994. By April, the Security Council threatened to terminate UNAMIR's mandate if it did not make progress. On 6 April 1994,
1770-575: The assassinations of two major political leaders and the ambush of a UNAMIR-led convoy of RPF forces led the UNAMIR forces to move to a more defensive footing. UNAMIR thus contributed support to the military and civilian authorities in Rwanda, while the UN continued to place pressure on Habyarimana and the RPF to return to the ideas set forth in the Accords. The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) had been in Rwanda since October 1993, with
1829-808: The country by government elites and a stop to the security situation that continued to generate refugees. It was supported by the Ugandan government of Yoweri Museveni , who had come to power in the Ugandan Bush War with significant support from the Rwandan refugees in the country. However, the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR) was saved by reinforcements from France and Zaire , who backed the government of Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana , who had been in power since 1973. The French intervention of two parachute companies, explained as an attempt to protect its own nationals, actually blocked
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1888-468: The distribution of relief supplies and humanitarian relief operations". The Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) or head of the mission, was Jacques-Roger Booh-Booh of Cameroon . At the beginning of July 1994, Booh-Booh was replaced by Shahryar Khan of Pakistan . The military head and Force Commander was Canadian Brigadier-General (promoted Major-General during
1947-527: The end of the genocide in July, the role of UNAMIR II was largely confined to maintaining security and stability. UNAMIR withdrew from Rwanda in 1996, following the withdrawal of support by the RPF-led government. UNAMIR II and subsequent resolutions were still unclear on the right to use force in stopping the genocide. In one of Dallaire's parting cables, he said that "the [UN] force has been prevented from having
2006-528: The evacuation. After the Belgians left, Hutu militants entered and massacred everyone inside. On 12 April, the Belgian government, which was one of the largest troop contributors to UNAMIR, and had lost ten soldiers protecting Prime Minister Uwilingiliyimana, announced that it was withdrawing. Belgium also favoured a complete withdrawal of UNAMIR, and lobbied for this in the UN. Dallaire protested, arguing that
2065-465: The failure of UNAMIR in its main mission, its humanitarian services during the 1994 genocide are recognised to this day as having saved the lives of thousands or tens of thousands of Rwandan Tutsi and Hutu moderates who would have otherwise been killed. However, the actions of the UN in Rwanda (and particularly the Head of Peacekeeping Operations at the time, Kofi Annan ) have been used by some as examples of
2124-630: The focus of much attention, particularly in Canada, very little attention has been paid to the plight of the front line soldiers of the Canadian Contingent to UNAMIR who suffered from a rash of suicides, marital breakdowns and career ending diagnoses of PTSD following their return from Rwanda. United Nations Security Council Resolution 872 United Nations Security Council resolution 872 , adopted unanimously on 5 October 1993, after reaffirming resolutions 812 (1993) and 846 (1993) on
2183-461: The following primary aims: A Liberation Committee was established to aid independence movements and look after the interests of already-independent states. The OAU also aimed to stay neutral in terms of global politics, which would prevent them from being controlled once more by outside forces – an especial danger with the Cold War. The OAU had other aims, too: Soon after achieving independence,
2242-674: The force should be strengthened and given a new mandate to protect the thousands of refugees it was protecting, but the UN Security Council refused, telling Dallaire that UNAMIR would be effectively withdrawn unless the belligerents agreed to a ceasefire by early May. According to Philip Gourevitch , the United States, having recently suffered losses in the UN mission in Somalia , was particularly keen to "get out of Rwanda" and "leave it to its fate". New Zealand , which held
2301-490: The immediate insertion of approximately 5,000 troops, but his request was denied. For the next six weeks, approximately, UNAMIR coordinated peace talks between the Hutu government and the RPF to little avail. Eventually, on 17 May 1994, the UN agreed to reinforcement, that would deliver nearly 5,500 troops and much needed personnel carriers and other equipment to UNAMIR, which would be henceforth known as UNAMIR II. The new soldiers did not start arriving until June, and following
2360-474: The implementation of the Arusha Accords. The Security Council then decided that UNAMIR should have the following mandate: United Nations Observer Mission Uganda–Rwanda would be integrated into UNAMIR, and the council further approved Boutros-Ghali's decision stating that the deployment and withdrawal of UNAMIR should be carried out in stages, and in this connection, that UNAMIR's mandate, if extended, would be expected to terminate following national elections and
2419-551: The installation of a new government in Rwanda, scheduled to occur by October 1995. The secretary-general was authorised to deploy the first contingent of 2,548 troops to Kigali for an initial period of six months, allowing it to establish transitional institutions and implement other provisions of the Arusha Peace Agreement. There he was also asked to report on the progress of UNAMIR and the requirements for its further scale and composition. It also asked him to keep
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2478-551: The key aims of the OAU were to encourage political and economic integration among member states, and to eradicate colonialism and neo-colonialism from the African continent . The absence of an armed force like the United Nations peacekeepers left the organization with no means to enforce its decisions. It was also unwilling to become involved in the internal affairs of member nations, prompting some critics to claim
2537-413: The leadership of Paul Kagame . The RPF thus managed to retain control of a sliver of land in the north, from which it continued to launch raids. Comparing the RPF and FAR as he saw them in 1993, Canadian Lieutenant-General Roméo Dallaire noted that the rebels "had won all recent contests because of their superior leadership, training, experience, frugality, mobility, discipline and morale." However,
2596-553: The main aim of bringing the African nations together and resolve the issues within the continent. Its first ever conference was held on 1 May 1963 in Addis Ababa. At that conference, the late Gambian historian – and one of the leading Gambian nationalists and Pan-Africanists at the time – Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof delivered a speech in front of the member states, in which he said: The OAU had
2655-418: The maximum strength of the mission as low as possible, for example, through a phased deployment, and planning cuts had to be considered. The Secretary-General's intention to appoint a Special Representative who would be leading the mission was welcomed. The security council asked him an agreement on the status of the transaction to close within the 30 days was to take effect. Finally, the resolution called upon
2714-543: The mission to reach this level. On 5 April 1994, the UN voted to extend the mandate of UNAMIR to 29 July 1994, after expressing "deep concern at the delay in the establishment of the broad-based transitional Government and the Transitional National Assembly" and "concern at the deterioration in security in the country, particularly in Kigali." On 21 April 1994, the Security Council voted to reduce
2773-481: The mission) Roméo Dallaire . In August 1994, Dallaire, suffering from severe stress, was replaced as Force Commander by Major-General Guy Tousignant , also from Canada. In December 1995, Tousignant was replaced by Brigadier General Shiva Kumar from India. The Deputy Force Commander was Brigadier-General (promoted Major-General after the mission) Henry Kwami Anyidoho from Ghana. Troop contributing countries were Belgium, Bangladesh, Ghana, and Tunisia. Around 400 of
2832-535: The mission. The genocide and the spectre of mission failure had a profound effect on Dallaire. On his return to Canada he was diagnosed with acute posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); he became suicidal . He was eventually released from the Canadian army service on medical grounds. Dallaire received the Aegis Trust Award (the first) for his acts of bravery. In 2004–2005, he was awarded a fellowship at
2891-441: The northwest of Rwanda were holding about 1.2 million people and this was creating enormous security, health, and ecological problems. After the late arrival of the much-needed troop support, UNAMIR continued to carry out its mandate to the best of its abilities. In 1996, however, with assertion from the new Rwandese government that UNAMIR had failed in its priority mission, the UN withdrew the UNAMIR mandate on 8 March 1996. Despite
2950-534: The number of troops from 2,500 to 270 personnel in Resolution 912 . On 17 May 1994, the Security Council passed Resolution 918 , which expanded UNAMIR’s mandate to include the following additional responsibilities: "(a) To contribute to the security and protection of displaced persons , refugees and civilians at risk in Rwanda, including through the establishment and maintenance, where feasible, of secure humanitarian areas; (b) To provide security and support for
3009-702: The over-bureaucratic and dithering approach of the UN. (General Dallaire was particularly critical of Annan's performance.) Countries that contributed troops to UNAMIR throughout its existence were: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chad, Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Fiji, Germany, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, India, Jordan, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Netherlands, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Togo, Tunisia, United Kingdom, Uruguay, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Twenty-seven members of UNAMIR – 22 soldiers, three military observers, one civilian police and one local staff – lost their lives during
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#17327578723853068-544: The parties to guarantee the safety of United Nations personnel and for member states, specialised agencies and non-governmental organisations to contribute economic, financial and humanitarian assistance for the people and to the democratisation of Rwanda. Organization of African Unity The Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ; French : Organisation de l'unité africaine , OUA) was an African intergovernmental organization established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , with 33 signatory governments. Some of
3127-434: The rotating presidency of the UN Security Council, was the lone voice supporting reinforcement, and in late April, persuaded the council to postpone UNAMIR's withdrawal, despite continuing reluctance from the United States and United Kingdom. Though understaffed and abandoned, members of the UNAMIR forces did manage to save the lives of thousands of Tutsis in and around Kigali and the few areas of UN control. Dallaire requested
3186-643: The situation in Rwanda and Resolution 868 (1993) on the security of United Nations operations, the council stressed the need for an international force in the country and therefore established the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR). The signing of the Arusha Accords was welcomed and thanks were given for the efforts of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and Tanzania in this respect. The conclusion of
3245-458: The troops in this early part of the mission were Belgian soldiers, despite the fact that Rwanda had been a Belgian colony, and normally the UN bans the former colonial power from serving in such peace-keeping roles. Squabbling between interested parties delayed the UNAMIR goal of assisting the formation of the transitional government following the inauguration of President Habyarimana on 5 January 1994. The violent clashes that followed, including
3304-511: The weapons caches; the UN refused Dallaire's request to raid the arms, and rebuked him for exceeding his mandate. Dallaire's cable also informed the DPKO of the information concerning the genocide; it said: "Since UNAMIR mandate [the informant] has been ordered to register all Tutsi in Kigali. He suspects it is for their extermination. Example he gave was that in 20 minutes his personnel could kill up to 1000 Tutsis." Dallaire received little support from
3363-611: Was a further split between those that supported the United States and those that supported the USSR in the Cold War of ideologies. The pro- Socialist faction was led by Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah , while Félix Houphouët-Boigny of the Ivory Coast led the pro- capitalists . Because of these divisions, it was difficult for the OAU to take action against states involved in internal conflicts because it could rarely reach an agreement on what
3422-467: Was often continued reliance on the former colonial powers for economic aid, which often came with strings attached: loans had to be paid back at high interest-rates, and goods had to be sold to the aiders at low rates. The US and Soviet Union intervened in post-colonial Africa in pursuit of their own objectives. Help was sometimes provided in the form of technology and aid-workers. Despite the fight to keep "Westerners" (colonialists) out of African affairs,
3481-520: Was to be done. The OAU did play a pivotal role in eradicating colonialism and white minority rule in Africa. It gave weapons, training and military bases to rebel groups fighting white minority and colonial rule. Groups such as the ANC and PAC, fighting apartheid , and ZANU and ZAPU , fighting to topple the government of Rhodesia , were aided in their endeavours by the OAU. African harbours were closed to
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