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116-663: Made up of former members of the Ulster Special Constabulary it retained much of that organisation's structure and enjoyed strong support in some rural areas of Northern Ireland . Most of those who established the group had been members of the USCA, which had disbanded around a year before the establishment of the USC. The group was established in 1976 by the United Unionist Action Council,

232-495: A coup d'état , or working through traditional means in a political system to bring about change. Furthermore, external subversion is where, "the aggressor state attempts to recruit and assist indigenous political and military actors to overthrow their government by coup d’état". If subversion fails in its goal of bringing about a coup it is possible that the actors and actions of the subversive group could transition to insurrection , insurgency , and/or guerilla warfare . The word

348-522: A vigilante group to provide defence against incursions by the IRA. Brooke himself had been personally affected by the organisation, as his son had been a victim of kidnapping. In Ballymacarrett , a Protestant rector named John Redmond had helped form a unit of ex-servicemen to keep the peace after the July riots. There was a willingness to arm or recognise existing Protestant militias. Wilfrid Spender, head of

464-514: A book on the practices and methods of this agency published in 2019, yet he rarely uses the noun "subversion", remarkably. While presenting and describing extensively the Russian and French methods of subversion and counter-subversion, he explains that the French intelligence community in particular uses the term guerre de l’information , or "information warfare". Then information warfare subsumes

580-619: A defensive organisation were accepted and, as was the case with the Ulster Defence Association at the time, no attempt was made to ban the group. The fate of the USC is unclear although the failure of the 1977 strike saw the collapse of the UUUC and an end to the Baird-Paisley alliance. Ulster Special Constabulary The Ulster Special Constabulary ( USC ; commonly called the " B-Specials " or " B Men ")

696-432: A difficult process. As Laurence Beilenson points out, "To criticize a government in an effort to reform it or to change its policies is not subversion, even though such criticism may contribute to overthrow. But criticism intended to help a projected overthrow becomes subversive without regard to whether it is right or wrong." Subversion can generally be broken down into internal and external subversion, but this distinction

812-655: A margin of 57 to 10. In 1943, the Supreme Court ruled that an avowed publisher of the Communist doctrine could be naturalized a citizen of the United States in Schneiderman v. United States , 320 U.S. 118 (1943). Aptheker v. Secretary of State tested in 1964 whether a passport could be disallowed to a Communist. Aptheker won. Elfbrandt v. Russell involved questions concerning

928-518: A nation with money, arms, supplies, or other help to dissidents can it be called external subversion. Subversive actions can generally be grouped into three interrelated categories: Other factors, while not specifically falling into these categories, may also be useful to subversive dissidents. Additionally, many tools may overlap into other groups of tools as well. As an example, subversives may infiltrate an organization for cultural subversion more so than for control. Civil unrest may be used to provoke

1044-746: A number of other nouns, sometimes of Russian origin, each denoting a specific action that may actually describe an action of subversion or counter-subversion. Coming to add to the latter difference in perception of the action of subversion, he further says that information warfare in the French intelligence community is ruled itself by active measures that the DGSE, acting as leading intelligence agency in France, adopted as an "all-encompassing" doctrine. Indeed, active measures in France would regulate not only all intelligence and counterintelligence activities, but also foreign affairs and diplomacy, domestic politics, and even

1160-654: A patrol which entered the Free State refused to surrender to the local IRA garrison and took four dead and eight wounded in a firefight. In addition to action against the IRA, the USC may have been involved in a number of attacks on Catholic civilians in reprisal for IRA actions, for example, in Belfast, the McMahon Murders of March 1922, in which six Catholics were killed, and the Arnon Street killings

1276-512: A period of time draw suspicion from the public. The official must be able to carefully conceal their actions or perform only key functions and action. For these reasons, bribed officials are most effective when they are asked to take immediate action. In the case of external subversion, bribery is usually used for influence rather than for actions. Recent writers, in the post-modern and post-structuralist traditions (including, particularly, environmentalist and feminist writers) have prescribed

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1392-475: A political system through integration of political warfare and political action and the targeting of cultural vehicles and institutions is another tool of subversion. The use of the arts or more broadly culture is primarily a tool for external subversives, as internal subversives are generally citizens of the country and share the same culture. It is a tool that takes a longer period of time to implement and its effects are revealed over time, as opposed to those of

1508-503: A process by which the values and principles of a system in place are contradicted or reversed in an attempt to sabotage the established social order and its structures of power , authority , tradition , hierarchy , and social norms . Subversion can be described as an attack on the public morale and, "the will to resist intervention are the products of combined political and social or class loyalties which are usually attached to national symbols. Following penetration, and parallel with

1624-522: A result was viewed with great mistrust by Catholics. It carried out several revenge killings and reprisals against Catholic civilians in the 1920–22 conflict. See The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922) and Timeline of the Irish War of Independence . Unionists generally supported the USC as contributing to the defence of Northern Ireland from subversion and outside aggression. The Special Constabulary

1740-426: A scientific approach akin to behaviorism , called "behavioral biology" ( French : biologie comportementale ) initially established in the early 1980s by French military scientist Henri Laborit . Additionally, the narrative, or "formal aims" of the action of subversion — when there is one, as behavioral biology focuses on acting on the unconscious, or id, locating in the reptilian brain as defined by Paul D. MacLean —

1856-489: A stream." Economics can be both a tool of the internal and external subversive. For the external subversive simply cutting off credit can cause severe economic problems for a country. An example of this is the United States' relations with Chile in the early 1970s. In an attempt to get Salvador Allende removed from office, the United States tried to weaken the Chilean economy. Chile received little foreign investments and

1972-812: A sub-committee of the United Ulster Unionist Council (UUUC). It had links to the Orange Order and held meetings at Orange halls but the Order decided against establishing any formal links with the USC, instead continuing to encourage its members to join the official security forces rather than vigilante groups. During early 1977 it set up roadblocks in parts of County Londonderry , County Armagh and County Tyrone and also claimed to have spent time observing Provisional Irish Republican Army "safe houses" in order to collect data on them. During its roadblocks and related patrols some members of

2088-410: A terrorist attack or civil unrest. Therefore, one could classify this tool as an element of strategic subversion. The targets of cultural subversive activities are traditionally film, literature, popular music, educational institutions, mass media, religious organizations, charitable organizations, and other forms of art. The intended results of these activities are to persuade or co-opt publics, discredit

2204-415: A threat to national security and China has prosecuted many dissidents including Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo using these laws. Of these, Articles 105 and 111 are the ones most commonly employed to silence political dissent. Article 105 criminalizes organizing, plotting, or carrying out subversion of the national order, or using rumor mongering or defamation or other means to incite subversion of

2320-405: A tool to achieve their goals. Subversion is a manpower-intensive strategy and many groups lack the manpower and political and social connections to carry out subversive activities. However, actions taken by terrorists may have a subversive effect on society. Subversion can imply the use of insidious, dishonest, monetary, or violent methods to bring about such change. This is in contrast to protest ,

2436-460: A very broad form of subversion. It is not directly the parliamentary government which should be subverted in their view, but the dominant cultural forces, such as patriarchy , individualism , and scientism . This broadening of the target of subversion owes much to the ideas of Antonio Gramsci , who stressed that communist revolution required the erosion of the particular form of ' cultural hegemony ' within society . Theodor Adorno argued that

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2552-597: A week later which killed another six. On 2 May 1922, in revenge for the IRA killing of six policemen in counties Londonderry and Tyrone, Special Constables killed nine Catholic civilians in the area. The conflict never formally ended but petered out in June 1922, with the outbreak of the Irish Civil War in the Free State and the wholesale arrest and internment of IRA activists in the North. Collins continued to arrange

2668-415: Is actions taken by another country in cooperation with those inside the subverted country and can be used as a tool of statecraft. Foreign volunteers from another country are not enough to qualify for external subversion. The reason for this is that the individuals may legitimately share the cause of the internal subversive dissidents and have legitimately volunteered. Only when the government itself furnishes

2784-595: Is at the origin of this particular use of the word sleepwalker. Morin often said, " Eveillés, ils dorment " ('Awaken, they sleep'), quoting his own way Greek philosopher Heraclitus . Thus, Morin implied that, as taken collectively, ordinary people who constitute the masses are too stupid to make the difference between the truth, influence, propaganda, and disinformation. For the record, the exact and complete English translation of Morin's quote above is, "All men do walk in sleep, and all have faith in that they dream: for all things are as they seem to all, and all things flow like

2900-402: Is defined in accordance with fundamentals in epistemology , another Russian import in French information warfare and active measures. The expression "awareness raising" "was a Soviet import that occurred in France during the preparatory stage of the riots and general strikes of May 1968. It happened in the early months of the latter year, first as a sophisticated technique in agitprop known in

3016-406: Is expected in active measures, is explained and ruled by the disciplines of fuzzy logic and chaos theory , and generally aims to breed doubt, confusion, or inhibition, and then angst, discontent, or fear in the minds of people. Remarkably, French experts in domestic influence and subversion use colloquially the noun "sleepwalkers" ( French : somnanbules ) to call "all ordinary people composing

3132-524: Is no crime defined as "subversion" (as opposed to treason ) in British constitutional law . Attempts have been made to introduce definitions but there is no general consensus among political and legal theorists. Historically MI5 were entrusted with the legal investigative powers for concerns of threats to national security by subversion, but in the Security Service Act 1989 , subversion

3248-416: Is not meant to imply that each follows a specific set of unique and separate tools and practices. Each subversive campaign is different because of the social, political, economic, cultural, and historical differences that each country has. Subversive activities are employed based upon an evaluation of these factors. This breakdown merely clarifies who the actors are. While the subversive actors may be different,

3364-403: Is not subversion. Espionage does not count as subversion because it is not an action that leads directly to an overthrow of a government. Information gathered from espionage may be used to plan and carry out subversive activities. To gain an understanding of what is considered to be subversive requires understanding the intent of those taking action. This makes defining and identifying subversion

3480-590: Is present in all languages of Latin origin, originally applying to such events as the military defeat of a city. As early as the 14th century, it was being used in the English language with reference to laws, and in the 15th century came to be used with respect to the realm. The term has taken over from ' sedition ' as the name for illicit rebellion , though the connotations of the two words are rather different; sedition suggesting overt attacks on institutions, subversion something much more surreptitious, such as eroding

3596-463: Is something or someone carrying the potential for some degree of subversion. In this context, a "subversive" is sometimes called a " traitor " with respect to (and usually by) the government in power. Subversion is also often a goal of comedians, artists and people in those careers. In this case, being subversive can mean questioning, poking fun at, and undermining the established order in general. Terrorist groups generally do not employ subversion as

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3712-536: Is the same in its principle as the other method of 'minority influence' in agitprop." "An action of awareness raising in active measures may aim to influence the opinion of the public in one's own country or that of a foreign country or both, and its goal is to make masses of people receptive to a concern that may be either true and founded, or false and ill-founded in reality, or neither entirely true and founded nor entirely false and ill-founded but "somewhere between these two absolutes." The latter hypothesis, which often

3828-554: The Marshall Plan , communists in France would "deliberately provoke the police and gendarmerie into acts of repressive violence in order to exploit the resulting 'martyrs to the cause' for propaganda purposes." These martyrs and subsequent propaganda can be useful in turning political and social groups against each other. The less violent forms of unrest, "such as worker absenteeism, passive resistance, boycotts, and deliberate attempts to cripple government agencies by 'overloading

3944-515: The Royal Ulster Constabulary although the security forces strenuously denied that any such activity took place. A number of its members were brought to court for public order offences and it was condemned by the government, who accused the group of wasting time by forcing them to divert much needed security forces away from their activities in order to deal with USC roadblocks and obstruction. Nonetheless its claims to be purely

4060-596: The Russian Revolution . The House Un-American Activities Committee was formed in 1938 in order to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having Communist ties. Senator Joseph McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion. The term " McCarthyism ," coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, including public attacks on

4176-525: The Ulster Volunteers (UVF), (the unionist militia formed in 1912) should be used for this purpose". Wilfrid Spender , the former UVF quartermaster in 1913–14, and by now a decorated war veteran, was appointed by Craig to form and run the USC. UVF units were "incorporated en masse" into the new USC. The idea of a volunteer police force in the north appealed to British Prime Minister David Lloyd George for several practical reasons; it freed up

4292-429: The culture industry and its shallow entertainment was a system by which society was controlled through a top-down creation of standardized culture that intensified the commodification of artistic expression; in 1938, he said that capitalism has colonized every aspect of life so much that "every pleasure which emancipates itself from the exchange-value takes on subversive features." Using culture to bring about change to

4408-676: The partition of Ireland . The 1919–21 Irish War of Independence , saw the Irish Republican Army (IRA) launch a guerrilla campaign in pursuit of Irish independence. Unionists in Ireland's northeast were vehemently against this campaign and against Irish independence. However, once it became apparent that the British government was committed to implementing Dominion Status for all of Ireland outside Ulster in response to Sinn Féin's demands, which were far more radical than those of

4524-554: The 1956–1962 IRA Border Campaign . During its existence, 95 USC members were killed in the line of duty. Most of these (72) were killed in conflict with the IRA in 1921 and 1922. Another 8 died during the Second World War, in air raids or IRA attacks. Of the remainder, most died in accidents but two former officers were killed during the Troubles in the 1980s. The force was almost exclusively Ulster Protestant and as

4640-400: The 1960s Sten and Sterling submachine guns were also used. In most cases these weapons were retained at home by the constables along with a quantity of ammunition. One of the reasons for this was to enable rapid call out of platoons , via a runner from the local RUC station, without the need to issue arms from a central armoury. 'A Special' platoons were fully mobile using a Ford car for

4756-672: The British Administration in Dublin) shared his fears, "you cannot, in the middle of a faction fight, recognise one of the contending parties and expect it to deal with disorder in the spirit of impartiality and fairness essential in those who have to carry out the order of the Government." The Irish nationalist press was less reserved. The Fermanagh Herald noted the opposition of Irish nationalists: These "Special Constables" will be nothing more and nothing less than

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4872-612: The British government. The composition of the USC was overwhelmingly Protestant and Unionist, for a number of reasons. Several informal "constabulary" groups had already been created, for example, in Belfast, Fermanagh and Antrim. The Ulster Unionist Labour Association had established an "unofficial special constabulary," with members drawn chiefly from the shipyards, tasked with 'policing' Protestant areas. In April 1920, Captain Sir Basil Brooke (future Prime Minister of Northern Ireland ), had set up "Fermanagh Vigilance",

4988-463: The Dromore UVF were said to have supervised the expulsion of Catholic families from Dromore. A further detail was that many UVF units joined the new Constabulary, with their commanders being appointed to senior positions. Unsuccessful efforts were made to attract more Catholics into the force, but these largely failed. One reason for this was that Catholic members were more easily targeted by

5104-593: The Dublin government but also from some elements of the British military and administrative establishment in Ireland and in the British press, which saw the USC as a potentially divisive and sectarian force. In the British House of Commons, the leader of the Nationalist Party of Northern Ireland, Joseph Devlin , formerly a leading member of the now defunct Irish Parliamentary Party, made his feelings on

5220-661: The Free State, and Liam Lynch , leader of the Anti-Treaty IRA faction. This was despite the Craig-Collins Agreement which was signed by the leaders of Northern Ireland and the Free State on 30 March, and envisaged the end of IRA activity and a reduced role for the USC. The renewed IRA campaign involved attacking barracks, burning commercial buildings and making a large-scale incursion into Northern Ireland, occupying Belleek and Pettigo in May–June, which

5336-524: The IRA for intimidation and assassination. The government suggested that, with enough Catholic recruits, special constabulary patrols made up of Catholics only could be extended into Catholic areas. However, the Nationalist Party and Ancient Order of Hibernians discouraged their members from joining. The IRA issued a statement which said that any Catholics who joined the Specials would be treated as traitors and would be dealt with accordingly. The USC

5452-868: The Irish Free State. Partition was enacted by the British Parliament in the Government of Ireland Act 1920 . Two main factors were behind the formation of the Ulster Special Constabulary. One was the desire of Unionists, led by Sir James Craig (then a junior minister in the British Government, and later the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland ), that the apparatus of government and security should be placed in their hands long before Northern Ireland

5568-468: The Irish War of Independence .) With police and troops being drawn towards combating insurgency in the south and west, Unionists wanted a force that would be dedicated to taking on the IRA. At a 2 September 1920 meeting of government Ministers in London Craig said that the loyal population was losing faith in the government's ability to protect them and that loyalist paramilitary groups threatened, in

5684-533: The Irish administration, refused to approve the new force but were overridden; Lloyd George approved of it from the beginning. Macready and Henry Hughes Wilson argued that the concept of a special constabulary was a dangerous one. Wilson warned the formation of a partisan constabulary "would mean; taking sides, civil war and savage reprisals." John Anderson , the Under Secretary for Ireland (head of

5800-597: The Northern Ireland Government. Michael Collins planned a clandestine guerrilla campaign against Northern Ireland using the IRA. In early 1922, he sent IRA units to the border areas and arms to northern units. On 6 December the Northern authorities ordered an end to the Truce with the IRA. The Special Constabulary was, as well as an auxiliary to the police, effectively an army under the control of

5916-564: The Northern Ireland administration. By incorporating the former UVF into the USC as the C1 Specials, the Belfast government had created a mobile reserve of at least two brigades of experienced troops in addition to the A and B Classes who, between them, made up at least another operational infantry brigade, which could be used in the event of further hostilities, and were in early 1922. The USC's most intense period of deployment

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6032-524: The RIC and military for use elsewhere in Ireland, it was cheap, and it did not need new legislation. Special Constabulary Acts had been enacted in 1832 and 1914, meaning that the administration in Dublin Castle only had to use existing laws to create it. The formation of the Ulster Special Constabulary was therefore announced on 22 October 1920. On 1 November 1920, the scheme was officially announced by

6148-585: The RUC. The Special Constabulary were called out during the 12 July period in Belfast in 1931 after sectarian rioting broke out. The B Specials were tasked to relieve the RUC from normal duties, to allow them and the British Army to deal with the disturbances. In 1936 the British advocacy group - the National Council for Civil Liberties characterized the USC as "nothing but the organised army of

6264-612: The Soviet KGB under the name сенсибилизация ( siencibilizatz’iya ), otherwise used in the other field of epistemology in Soviet Union. In France, the latter Russian word was given definitively the translation 'sensibilisation' (without equivalent in English) circa March 1968, as this word, sounding similar, already existed with other meanings in this country. The latter facts explain why sensibilisation / 'awareness raising'

6380-619: The Specials as an excuse for arming the Orangemen and an act even more atrocious than the creation of the ' Black and Tans '! Their fury was natural as they saw that the Specials might well mean that they would be unable to intimidate and subdue the North by Force. Their skilful propaganda set about blackening the image of Special Constables, trying to identify them with the worst elements of the Protestant mobs in Belfast. They sought to magnify and distort every incident and to stir up hatred of

6496-451: The USC carried guns, although these were generally legally held firearms. During a speech in the House of Commons Ian Paisley even claimed that he had participated in these patrols and both he and Ernest Baird promoted the USC and encouraged their supporters to seek membership of the group. Baird hoped that he could use the USC as his private army in the event of civil unrest resulting from

6612-605: The USC itself and more broadly, from the Northern Irish state. After the end of the 1920–22 conflict, the Special Constabulary was re-organised. The regular Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) took over normal policing duties. The 'A' and 'C' categories of the USC were dispensed with, leaving only the B-Specials, who functioned as a permanent reserve force, and armed and uniformed in the same manner as

6728-633: The UUAC strike of 1977. Its relationship with the security forces was complicated and subject to a number of counter-claims. The Social Democratic and Labour Party claimed that the group was involved in collusion with the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) and that the two groups even conducted joint patrols in Mid-Ulster. The USC itself confirmed that it worked with members of both the UDR and

6844-609: The Ulster Volunteer Force, encouraged his members to join. For these groups, was an immediate and illicit supply of arms available, especially from the Ulster Volunteers. Charles Wickham , Chief of Police for the north of Ireland, favoured incorporation of the Ulster Volunteers into "regular military units" instead of having to "face them down". A number of these groups were absorbed into the new Ulster Special Constabulary. Nationalists pointed out that

6960-606: The Unionist party". During the Second World War , the USC was mobilised to serve in Britain's Home Guard , which unusually, was put under the command of the police rather than the British Army. Between 1956 and 1962, the Special Constabulary was again mobilised to combat a guerrilla campaign launched by the IRA . Subversion Subversion (from Latin subvertere  'overthrow') refers to

7076-410: The activities of the major industrial and business companies and groups in this country, since a period he locates between 1980 and 1982. For all the latter would be logically called to partake in a common and coherent effort in intelligence, counterintelligence, influence, and counterinfluence on the French soil as abroad. Actually, the French intelligence community, and the DGSE in particular, always use

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7192-459: The basis of belief in the status quo or setting people against each other. The problem with defining the term subversion is that there is not a single definition that is universally accepted. Charles Townshend described subversion as a term "so elastic as to be virtually devoid of meaning, and its use does little more than convey the enlarged sense of the vulnerability of modern systems to all kinds of covert assaults." What follows are some of

7308-534: The categories of treason , sedition , diversion , sabotage , or espionage are placed in the category of subversive activity. Subversion ( Chinese : 颠覆 ; pinyin : Diānfù ) is a crime in Mainland China . The Government of the People's Republic of China prosecutes subversives under Articles 102 through 112 of the state criminal law. These articles specify the types of behavior that constitute

7424-601: The character or patriotism of political opponents, was soon applied to similar anti-communist activities. Senator Pat McCarran sponsored the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950 and the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 , both of which were hotly contested in the law courts, and by Harry Truman , who went so far as to veto the former; however, the veto was overridden in the Senate by

7540-550: The citizenry either by cutting off trade or by depriving it of resources. The internal subversive can also use economics to put pressure on the government through use of the strike. An example of this is the Chilean Truckers' Strike during the 1970s. The strike prevented the transport of food staples and forced nearly 50% of the national economy to cease production. Activities of these kinds create human, economic, and political problems that, if not addressed, can challenge

7656-493: The competency of the government. As defined by Laurence Beilenson, agitation is "subversive propaganda by action such as mass demonstrations or the political strike, that is, a strike not intended to benefit the union or workers in the ordinary sense, but intended instead against the government." Furthermore, propaganda and agitation, even when they are legal forms of freedom of speech, press, and assembly can still be classified as subversive activity. These tools further demonstrate

7772-480: The composition of the USC was overwhelmingly Protestant and loyal, claiming the government was arming Protestants to attack Catholics. In addition, a number of Special Constables, newly appointed by the Lisburn Urban Council, had been charged with rioting and looting committed over three days and nights following the assassination of RIC Inspector Oswald Swanzy. During that same time period, members of

7888-551: The constitutionality of an Arizona Act requiring an oath from state employees. William O. Douglas wrote in 1966 for a strongly divided court the majority opinion that the State could not require the oath and accompanying statutory gloss. The Warren court ruled by 5–4 majority in Keyishian v. Board of Regents (of SUNY ) to strike down New York State law that prohibited membership by professors in any organization that advocated

8004-432: The counties. The districts were based on the existing RIC divisions. The constables drew pistols and truncheons before going on patrol and considerable efforts were made to use them only in Protestant areas. This did free up regular policemen who were generally more acceptable to most Ulster Catholics. By July 1921, more than 3,500 'A' Specials had been enrolled, and almost 16,000 'B' Specials. By 1922 recruiting had swelled

8120-399: The creation of the USC clear: "The Chief Secretary is going to arm pogromists to murder Catholics...we would not touch your special constabulary with a 40 foot pole. Their pogrom is to be made less difficult. Instead of paving stones and sticks they are to be given rifles." Sir Nevil Macready , General Officer Commanding-in-chief of the British Army in Ireland, along with his supporters in

8236-500: The decisions and actions of another government." Subversion — "A destructive, aggressive activity aimed to destroy the country, nation , or geographical area of your enemy... [by demoralizing the cultural values and changing the population's perception of reality]. Subversion — Roger Trinquier defined subversion as a term that could be lumped together under the name modern warfare, "as being interlocking systems of actions, political, economic, psychological and military that aims at

8352-528: The defunct Irish Parliamentary Party, Unionists in most of the province of Ulster directed their energies into the partition of Ireland by the creation of Northern Ireland as an autonomous region in the United Kingdom. The new region would consist of two thirds of Ulster , the six counties that Unionists could control. The other three counties (Donegal, Monaghan, and Cavan) had disproportionately Catholic and nationalist majorities and would become part of

8468-515: The deployment of professionally trained soldiers. Uniforms were not available at the outset so the men of the B Specials went on duty in their civilian clothes wearing an armband to signify they were Specials. Uniforms did not become available until 1922. Uniforms took the same pattern as RIC/RUC dress with high collared tunics. Badges of rank were displayed on the right forearm of the jacket. The Special Constables were armed with Webley .38 revolvers and also Lee–Enfield rifles and bayonets . By

8584-542: The direction of the subversive group. The infiltration of state organizations can provide subversive groups the opportunity to do many things to achieve their goals. The infiltration of security forces can provide information about the government's capabilities and how they plan to address the group's activities. Infiltration also provides the opportunity to plant false information, lead the government to misallocate resources, to steal funds, weapons, equipment, and other resources, and ultimately aid in weakening and delegitimizing

8700-490: The dregs of the Orange lodges, armed and equipped to overawe Nationalists and Catholics, and with a special object and special facilities and special inclination to invent 'crimes' against Nationalists and Catholics... they are the very classes whom an upright Government would try to keep powerless... Vice Admiral Sir Arthur Hezlet in the official History of the Ulster Special Constabulary , contended that "Sinn Fein regarded

8816-423: The force even before it started to function." The standard of training was varied. In Belfast, the Specials were trained in much the same way as the regular police whereas in rural areas the USC was focused on counter-guerrilla operations. In 1922, B Specials received two weeks training and A Specials were initially given six weeks training. The amount of training was clearly inadequate for a conflict that warranted

8932-457: The forced disintegration of political and social institutions of the state, these tendencies may be detached and transferred to the political or ideological cause of the aggressor". Subversion is used as a tool to achieve political goals because it generally carries less risk, cost, and difficulty as opposed to open belligerency . Furthermore, it is a relatively cheap form of warfare that does not require large amounts of training. A subversive

9048-584: The government into a violent response. In order for a group to be successful in subverting a government, the group itself and its ideas must be seen as an acceptable alternative to the status quo. However, groups that work toward subverting a government, in many cases, follow ideas and promote goals that on their surface would not receive the support of the population. Therefore, "to gain public credibility, attract new supporters, generate revenue, and acquire other resources, groups need to undertake political activities that are entirely separate, or appear separate, from

9164-409: The government is not being a good steward in protecting these values, the use of tools like literature, film, music can be used as a reminder of these values, as well as a forum to protest and question the government's legitimacy. Additionally, art and culture allow people to connect on an emotional level that could soften negative perceptions one may be believed to have. Once the stigma has been removed,

9280-460: The government. The targets of infiltration are not limited to the groups and institutions mentioned above. Economic industries and universities have also been the target for infiltration. In the case of universities, the liberal arts departments are more prone to subversion than the hard sciences. Dominique Poirier, former employee and specialist in communication warfare in the French intelligence service, DGSE , describes extensively subversion in

9396-410: The ideas of enemies and splitting factions within the enemy's camp. The state is charged with the protection of the civilizational values of society (liberty, equality, comradeship, compassion, democracy, education, the family, religion, rule of law, human and civil rights, etc.), "including the cultural/aesthetic values that enhance the quality of life and maintain its legitimacy." In situations where

9512-616: The latter explanation, teaching the masses on methods and techniques in foreign influence would be effective and salutary, doubtless, but at the same time it would reveal to them the influence and propaganda that their own government tailors and spreads for them. ... In the DGSE, a rule alluding colloquially to this particular definition of sleepwalker says, Ils dorment ; ne les réveillez pas ('They [the masses] sleep, don't wake them up'). Edgar Morin , French communist philosopher, sociologist, intelligence officer, and founder of modern methods and techniques of mass influence and manipulation

9628-411: The loss of credit prevented Chile from purchasing vital imports. An economic pressure of this kind prevents an economy from functioning and reduces a country's standard of living. If the reduction is too great, the people may become willing to support a change in the government's leadership. The main objective of economic pressures is to make it difficult for the country to fulfill its basic obligations to

9744-551: The many attempts to define the term: " Subversion is the undermining or detachment of the loyalties of significant political and social groups within the victimized state, and their transference, under ideal conditions, to the symbols and institutions of the aggressor." " Subversion — Actions designed to undermine the military, economic, psychological, or political strength or morale of a governing authority." " Subversive Activity — Anyone lending aid, comfort, and moral support to individuals, groups, or organizations that advocate

9860-478: The masses. The reason justifying the choice of this noun, pejorative in a sense, is that an overwhelming majority of ʻordinary peopleʼ are unable to tell the difference between neutral, objective information (news) and propaganda intended to influence. As seen from the viewpoint of specialists, the whole population behaves as millions of 'sleepwalkers' ready to believe anything the media, authors, and agents of influence tell and write, indifferently. The reason explaining

9976-681: The national order or the overthrow of the socialist system. Article 111 prohibits stealing, secretly collecting, purchasing, or illegally providing state secrets or intelligence to an organization, institution, or personnel outside the country. Subversion was criminalised in Hong Kong on 30 June 2020 by Hong Kong national security law . Subversion is a crime in Italy ( Attentato alla Costituzione ) under Article 283 of Italian criminal law ( Codice penale italiano ) and Associazione sovversiva under Articles 270 and 270- bis . There

10092-414: The naïveté is that people tend to believe at its face value everything is formally published and broadcast, by wrongly attributing some official and unanimously approved virtue to media such as print and audiovisual periodical publications, books, and similar. Then the greater the number of people truly or apparently involved in the publishing / broadcasting of a fact or fallacy is, the truer it seems to be in

10208-423: The need to determine intent of those taking action to identify subversive activities. Civil unrest creates many of the problems that an insurgency campaign does. First of all it is an affront to government authority, and if the government is unable to quell the unrest it leads to an erosion of state power. This loss of power stems from the people's lack of trust in the government to maintain law and order. In turn,

10324-478: The nouns "interference" ( French : ingérence ) and "counterinterference" ( contre-ingérence ) to name "subversion" and "counter-subversion" respectively. The DGSE and one other intelligence agency of this country at least are particularly active in subversive activities abroad, often in a joint effort with the Russian foreign intelligence service, SVR RF , with a focus on the United States, Dominique Poirier specifies from firsthand knowledge and experience spanning

10440-416: The numbers to: 5,500 A Specials, 19,000 B Specials and 7,500 C1 Specials. Their duties would include combatting the urban guerrilla operations of the IRA, and the suppression of the local IRA in rural areas. In addition they were to prevent border incursion, smuggling of arms and escape of fugitives. From the outset, the formation of the USC came in for widespread criticism, mostly from Irish nationalists and

10556-464: The officer in charge, two armoured cars and four Crossley Tenders (one for each of the sections). B Specials generally deployed on foot but could be supplied with vehicles from the police pool. Deployment of the USC during the Anglo-Irish War provided the Northern Ireland government with its own territorial militia to fight the IRA. The use of Specials to reinforce the RIC also allowed for

10672-423: The organization and is in fact one of the subversives. Bribery is one of the most common tools of subversion. Most societies see bribery as a form of corruption , and it used as a subversive tool because it "implies the undermining of existing rules of political or moral conduct." It can also be one of the less reliable tools as well. Bribed officials are only useful if they take action. However, actions taken over

10788-687: The organization and then links those needs to solutions that his ideology can provide. This was a technique that the Communist Party USA employed. Once the organization has been co-opted, the dissident can then move on to establishing ties with other groups. Furthermore, in addition to gaining possible legitimacy for its ideas the infiltration of these groups can "bolster political allies, attack government policies, and attract international support." If some organizations are too difficult to infiltrate, it may be necessary to create new organizations that appear to be independent but are actually under

10904-557: The overthrow of incumbent governments by force and violence is subversive and is engaged in subversive activity. All willful acts that are intended to be detrimental to the best interests of the government and that do not fall into the categories of treason, sedition , sabotage, or espionage will be placed in the category of subversive activity." " Subversive Political Action — A planned series of activities designed to accomplish political objectives by influencing, dominating, or displacing individuals or groups who are so placed as to affect

11020-423: The overthrow of established authority in a country." Defining and understanding subversion means identifying entities, structures, and things that can be subverted. Furthermore, it may help to identify practices and tools that are not subversive. Institutions and morals can be subverted, but ideology on the other hand cannot. The fall of a government or the creation of a new government as a result of an external war

11136-409: The overtly violent activities of those groups. Sometimes this is achieved by infiltrating political parties, labor unions , community groups, and charitable organizations ." Infiltrating organizations is an important tool because these institutions are already seen as legitimate in the eyes of the people and provide a platform to express their ideas. When infiltrating, the dissident identifies needs of

11252-431: The people begin to question whether or not new leadership is needed. Discrediting, disarming, and demoralizing the government is the goal of these activities and the cause of the government's loss of power. Civil unrest depletes resources as the government is forced to spend more money on additional police. Additionally, civil unrest may be used to provoke a response from the government. In the 1940s, during strikes against

11368-438: The people or leaders. Additionally, much like civil unrest and agitation, it raises the question of whether or not the state can provide security for the population. Terror also provides a practical motivation of physically removing political opponents. The assassination of an organization's leader may open the door to a successor that is more friendly to the subversives position or possibly someone that has successfully infiltrated

11484-525: The re-opening of over 20 barracks in rural areas which had previously been abandoned because of IRA attacks. The cost of maintaining the USC in 1921–22 was £1,500,000. Their conduct towards the Catholic population was criticised on a number of occasions. In February 1921, Specials and UVF men burned down ten Catholic houses in the County Fermanagh village of Roslea after a Special who lived in

11600-465: The recruitment of more Catholics to form "Catholic only" patrols to cover Catholic areas, but this was not acted upon. After the Truce between the IRA and the British on 11 July 1921, the USC was demobilised by the British and the IRA was given official recognition while peace talks were ongoing. However, the force was remobilised in November 1921, after security powers were transferred from London to

11716-422: The soon to be subverted targets are the same. As Paul W. Blackstock identifies, the ruling and political elites are the ultimate targets of persuasion because they control the physical instruments of state power. Internal subversion is actions taken by those within a country and can be used as a tool of power. In most cases the use or threat of force is the last step of internal subversion. External subversion

11832-425: The state and its citizens is created. The government is then seen as unresponsive or out of touch with its people. Subversive activity is the lending of aid, comfort, and moral support to individuals, groups, or organizations that advocate the overthrow of incumbent governments by force and violence. All willful acts that are intended to be detrimental to the best interests of the government and that do not fall into

11948-586: The supply of arms covertly to the Northern IRA until shortly before his death in August 1922. Assessments of the USC's role in this conflict vary. Unionists have written that the Special Constabulary, "saved Northern Ireland from anarchy" and "subdued the IRA", while nationalist authors have judged that their treatment of the Catholic community, including, "widespread harassment and a significant number of reprisal killings" permanently alienated nationalists from

12064-458: The system' with false reports, can have powerfully disruptive effects, both economically and politically." Offensive terror can be defined as the killing of people, destruction of property, kidnapping, etc. It is usually a minor part of subversion and "is used not to exert force in the transfer of state power, but is meant to cower the people or ruler." Force used in this manner is meant to reinforce other forms or persuasion in addition to cowering

12180-451: The target may be more receptive to other messages conveyed. This individual or group would no longer be seen as being completely different from them. Another example of how culture can be subversive is seen in Iran. Western culture, media, art, etc. is popular among the country's youth, but certain elements are banned or curtailed. As the exportation of Western culture continues, conflict between

12296-595: The understanding of the masses. Additionally, the greater the known number of people who watched, listened, or read the fact or fallacy is, the greater the probability is that ʻit is true indeed,ʼ still in the understanding of the masses. ... Moreover, in France, specialists in influence and counter-influence are tasked to prevent the masses of people / 'sleepwalkers' from "waking up" and understanding that they actually are thus fooled permanently, and by which methods and tricks they are so, since their own country fabricates and spreads fallacies for them either. In other words, about

12412-399: The village was shot and wounded. Following the death of a Special Constable near Newry on 8 June 1921, it was alleged that Specials and an armed mob were involved in the burning of 161 Catholic homes and the death of 10 Catholics. An inquest advised that the Special Constabulary "should not be allowed into any locality occupied by people of an opposite denomination." The government suggested

12528-520: The words of Craig, "a recourse to arms, which would precipitate civil war". Craig proposed to the British cabinet a new "volunteer constabulary" which "must be raised from the loyal population" and organised, "on military lines" and "armed for duty within the six county area only". On 23 July 1920 Craig informed the British cabinet that the "Specials" would "prevent mob law and the Protestants from running amok." He recommended that "the organisation of

12644-474: The years 1980 to c.  2001 . In the latter context, the main methods of subversion he presents as "actions of influence" and their expected results are the followings. Most French and Russian actions of subversion, and of domestic influence alike, actually are governed by the notion of minority influence as initially defined by social psychologist Serge Moscovici . However, the DGSE in particular designs all such actions in accordance with fundamentals of

12760-526: Was a quasi-military reserve special constable police force in what would later become Northern Ireland . It was set up in October 1920, shortly before the partition of Ireland . The USC was an armed corps, organised partially on military lines and called out in times of emergency, such as war or insurgency. It performed this role most notably in the early 1920s during the Irish War of Independence and

12876-517: Was disbanded in May 1970, after the Hunt Report , which advised re-shaping Northern Ireland's security forces to attract more Catholic recruits and demilitarizing the police. Its functions and membership were largely taken over by the Ulster Defence Regiment and the Royal Ulster Constabulary . The Ulster Special Constabulary was formed against the background of conflict over Irish independence and

12992-650: Was formally established. A second reason was that violence in the north was increasing after the summer of 1920. The IRA began extending attacks to the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC), RIC barracks, and revenue offices in Northern Ireland. There had been serious rioting between Catholics and Protestants in Derry in May and June and in Belfast in July, which had left up to 40 people dead. (See The Troubles in Northern Ireland (1920–1922) and Timeline of

13108-540: Was in the first half of 1922, when conditions of a low-intensity war existed along the new Irish border between the Free State and Northern Ireland. The Anglo-Irish Treaty had agreed the partition of Ireland, between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland . The IRA, although now split over the Treaty, continued offensive operations in Northern Ireland, with the co-operation of Michael Collins , leader of

13224-410: Was initially financed and equipped by the British government and placed under the control of the RIC. The USC consisted of 32,000 men divided into four sections, all of whom were armed: The units were organised on military lines up to company level. Platoons had two officers, a Head Constable , four sergeants and sixty special constables. The Belfast units were constructed differently from those in

13340-557: Was not mentioned, and according to the official MI5 website, subversion is no longer investigated, due to a reduced threat as a result of the end of the Cold War and of associated political situations since the 1980s. In federal law, 18 U.S.C. ch. 115 covers "Treason, Sedition, and Subversive Activities." As related above, members of the Communist Party were supposed by legislators to be subversives, especially after

13456-693: Was repulsed after heavy fighting, including British use of artillery on 8 June. The British Army was only used in the Pettigo and Belleek actions. Therefore, the main job of counter-insurgency in this border conflict fell to the Special Constabulary while the RIC/RUC patrolled the interior. Forty-nine Special Constables were killed during the period of the "Border War", out of a total of eighty-one British forces killed in Northern Ireland. Their biggest single loss of life came at Clones in February 1922, when

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