In accounting , insolvency is the state of being unable to pay the debts , by a person or company ( debtor ), at maturity ; those in a state of insolvency are said to be insolvent . There are two forms: cash-flow insolvency and balance-sheet insolvency.
113-581: The Voodoo Macbeth is a common nickname for the Federal Theatre Project 's 1936 New York production of William Shakespeare 's Macbeth . Orson Welles adapted and directed the production, moved the play's setting from Scotland to a fictional Caribbean island, recruited an entirely Black cast, and earned the nickname for his production from the Haitian vodou that fulfilled the role of Scottish witchcraft . A box office sensation,
226-490: A court of law with resulting legal orders intended to resolve the insolvency. Accounting insolvency happens when total liabilities exceed total assets (negative net worth ). The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation and business debt restructuring practices no longer rests on the liquidation and elimination of insolvent entities but on the remodeling of the financial and organizational structure of debtors experiencing financial distress so as to permit
339-609: A Nation , about housing conditions in New York; Power , about energy from the consumer's point of view; and Triple A Plowed Under , on farming problems in America. Another that was criticized, on the history of medicine, was not completed. Dramas criticized by Congress were American Holiday , about a small-town murder trial; Around the Corner , a Depression-era comedy; Chalk Dust , about an urban high school; Class of '29 ,
452-664: A Time , and Paul de Kruif 's Men Against Death were both honored by the National Committee for Education by Radio. In March 1939, at the invitation of the BBC, Flanagan broadcast the story of the Federal Theatre Project to Britain. Asked to expand the program to encompass the entire WPA, the radio division produced No Help Wanted , a dramatization by William N. Robson with music by Leith Stevens . The Times called it "the best broadcast ever sent us from
565-500: A balance-sheet insolvency) become personally liable for the business's debts. Trading insolvently is often regarded as normal business practice in South Africa, as long as the business is able to fulfill its debt obligations when they fall due. Under Swiss law, insolvency or foreclosure may lead to the seizure and auctioning off of assets (generally in the case of private individuals) or to bankruptcy proceedings (generally in
678-500: A box office sensation. Seventh Avenue had to be closed for 10 blocks on either side of the theatre on opening night. Most reviewers, including those from The New York Times and the New York Daily News , loved the production, praising its energy and excitement. However, Carter was criticized for poor verse delivery, and for seeming more interested in displaying his physique than acting. One reviewer, Percy Hammond of
791-414: A comic or burlesque version of Shakespeare. The theatre was picketed throughout rehearsals. One man attempted to slash Welles's face with a razor, but Canada Lee, a former boxer, stopped him. According to Welles, the anger was suddenly replaced "for no reason at all" by widespread excitement and pride in the community as the opening night approached. The "Voodoo Macbeth " defied all expectations, becoming
904-601: A court-appointed insolvency administrator, 'debtor-in-possession' proceedings are common since the legislative changes in 2012. For natural persons, the Verbraucherinsolvenzverfahren (literally "insolvency proceeding for individual consumers") allows discharge of all debts after three years, if certain conditions are met. In Hong Kong , insolvency is primarily governed by the Companies (Winding Up and Miscellaneous Provisions) Ordinance (Cap 32) and
1017-529: A female President who works for peace. Negro Theatre Unit productions that drew criticism were The Case of Philip Lawrence , a portrait of life in Harlem; Did Adam Sin? , a review of black folklore with music; and Haiti , a play about Toussaint Louverture . Also criticized for their content were the dance dramas Candide , from Voltaire; How Long Brethren , featuring songs by future Guggenheim Fellowship recipient Lawrence Gellert ; and Trojan Incident ,
1130-408: A jungle. The backdrops featured stylized palm trees and skeleton imagery. It is not certain whether the production removed references to Scotland from the text. Welles's promptbook keeps them intact, but in the surviving film record of the production's climax, the line "Hail, King of Scotland" is truncated to "Hail, King". The Negro Theatre Unit of the Federal Theatre Project was formed in 1935 under
1243-417: A knife. The role of Hecate, which Welles changed from the witch queen of the original to that of a male Voodoo priest, was played by Eric Burroughs, trained at London's Royal Academy of Dramatic Art . The New York Times noted that Burroughs' concluding line, "The charm’s wound up!" at the fall of the closing curtain prompted a 15-minute frenzy of cheering throughout the 1200-seat Lafayette Theatre. Despite
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#17327806753471356-402: A liquidator of their own choice. This process is known as creditors voluntary liquidation (CVL), as opposed to members voluntary liquidation (MVL) which is for solvent companies. Alternatively, a creditor can petition the court for a winding-up order which, if granted, will place the company into what is called compulsory liquidation or winding up by the court. The liquidator realises the assets of
1469-436: A penalty. Balance-sheet insolvency is when a person or company does not have enough assets to pay all of their debts. The person or company might enter bankruptcy , but not necessarily. Once a loss is accepted by all parties, negotiation is often able to resolve the situation without bankruptcy. A company that is balance-sheet insolvent may still have enough cash to pay its next bill on time. However, most laws will not let
1582-409: A pivotal figure. Performed by Eric Burroughs as a huge man with a bullwhip , Hecate presides over events as a ringmaster of magicians and often closes scenes. Hecate ends the play with the line, "The charm's wound up", repeated from Act 1. Welles's 1948 film version of Macbeth , in which Hecate does not appear, also ends with this line. The production used a single, unchanging set of a castle in
1695-407: A pre-arranged sale of the company's business, often to its directors or owners. The process can be seen as controversial because the creditors do not have the opportunity to vote against the sale. The rationale behind the device is that the swift sale of the business may be necessary or of benefit to enable a best price to be achieved. If the sale was delayed, creditors would ultimately lose out because
1808-448: A preferable alternative to bankruptcy. Debt restructuring is a process that allows a private or public company - or a sovereign entity - facing cash flow problems and financial distress, to reduce and renegotiate its delinquent debts in order to improve or restore liquidity and rehabilitate so that it can continue its operations. Although the term "bankrupt" may be used referring to a government, sovereign states do not go bankrupt. This
1921-415: A strong (but perhaps not absolute) connotation that the debtor is balance-sheet solvent, whereas the term "actually insolvent" does not. Cash-flow insolvency involves a lack of liquidity to pay debts as they fall due. Balance sheet insolvency involves having negative net assets —where liabilities exceed assets. Insolvency is not a synonym for bankruptcy , which is a determination of insolvency made by
2034-522: A successful rescue of a company's business via a sale, but not of the company itself. Since the introduction of the collective insolvency procedure of Administration in 1986, the legislators have decided to set a shelf life on the administrative receivership or, in Scotland, receivership procedure and it is no longer possible to appoint an administrative receiver or, in Scotland, receiver under security created after 15 September 2003. In individual cases
2147-813: A sufficient number of unemployed people in the theatre profession. The project in Alabama was closed in January 1937 when its personnel were transferred to a new unit in Georgia. Only one event was presented in Arkansas. Units created in Minnesota, Missouri and Wisconsin were closed in 1936; projects in Indiana, Nebraska, Rhode Island and Texas were discontinued in 1937; and the Iowa project was closed in 1938. Many of
2260-509: A translation of Euripides with a prologue from Homer. Help Yourself , a satire on high-pressure business tactics, was among the comedies criticized by Congress. Others were Machine Age , about mass production; On the Rocks by George Bernard Shaw ; and The Tailor Becomes a Storekeeper . Children's plays singled out were Mother Goose Goes to Town , and Revolt of the Beavers , which
2373-689: A white project manager in Dallas was fired for attempting to segregate black and white theater technicians on a railroad car. Additionally, the white assistant director of the project was pulled because "he was unable to work amicably" with the black artists. The FTP overtly sought out relationships with the African American community including Carter Woodson of the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History , as well as Walter White of
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#17327806753472486-682: A year the Federal Theatre Project employed 15,000 men and women, paying them $ 23.86 a week while the Actors Equity Association's minimum was $ 40.00. These men and women would only do six performances a week and have only four hours per day to rehearse. During its nearly four years of existence 30 million people attended FTP productions in more than 200 theaters nationwide — renting many that had been shuttered — as well as parks, schools, churches, clubs, factories, hospitals and closed-off streets. Its productions totaled approximately 1,200, not including its radio programs. Because
2599-418: Is a synonym for balance sheet insolvency, which means that its liabilities are greater than its assets , and actual insolvency is a synonym for the first definition of insolvency ("Insolvency is the inability of a debtor to pay their debt."). While technical insolvency is a synonym for balance-sheet insolvency, cash-flow insolvency and actual insolvency are not synonyms. The term "cash-flow insolvent" carries
2712-480: Is credited only as "Abdul" on the program, was widely praised by reviewers in his role as the Witch Doctor. Dafora and Assen's presentation of voodoo practices and musical accompaniment of the witches' speeches with drumbeats were popular with audiences, critics, and with Welles himself. The involvement of Assen, Dafora, and diasporic African musical and dance tradition added a powerful feeling of authenticity to
2825-477: Is defined both in terms of cash flow and in terms of balance sheet in the UK Insolvency Act 1986 , Section 123, which reads in part: 123.-(1) A company is deemed unable to pay its debts --- (a) if a creditor (by assignment or otherwise) to whom the company is indebted in a sum exceeding £750 then due has served on the company, by leaving it at the company's registered office, a written demand (in
2938-420: Is insolvent may be put into liquidation (sometimes referred to as winding-up). The directors and shareholders can instigate the liquidation process without court involvement by a shareholder resolution and the appointment of a licensed Insolvency Practitioner as liquidator. However, the liquidation will not be effective legally without the convening of a meeting of creditors who have the opportunity to appoint
3051-699: Is primarily codified in the Insolvency Act, 2003 and the Insolvency Rules, 2005. In Canada , bankruptcy and insolvency are generally regulated by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act . An alternative regime is available to larger companies (or affiliated groups) under the Companies' Creditors Arrangements Act , where total debts exceed $ 5 million. In Germany , insolvency proceedings, both for companies and for natural persons, are regulated by
3164-411: Is so because bankruptcy is governed by national law; there exists no entity to take over such a government and distribute assets to creditors. Governments can be insolvent in terms of not having money to pay obligations when they are due. If a government does not meet an obligation, it is in " default ". As governments are sovereign entities, creditors who hold debt of the government cannot easily seize
3277-409: Is when a person or company has enough assets to pay what is owed, but does not have the appropriate form of payment. For example, a person may own a large house and a valuable car, but not have enough liquid assets to pay a debt when it falls due. Cash-flow insolvency can usually be resolved by negotiation . For example, the bill collector may wait until the car is sold and the debtor agrees to pay
3390-533: The Herald Tribune , was negative about the entire cast, accusing the actors of being inaudible and timid. In response, one of the African drummers created a voodoo doll of Hammond, stuck pins in it, and encouraged Welles to take responsibility for any torments Hammond suffered as a result. Welles says he found this amusing, until Hammond died shortly afterward. Using the original 1936 promptbook , in 1977,
3503-544: The New York American called a "pleasing fantasy for children". The musical Sing for Your Supper also met with Congressional criticism, although its patriotic finale, " Ballad for Americans ", was chosen as the theme song of the 1940 Republican National Convention. A fictionalized view of the Federal Theatre Project is presented in the 1999 film Cradle Will Rock , in which Cherry Jones portrays Hallie Flanagan. Insolvency Cash-flow insolvency
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3616-496: The Great Depression , people with little money for entertainment found an entire evening of entertainment at the movies for 25 cents, while commercial theatre charged $ 1.10 to $ 2.20 admission to cover the cost of theater rental, advertising and fees to performers and union technicians. Unemployed directors, actors, designers, musicians and stage crew took any kind of work they were able to find, whatever it paid, and charity
3729-497: The Guggenheim Foundation , Flanagan was chosen to lead the Federal Theatre Project by WPA head Harry Hopkins . Flanagan and Hopkins had been classmates at Grinnell College . Roosevelt and Hopkins selected her despite considerable pressure to choose someone from the commercial theatre industry; they believed the project should be led by someone with academic credentials and a national perspective. Flanagan had
3842-732: The Henry Street Settlement 's New Federal Theatre revived the production, starring Lex Monson and Esther Rolle . In 2001, Lenwood Sloan created the Vo-Du Macbeth , inspired in part by the 1936 Federal Theatre production. The National Black Arts Festival announced their plans to revive the play in 2012 in Atlanta, with funding from the National Endowment for the Arts . The American Century Theater produced
3955-465: The Insolvency Act 1986 which aim to provide time for the rescue of a company or, at least, its business. These are Administration and Company Voluntary Arrangement : One particular type of Administration that is becoming more common is called pre pack administration (more information under administration (law) ). In this process, immediately after appointment the administrator completes
4068-563: The Majestic Theatre in Brooklyn. The production was invited to London by impresario Charles B. Cochran , but Welles declined because he was trying to secure his career in New York. The closing four minutes of the production are preserved in a rare 1937 film, We Work Again , a WPA documentary that is in the public domain and can be viewed online. Maurice Ellis and Charles Collins appear as Macbeth and Macduff, indicating that
4181-653: The NAACP . One of the existing stipulations from the Works Progress Administration for employment in the FTP was prior professional theater experience. However, when encountered with 40 young jobless black playwrights, national director Hallie Flanagan waived the WPA requirement in the interest of providing a platform and training ground for new young playwrights. During a national conference Flanagan proposed that
4294-633: The Napoleonic era , and tropical vegetation. The sets and costumes were executed by the Federal Theatre Workshop at a cost of $ 2,000. The lighting was created by Abe Feder , later regarded as a founder of lighting design profession . Feder had a difficult relationship with Welles, who he believed was too young and ignorant of the practicalities of theatre; he continued to hold this opinion when interviewed decades later. Welles also faced some difficulties in asserting authority with
4407-620: The U.S. Supreme Court for killing the Agricultural Adjustment Act . These politically themed plays quickly drew criticism from members of Congress . Although the undisguised political invective in the Living Newspaper productions sparked controversy, they also proved popular with audiences. As an art form, the Living Newspaper is perhaps the Federal Theatre's most well-known work. Problems with
4520-680: The ordinary course of business , or cannot pay its debts as they become due, or is insolvent within the meaning of the Bankruptcy Code . This is important because certain rights under the code may be invoked against an insolvent party which are otherwise unavailable. The United States has established insolvency regimes which aim to protect the insolvent individual or company from the creditors, and balance their respective interests. For example, see Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code . However, some state courts have begun to find individual corporate officers and directors liable for driving
4633-617: The African American Dance Unit featuring Nigerian artists displaced by the Ethiopian Crisis . These projects employed over 1,000 black actors and directors. The Negro Actors' Guild of America incorporated on October 1, 1936 in the state of New York. The ten Articles for the Certificate of Incorporation addressed the welfare, appreciation and development of black artists. The Federal Theatre Project
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4746-735: The Americas". The Federal Dance Project (FDP) was a short-lived entity that was ultimately absorbed into the Federal Theater Project. Dancer Helen Tamiris was the central figure of the FDP, which existed as an independent entity from January 1936 until October 1937. In May 1938, Martin Dies Jr ., director of The House Committee on Un-American Activities specifically targeted the WPA's Federal Theatre Project. Assailing Flanagan's professional character and political affiliations,
4859-706: The Bankruptcy Act (Cap B.15) or the Companies Act (Cap C.65). In Australia , corporate insolvency is governed by the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth). Companies can be put into Voluntary Administration , Creditors Voluntary Liquidation, and Court Liquidation. Secured creditors with registered charges are able to appoint Receivers and Receivers & Managers depending on their charge. In the British Virgin Islands , insolvency law
4972-770: The Companies (Winding Up) Rules (Cap 32H). In India , bankruptcy and insolvency are generally regulated by the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016. The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI) is the regulator for overseeing insolvency proceedings and entities like Insolvency Professional Agencies (IPA), Insolvency Professionals (IP) and Information Utilities (IU) in India . Insolvent citizens may not contest/be appointed for any public office, nor may they participate in govt exams. They are also not allowed to emigrate out. Iranian government Tax, finance and bankruptcy administration handles corporations . First insolvency law
5085-567: The Depression years as seen through young college graduates; Created Equal , a review of American life since colonial times; It Can't Happen Here , Sinclair Lewis 's parable of democracy and dictatorship; No More Peace , Ernst Toller 's satire on dictatorships; Professor Mamlock , about Nazi persecution of Jews; Prologue to Glory , about the early life of Abraham Lincoln; The Sun and I , about Joseph in Egypt; and Woman of Destiny , about
5198-453: The FTP into a federation of regional theaters that created relevant art, encouraged experimentation in new forms and techniques, and made it possible for millions of Americans to see live theatre for the first time. Although The Federal Theatre project consumed only 0.5% of the allocated budget from the WPA and was widely considered a commercial and critical success, the project became a source of heated political contention. Congress responded to
5311-505: The Federal Theatre Project and Congress intensified when the State Department objected to the first Living Newspaper, Ethiopia , about Haile Selassie and his nation's struggles against Benito Mussolini 's invading Italian forces . The U.S. government soon mandated that the FTP, a government agency, could not depict foreign heads of state on the stage for fear of diplomatic backlash. Playwright and director Elmer Rice , head of
5424-402: The Federal Theatre Project is the reemployment of theatre workers now on public relief rolls: actors, directors, playwrights, designers, vaudeville artists, stage technicians, and other workers in the theatre field. The far reaching purpose is the establishment of theatres so vital to community life that they will continue to function after the program of this Federal Project is completed. Within
5537-426: The Federal Theatre Project. The others included 32 revivals or stock productions; seven plays that were initiated by community groups; five that were never produced by the project; two works of Americana; two classics; one children's play; one Italian translation; and one Yiddish play. The Living Newspapers productions that drew criticism were Injunction Granted , a history of American labor relations; One-Third of
5650-418: The Federal Theatre was created to employ and train people, not to generate revenue, no provision was made for the receipt of money when the project began. At its conclusion, 65 percent of its productions were still presented free of charge. The total cost of the Federal Theatre Project was $ 46 million. "In any consideration of the cost of the Federal Theatre," Flanagan wrote, "it should be borne in mind that
5763-684: The Federal Theatre. Blitzstein, Houseman, Welles and Feder collaborated on the controversial production, The Cradle Will Rock . Living Newspapers were plays written by teams of researchers-turned-playwrights. These men and women clipped articles from newspapers about current events, often hot button issues like farm policy, syphilis (spirochete) infection, the Tennessee Valley Authority , and housing inequity . These newspaper clippings were adapted into plays intended to inform audiences, often with progressive or left-wing themes. Triple-A Plowed Under , for instance, attacked
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#17327806753475876-907: The French Theatre in Los Angeles, the German Theater in New York City, and the Negro Theatre Unit which had several chapters across the country, with its largest office in New York City. The FTP set up 17 so-called Negro Theatre Units (NTU) in cities throughout the United States. The NTU had additional offices in Hartford, Boston, Salem, Newark, and Philadelphia in the East; Seattle, Portland, and Los Angeles in
5989-582: The Haitian setting that became part of the folklore surrounding the production. The cast and crew of Macbeth are credited in the original production notebook and in The Theatre of Orson Welles by Richard France . Before the production opened, the Harlem Communists tried to agitate the community against the project, wrongly believing that Welles had cast black actors in order to create
6102-421: The Insolvency Act (Insolvenzordnung), in effect since 1999 but with significant changes in 2012. The goal of insolvency law is the equal and best satisfaction of creditors. If the interests of creditors are respected, insolvent companies are offered different ways to restructure their businesses, for example by implementing an 'insolvency plan' ( Insolvenzplan ) . While regular insolvency proceedings are led by
6215-668: The Negro Youth Theater— were dedicated to the Harlem community with the intention of developing unknown theatre artists. Both theatre projects were headquartered at the Lafayette Theatre in Harlem, where some 30 plays were presented. The first was Frank H. Wilson 's folk drama, Walk Together Chillun (1936), about the deportation of 100 African-Americans from the South to the North to work for low wages. The second
6328-446: The New York office of the FTP, resigned in protest and was succeeded by his assistant, Philip W. Barber. Numbers following the city of origin indicate the number of additional cities where the play was presented. Capitalizing on the FTP's national network and inherent diversity of artists, the Federal Theatre established specific chapters dedicated to showcasing and celebrating the work of previously under-represented artists. Including
6441-526: The WPA's Federal Project Number One . Government relief efforts funding theatre through the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and Civil Works Administration in the two preceding years were amateur experiments regarded as charity, not a theatre program. The Federal Theatre Project was a new approach to unemployment in the theatre profession. Only those certified as employable could be offered work, and that work
6554-689: The West; Cleveland, Detroit, Peoria, and Chicago in the Midwest; and Raleigh, Atlanta, Birmingham, and New Orleans in the South. There were additional units in San Francisco, Oklahoma, Durham, Camden, and Buffalo. By the project's conclusion, 22 American cities had served as headquarters for black theater units. The New York Negro Theatre Unit was the most well known. Two of the four federal theaters in New York City—Lafayette Theatre and
6667-518: The ability to make the role of witchcraft credible to modern audiences by substituting Haitian voodooism. The production was universally known as the Voodoo Macbeth in advance of its presentation. At Welles's request, Houseman stayed away from early rehearsals, leaving him able to concentrate on the first two Negro Theatre Unit productions, both from the contemporary wing. Walk Together Chillun , written and co-directed by actor Frank Wilson ,
6780-557: The actors. And that was, that was magical." Macbeth played for ten sold-out weeks at the Lafayette Theatre (April 14–June 20, 1936). The production then moved to the Adelphi Theatre (July 6–18). On July 15, Jack Carter completed only the first act, and the performance was completed by understudy Thomas Anderson . Beginning July 16 Maurice Ellis played the role of Macbeth, with Charles Collins succeeding Ellis in
6893-424: The arts for which the Federal Theatre Project was created. The Negro Theatre Unit was split into two halves, the "Contemporary Branch" to create theater on contemporary black issues, and the "Classic Branch", to perform classic drama. The aim was to provide a point of entry into the theater workforce for black writers, actors and stagehands, and to raise community pride by performing classic plays without reference to
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#17327806753477006-505: The assets of the government to re-pay the debt (though " Vulture funds " often find ways to do so). The recourse for the creditor is to request to be repaid at least some of what is owed. However, in most cases, debt in default is refinanced by further borrowing or monetized by issuing more currency (which typically results in inflation or hyperinflation ). Insolvency regimes around the world have evolved in very different ways, with laws focusing on different strategies for dealing with
7119-504: The bankruptcy estate is dealt by an official receiver, appointed by the court. In some cases the file is transferred to RTLU (OR Regional Trustee Liquidator Unit) that will assess your assets and income to see if you can contribute towards paying costs of bankruptcy or even discharge part of your debts. Under the Uniform Commercial Code , a person is considered to be insolvent when the party has ceased to pay its debts in
7232-552: The best friend the theatre as an institution has ever had in this country." We let out these works on the vote of the people. Part of the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Theatre Project was a New Deal program established August 27, 1935, funded under the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 . Of the $ 4.88 billion allocated to the WPA, $ 27 million was approved for the employment of artists , musicians , writers and actors under
7345-404: The black cast and crew but won them over with his energy and warmth, and pleased everyone by cramming the rehearsal space with food and drink. Black cast and crew members interviewed decades later said that Houseman and Welles had their full confidence. "I never would have amounted to anything in the theatre if it hadn't been for Orson Welles," Canada Lee recalled. "The way I looked at acting, it
7458-547: The business may continue under a declared protective arrangement while alternative options to achieve recovery are worked out. Increasingly, legislatures have favored alternatives to winding up companies for good. It can be, in several jurisdictions, grounds for a civil action or even an offence to continue to pay some creditors in preference to other creditors once a state of insolvency is reached. Debt restructurings are typically handled by professional insolvency and restructuring practitioners, and are usually less expensive and
7571-500: The case of registered commercial entities). Turkish insolvency law is regulated by Enforcement and Bankruptcy Law (Code No: 2004, Original Name: İcra ve İflas Kanunu). The main concept of the insolvency law is very similar to Swiss and German insolvency laws. Enforcement methods are realizing pledged property, seizure of assets and bankruptcy. In the United Kingdom , the term bankruptcy is reserved for individuals. Insolvency
7684-423: The chapter. This argument from McClendon received support from Edna Thomas , Harry Edwards, Carlton Moss , Abraham Hale Jr., Augusta Smith and Dick Campbell . This crusade for equality eventually became a sticking point for the Dies Committee , which pulled funding for the Federal Theater Project, arguing that "racial equality forms a vital part of the Communist dictatorship and practices". Numbers following
7797-494: The city of origin indicate the number of additional cities where the play was presented. Numbers following the city of origin indicate the number of additional cities where the play was presented. Numbers following the city of origin indicate the number of additional cities where the play was presented. These plays were given their first professional production in the United States by the Federal Theatre Project. Titles are shown as they appeared on event programs. Numbers following
7910-609: The city of origin indicate the number of additional cities where the play was presented. The Federal Theatre of the Air began weekly broadcasts March 15, 1936. For three years the radio division of the Federal Theatre Project presented an average of 3,000 programs annually on commercial stations and the NBC, Mutual and CBS networks. The major programs originated in New York; radio divisions were also created in 11 states. Series included Professional Parade , hosted by Fred Niblo ; Experiments in Symphonic Drama , original stories written for classical music; Gilbert and Sullivan Light Opera ,
8023-426: The color of the actors. Shakespeare's play is about the downfall of a usurper in medieval Scotland , who is encouraged in his actions by three witches. The central idea behind Welles's production was to perform the text straight, but to use costumes and sets that alluded to Haiti in the 19th century, specifically during the reign of the slave-turned-emperor Henri Christophe . Although the main reason for this choice
8136-419: The committee heard testimony from former Federal Theatre Project members who were unhappy with their tenure with the project. Flanagan testified that the FTP was pro-American insofar as the work celebrated the constitutional freedoms of speech and expression to address the relevant and pressing concerns of its citizens. Citing the Federal Theatre's call for racial equality, impending war, and further perpetuating
8249-420: The company and distributes funds realised to creditors according to their priorities, after the deduction of costs. In the case of Sole Trader Insolvency , the insolvency options include Individual Voluntary Arrangements and Bankruptcy . It can be a civil and even a criminal offence for directors to allow a company to continue to trade whilst insolvent. However, two new insolvency procedures were introduced by
8362-439: The company pay that bill unless it will directly help all their creditors. For example, an insolvent farmer may be allowed to hire people to help harvest the crop, because not harvesting and selling the crop would be even worse for his creditors. It has been suggested that the speaker or writer should either say technical insolvency or actual insolvency in order to always be clear – where technical insolvency
8475-582: The complete works performed by Federal Theatre actors and recordings by D'Oyly Carte ; Ibsen's Plays , performances of 12 major plays; Repertory Theatre of the Air , presenting literary classics; Contemporary Theatre , presenting plays by modern authors; and the interview program, Exploring the Arts and Sciences . The radio division presented a wide range of programs on health and safety, art, music and history. The American Legion sponsored James Truslow Adams 's Epic of America . The children's program, Once Upon
8588-610: The daunting task of building a nationwide theater program to employ thousands of unemployed artists in as little time as possible. The Theatre industry had struggled financially prior to the financial collapse of 1929. By that time it was already threatened with extinction due to the growing popularity of films and radio, but the commercial theatre was reluctant to adapt its practices. Many actors, technicians and stagehands had suffered since 1914 , when movies began to replace stock , vaudeville and other live stage performances nationwide. Sound motion pictures displaced 30,000 musicians. In
8701-532: The decision, Flanagan's stepdaughter, Joanne Bentley quoted an unnamed Congressmen saying "Culture! What the Hell—Let 'em have a pick and shovel!" Members of Congress criticized a total of 81 of the Federal Theatre Project's 830 major titles for their content in public statements, committee hearings, on the floor of the Senate or House, or in testimony before Congressional committees. Only 29 were original productions of
8814-465: The distinguished actress Rose McClendon . She advised national director Hallie Flanagan that the project should begin under experienced direction and selected producer John Houseman as co-director of the unit. Their partnership was never realized; it was soon apparent that McClendon was not well, and she made only a few formal appearances before she became critically ill in December 1935. Regarding
8927-510: The fact that few professional African-American actors were available and many of the cast members had never acted in Shakespeare before, Welles believed that they showed a better understanding of the rhythm of the iambic pentameter than many professionals. Welles also hired African drummers and dancers, led by Sierra Leonean drummer and choreographer Asadata Dafora . Dancer Abdul Assen, a member of Dafora's Shogola Aloba dance troupe who
9040-766: The filming took place after July 16, 1936. Houseman produced only one more play for the Federal Theatre Project's Negro Theatre Unit. After ten months as the project's director he assured Hallie Flanagan that the unit was viable and should be directed by a triumvirate comprising West Indian intellectual Harry Edward, Carlton Moss and Gus Smith. He and Welles were authorized to create a new Classical Theatre unit that became known as Federal Theatre Project 891. Its first production, Horse Eats Hat , opened in September 1936. The cast of Macbeth numbered 150 people, but only four were professional actors: Jack Carter , Edna Thomas , Canada Lee , and Eric Burroughs .} Juano Hernandez
9153-416: The foundation for the development of a truly creative theatre in the United States with outstanding producing centers in each of those regions which have common interests as a result of geography, language origins, history, tradition, custom, occupations of the people." On October 24, 1935, Flanagan prefaced her instructions on the Federal Theatre's operation with a statement of purpose: The primary aim of
9266-567: The funds were allotted, according to the terms of the Relief Act of 1935, to pay wages to unemployed people. Therefore, when Federal Theatre was criticized for spending money, it was criticized for doing what it was set up to do." The FTP established five regional centers in New York, New York , Boston (Northeast), Chicago (Midwest), Los Angeles (West), and New Orleans (South). The FTP did not operate in every state, since many lacked
9379-402: The insolvent. The outcome of an insolvent restructuring can be very different depending on the laws of the state in which the insolvency proceeding is run, and in many cases different stakeholders in a company may hold the advantage in different jurisdictions . In Anguilla , the insolvency of individuals is regulated under the Bankruptcy Act (Cap B.15) and corporate insolvency is governed by
9492-408: The leadership of the Harlem chapter of the FTP be led by an African American artist. Rose McClendon, an established actor at the time, publicly argued against this proposal and instead suggested that initially an established white theater artist take the mantle with the understanding and intention of satisfying the WPA's prior professional theater experience clause and giving way to black artists to lead
9605-506: The nightspots of Harlem together after rehearsals. His behavior became so troublesome during the Broadway run that he was replaced by Maurice Ellis, who had held the role of Macduff . Canada Lee played Banquo. Lee met Welles prior to his involvement with the production, at a performance of Stevedore. The audience had been whipped into a frenzied shouting match, and Lee rescued Welles from being attacked by another audience member wielding
9718-520: The notable artists of the time participated in the Federal Theatre Project, including Susan Glaspell who served as Midwest bureau director. The legacy of the Federal Theatre Project can also be found in beginning the careers of a new generation of theater artists. Arthur Miller , Orson Welles , John Houseman , Martin Ritt , Elia Kazan , Joseph Losey , Marc Blitzstein and Abe Feder are among those who became established, in part, through their work in
9831-722: The play in 2013. In 2021, a biopic titled Voodoo Macbeth premiered at the Cleveland International Film Festival . Produced by the USC School of Cinematic Arts , it chronicles the creation of the original 1936 production, starring Inger Tudor as Rose McClendon and Jewell Wilson Bridges as Orson Welles. In 2017, Bob Devin Jones directed a production of Voodoo Macbeth inspired by Welles's version, but different from it. Federal Theatre Project The Federal Theatre Project ( FTP ; 1935–1939)
9944-484: The prescribed form) requiring the company to pay the sum so due and the company has for 3 weeks thereafter neglected to pay the sum or to secure or compound for it to the reasonable satisfaction of the creditor,... (2) A company is also deemed unable to pay its debts if it is proved to the satisfaction of the court that the value of the company's assets is less than the amount of its liabilities, taking into account its contingent and prospective liabilities... A company which
10057-493: The price obtainable for the assets would be reduced. In addition to the above-mentioned corporate insolvency procedures, a creditor holding security over an asset of the company may have the power to appoint an insolvency practitioner as administrative receiver or, in Scotland , receiver. The process, latterly known as administrative receivership or, in Scotland, receivership, has existed for many years and has often resulted in
10170-508: The production after racial tensions escalated during the segment of the tour through the segregated South. Incognito, he performed the role of Macbeth at one performance there, when Ellis became ill. The 4,000-mile tour continued to Chicago , (September 1–13) Detroit , and Cleveland , finishing in Syracuse , New York (September 23–25). After the company's return to New York, the final performances of Macbeth were presented October 6–17 at
10283-431: The production is regarded as a landmark theatrical event for several reasons: its innovative interpretation of the play, its success in promoting African-American theatre, and its role in securing the reputation of its 20-year-old director. The Works Project Administration provided economic stimulus during the Great Depression and, under its aegis was Federal Project Number One , was responsible for generating jobs in
10396-413: The project's racial integration and accusations of Communist infiltration and cancelled its funding effective June 30, 1939. One month before the project's end, drama critic Brooks Atkinson summarized: "Although the Federal Theatre is far from perfect, it has kept an average of ten thousand people employed on work that has helped to lift the dead weight from the lives of millions of Americans. It has been
10509-451: The rehabilitation and continuation of their business. This is known as business turnaround or business recovery . Implementing a business turnaround may take many forms, including keep and restructure, sale as a going concern, or wind-down and exit. In some jurisdictions, it is an offence under the insolvency laws for a corporation to continue in business while insolvent. In others (like the United States with its Chapter 11 provisions),
10622-469: The rest of the cast. Thomas played Lady Macbeth as a mother figure to Macbeth. Carter was a former criminal and an alcoholic, but Welles cast him despite being warned of his habit of disappearing for weeks on binges. Carter understood the importance of the production to his career and kept his drinking under control during the Harlem run. Welles expended a great deal of time on helping Carter channel his adrenalin into his performance. The two men bonded and hit
10735-641: The role of Macduff. The production then toured WPA venues throughout the country, beginning with engagements in Bridgeport (July 21–25) and Hartford, Connecticut (July 28–August 1). Macbeth was performed in Dallas beginning August 6, and the production was featured at the Texas Centennial Exposition August 13–23. Performances were presented in the new bandshell and 5,000-seat open-air amphitheatre , where integrated seating
10848-413: The rumor that the FTP was a front for radical and communist activities, Congress ended federal funding as of June 30, 1939, immediately putting 8,000 people out of work across the country. Although the overall financial cost of the FTP was minuscule in the grand scheme of the WPA's budget, Congress determined that the average American did not consider theater a viable recipient of their tax dollars. Following
10961-445: The unit into two sections between which the project members themselves could choose and could switch between from one production to another. One section was devoted to original black-themed contemporary drama. "The other," Houseman wrote, "would devote itself to the performance of classical works of which our actors would be the interpreters, without concession or reference to color." "For this fine scheme to work," Houseman wrote, "there
11074-468: The unit's name, Houseman later wrote, "the word 'black' was taboo. 'Negro' was in official and general use though there was some ideological disagreement as to whether it should be spelled with a small or a capital N." Houseman had established his credentials as general manager of the all-black production, Four Saints in Three Acts (1934). On the advice of composer Virgil Thomson , Houseman divided
11187-509: The work would cut into his lucrative radio career and he feared being put back into insolvency , but his young wife Virginia persuaded him to take the job. In the autumn of 1935, Welles called Houseman after he and Virginia had an inspiration. Welles proposed staging an all-black production of Macbeth , transposed from Scotland to a mythical island setting inspired by 19th-century Haiti and the fantasy world of The Tempest . The idea offered creative advantages in music, costumes and settings — and
11300-490: Was Conjur' Man Dies (1936), a comedy-mystery adapted by Arna Bontemps and Countee Cullen from Rudolph Fisher 's novel. The most popular production was the third, which came to be called the Voodoo Macbeth (1936), director Orson Welles 's adaptation of Shakespeare's play set on a mythical island suggesting the Haitian court of King Henri Christophe . The New York Negro Theatre Unit also oversaw projects from
11413-646: Was a theatre program established during the Great Depression as part of the New Deal to fund live artistic performances and entertainment programs in the United States . It was one of five Federal Project Number One projects sponsored by the Works Progress Administration , created not as a cultural activity but as a relief measure to employ artists, writers, directors, and theater workers. National director Hallie Flanagan shaped
11526-477: Was a unique experience for Dallas theatergoers. The production was one of the most talked-about features of the exposition and drew large, enthusiastic audiences. For many it was their first opportunity to see a professional dramatic performance by African American actors. Welles was sent to join the company during the play's run in Indianapolis (August 25–29), to soothe inter-company quarrels that threatened
11639-487: Was adopted 1935. Those who claim inability are temporary exempt from debt payment. In Ireland , insolvency is governed by the Companies Act 2014 . In Russia, insolvency law is governed by Federal Law No. 127-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)" and Federal Law No. 40-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy) of Credit Institutions". In South Africa , owners of businesses that had at any stage traded insolvently (i.e. that had
11752-500: Was distinguished for its focus on racial injustice. Flanagan expressly ordered her subordinates to follow the WPA policy against racial prejudice. In fact when it came to making decisions on a national level for the project, the Federal Theatre Regulation mandated that "there may be racial representation in all national planning." A specific example of the FTP's adherence to an anti-prejudicial environment came when
11865-453: Was first cast as Macbeth , but he left the production after just three rehearsals to play the lead in an NBC radio series. Jack Carter, who played Crown in the original stage production of Porgy , was chosen for the role. Rose McClendon was to have portrayed Lady Macbeth , but when she became critically ill, Edna Thomas inherited the role. Both Carter and Thomas were light-skinned and wore dark makeup in order to avoid looking different from
11978-414: Was interesting and it was certainly better than going hungry. But I didn't have a serious approach to it until … I bumped into Orson Welles. He was putting on a Federal Theatre production of Macbeth with Negro players and, somehow, I won the part of Banquo . He rehearsed us for six solid months, but when the play finally went on before an audience, it was right — and it was a wonderful sensation, knowing it
12091-488: Was often their only recourse. "This is a tough job we're asking you to do," Hopkins told Flanagan at their first meeting in May 1935. "I don't know why I still hang on to the idea that unemployed actors get just as hungry as anybody else." Hopkins promised "a free, adult, uncensored theatre" — something Flanagan spent the next four years trying to build. She emphasized the development of local and regional theatre, "to lay
12204-426: Was one essential condition — that the quality of these 'classical' productions be exceptionally high. It would be fatal to undertake the risky and difficult business of producing Shakespeare in Harlem until I had found a director of whose creative imagination and power I was completely confident." Houseman invited his recent collaborator, the 20-year-old Orson Welles, to join the project. Welles declined at first, since
12317-452: Was right. Suddenly, the theatre became important to me. I had a respect for it, for what it could say. I had the ambition — I caught it from Orson Welles — to work like mad and be a convincing actor." The production opened April 14, 1936, at the Lafayette Theatre in Harlem . A free preview two days before drew 3,000 more people than could be seated. "By all odds my great success in my life
12430-519: Was that it was an appropriate setting for an all-black cast, Welles felt that it also enhanced the play's realism: he thought the production's popularity was partly due to the fact that the idea of voodoo was more credible to a contemporary audience than was medieval witchcraft. In many productions, the character of Hecate , the Queen of the Witches, is often cut. Instead, Welles turned the character into
12543-415: Was that play," Welles told BBC interviewer Leslie Megahey in 1982. "Because the opening night there were five blocks in which all traffic was stopped. You couldn't get near the theater in Harlem. Everybody who was anybody in the black or white world was there. And when the play ended there were so many curtain calls that finally they left the curtain open, and the audience came up on the stage to congratulate
12656-577: Was the modestly received first production presented in February 1936. The second was Rudolph Fisher 's Conjur' Man Dies , a comedy-mystery starring Dooley Wilson (and directed by Joseph Losey ) that was a smash hit. In fact, since Conjur' Man Dies was playing onstage while the 150-person cast of Macbeth was rehearsing, their rehearsals had to start at midnight and run much of the night. The settings and costumes were designed by Nat Karson . Welles and Karson researched Directoire style , uniforms of
12769-419: Was to be within the individual's defined skills and trades. "For the first time in the relief experiments of this country the preservation of the skill of the worker, and hence the preservation of his self-respect, became important," wrote Hallie Flanagan , director of the Federal Theatre Project. A theater professor at Vassar College who had studied the operation of government-sponsored theatre abroad for
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