75-777: Josephine Vallentine (born 30 May 1946) is an Australian peace activist and politician, a former senator for Western Australia . She entered the Senate on 1 July 1985 after election as a member of the Nuclear Disarmament Party but sat as an independent and then as a member of the Greens Western Australia from 1 July 1990. She resigned on 31 January 1992. Jo Vallentine grew up in Beverley , in Western Australia's Wheatbelt area. As
150-569: A first-past-the-post and block voting system, on a state-by-state basis. This was replaced in 1919 by preferential block voting . Block voting tended to produce landslide majorities. For instance, from 1920 to 1923 the Nationalist Party held all but one of the 36 seats, and from 1947 to 1950, the Australian Labor Party held all but three. In 1948, single transferable vote with proportional representation on
225-437: A Senate that blocks supply is obliged to either resign or call an election was one of the major disputes of the 1975 constitutional crisis . However, even where the Senate does not block supply, they can still use their power to frustrate the legislative agenda of the government. The overwhelming majority of senators have always been elected as representatives of political parties. Parties which currently have representation in
300-659: A chamber with the Liberal / National Coalition having 30 seats, the Australian Labor Party with 26 seats, the Greens with 9 seats, One Nation with 4 seats and the Nick Xenophon Team with 3 seats. The other 4 seats were each won by Derryn Hinch , the Liberal Democratic Party , Family First , and Jacqui Lambie . The number of crossbenchers increased by two to a record 20 (all but the ones of
375-430: A majority in the Senate and the balance of power has typically rested with minor parties and independents . In practice, this means government bills cannot be assured of passage and regulations may be disallowed. The power to bring down the government and force elections by blocking supply also exists, as happened for the first and thus far only time during the 1975 constitutional crisis . Since major reforms in 1970,
450-672: A party to become an independent, most recently in the cases of Senator Lucy Gichuhi not joining the Conservatives following its merger with Family First, Senators Rod Culleton and Fraser Anning resigning from One Nation, Senator Steve Martin being expelled from the Jacqui Lambie Network, and Lidia Thorpe resigning from the Australian Greens. Crossbencher A crossbencher is a minor party or independent member of some legislatures , such as
525-492: A population of around 500,000, elects the same number of senators as New South Wales , which has a population of more than 8 million. Because of this imbalance, governments favoured by the more populous states are occasionally frustrated by the extra power the smaller states have in the Senate, to the degree that former Prime Minister Paul Keating famously referred to the Senate's members as "unrepresentative swill". The proportional election system within each state ensures that
600-561: A protest you might have lost your job on Monday when you went to work." At her first election campaign in 1984, media interest was focused on the NDP Senate candidate for New South Wales, Midnight Oil 's singer Peter Garrett . However, under the Australian Senate's voting system of proportional representation, Western Australia was the only state to return an NDP senator. Soon after her election, Jo Vallentine resigned from
675-417: A state-by-state basis became the method for electing senators. At this time the number of senators was expanded from 36 to 60 and it was argued that a move to proportional representation was needed to even up the balance between both major parties in the chamber. The change in voting systems has been described as an "institutional revolution" that has had the effect of limiting the government's ability to control
750-647: A territory expires at the same time as there is an election for the House of Representatives. Section 13 of the Constitution requires that in half-Senate elections, the election of State senators shall take place within one year before the places become vacant. The actual election date is determined by the Governor of each State, who acts on the advice of the State Premier. The Governors almost always act on
825-461: A total of 67 non-party-political life peers who joined the House of Lords as crossbenchers. As of 22 November 2024 , there are 185 crossbenchers, making up approximately 23 percent of the sitting members in the House of Lords. The Crossbench is typically the third-largest peerage group after the Conservative and Labour benches. From April 2007 to 2009, the number of crossbenchers
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#1732793065868900-662: A whipping system. In December 2016, the Senate began to officially recognise the ISG and provide it with funding. Two additional groups were established in 2019: the Canadian Senators Group (which primarily focuses on regional issues) and the Progressive Senate Group (formed by members of the defunct Senate Liberal Caucus ). The Canadian Senate in 2022 generally aspires towards non-partisanship. Non-affiliated members outnumber members affiliated with
975-649: A young woman she travelled to the United States and was moved to hear and meet Robert F. Kennedy . In an interview in 2001 for a history of the WA peace movement she said: "The Quakers influenced me I suppose from the Vietnam Moratorium days because I was a teacher then, in 1967-69, when the marches were getting going in Perth, and I can remember being a bit nervous because in those days if you were seen in
1050-424: Is Vallentine's niece. Australian Senate Labor (25) Opposition (30) Coalition Liberal (24) National (6) Crossbench (21) Greens (11) One Nation (2) Australia's Voice ( 1 ) Lambie Network ( 1 ) United Australia ( 1 ) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Australian Senate
1125-685: Is not merely a chamber of review. Instead of being modelled solely after the House of Lords , as the Senate of Canada was, the Australian Senate was in part modelled after the United States Senate , by giving equal representation to each state and almost equal powers with the lower house. This was done to give less populous states a real influence in the Parliament, while also maintaining the traditional review functions upper houses have in
1200-492: Is the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of Australia , the lower house being the House of Representatives . The powers, role and composition of the Senate are set out in Chapter I of the federal constitution as well as federal legislation and constitutional convention . There are a total of 76 senators: twelve are elected from each of the six Australian states , regardless of population, and two each representing
1275-447: The 2016 election to reduce the number of senators of elected with a very small number of first preference votes as a result of the candidates of these micro-parties preferencing each other. In the place of group tickets, a form of optional preferential voting was introduced. As a result of the changes, voters may now assign their preferences for parties above the line (numbering as many boxes as they wish), or individual candidates below
1350-736: The Australian Capital Territory (including the Jervis Bay Territory and Norfolk Island ) and the Northern Territory (including the Australian Indian Ocean Territories ). Senators are popularly elected under the single transferable vote system of proportional representation . Section 24 of the Constitution provides that the House of Representatives shall have, as near as practicable, twice as many members as
1425-411: The House of Commons (such as Lord Martin of Springburn and Baroness Boothroyd ) and former Lord Speakers of the House of Lords (such as Baroness Hayman and Baroness D'Souza ), who by convention are not aligned with any party, also sit as crossbenchers. There are also some non-affiliated members of the House of Lords who are not part of the crossbencher group; this includes some officers, such as
1500-597: The Nobel Peace Prize . In a survey of the state in 2006, the conservative The West Australian newspaper named Jo Vallentine as one of the state's 100 most influential people and in 2023 the same newspaper identified the 100 people who had shaped the state of Western Australia and they included politician and businessperson Carmen Lawrence , health activist Fiona Stanley , writer Sally Morgan , Dr Roberta Jull , women's leader Amy Jane Best and Valentine. Former South Australian Liberal Senator Mary Jo Fisher
1575-488: The election of 1940 , with the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition winning 72 seats each of 150 total. Six crossbenchers held the balance of power : Greens MP Adam Bandt and Independent MP Andrew Wilkie , Rob Oakeshott and Tony Windsor declared their support for Labor on confidence and supply , Independent MP Bob Katter and National Party of Western Australia MP Tony Crook declared their support for
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#17327930658681650-530: The parliaments of the Australian states and territories , the term crossbencher refers to any and all minor party and independent members of the parliaments. More precisely, a crossbencher is any member who is not part of the governing party or parties, nor the party or parties forming what is known in some other Commonwealth countries as the " official opposition ". Unlike the United Kingdom,
1725-586: The 1997 Peace Pilgrimage , was involved in the Jabiluka campaign, successfully campaigned to keep the estuary at Guilderton free from urban development on the south side of Moore River, and continues to oppose the 2003 Iraq War , the use of depleted uranium in Iraq (and its possible use by the US at Lancelin ) and expansion of nuclear power and weapons. In 2005 Vallentine was one of six Australian women nominated for
1800-483: The Australian Capital Territory also represent voters from the Jervis Bay Territory and since 1 July 2016, Norfolk Island . The latest expansion in Senate numbers took place in 1984, when the number of senators from each state was increased from 10 to 12, resulting in a total of 76 senators. Senators normally serve fixed six-year terms (from 1 July to 30 June). At most federal elections,
1875-700: The British House of Lords and the Parliament of Australia . They take their name from the crossbenches, between and perpendicular to the government and opposition benches, where crossbenchers sit in the chamber. Crossbench members of the British House of Lords are not aligned to any particular party. Until 2009, these included the Law Lords appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 . In addition, former Speakers of
1950-503: The Coalition on confidence and supply. The resulting 76–74 margin entitled Labor to form a minority government . The Australian Senate, which uses the single transferable vote form of proportional representation to elect its 76-seat chamber, frequently has enough Senators on the crossbench that the governing party has to negotiate with it to get legislation passed. The 2 July 2016 double dissolution election , for example resulted in
2025-403: The Constitution , the number of members of the House of Representatives has to be "as nearly as practicable" double the number of senators. The reasons for the nexus are twofold: a desire to maintain a constant influence for the smaller states, and maintain a constant balance of the two Houses in the event of a joint sitting after a double dissolution. A referendum in 1967 to eliminate the nexus
2100-629: The Greens, sit on the same side of the crossbench as the Labor benches. This tends not to be the case in the House of Representatives, both due to the different electoral system, which means fewer crossbenchers are elected, and the fact that the official government and opposition frontbenches extend across the inner rim of the entire hemicycle. In the New Zealand House of Representatives , MPs from parties that are not openly aligned with either
2175-410: The House an advantage in joint sittings but not in ordinary elections, where the Senate may be too evenly balanced to get House legislation through. A party does not need the support of the Senate to form government (needing only a majority in the House of Representatives), however the Senate can block supply, effectively preventing the government from lawfully spending money. Whether a government facing
2250-540: The House of Commons, such as the Democratic Unionist Party in the 2017–2019 Parliament, are not considered crossbenchers. Instead, along with all other non-governing parties, they are considered part of the opposition and sit on the opposition benches. The crossbenchers do not take a collective position on issues, and so have no whips ; however, they do elect from among themselves a convenor for administrative purposes, and to keep them up to date with
2325-713: The LPA/NPA coalition and the ALP: 9+4+3+4). The Liberal/National Coalition government required at least nine additional votes to reach a Senate majority. Generally speaking, Senators broadly aligned with the Coalition (such as those affiliated with the Australian Conservatives , One Nation, the Liberal Democratic Party, and Derryn Hinch) sit on the same side of the crossbench as the Coalition benches, while those more aligned with Labor, such as
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2400-566: The Lord Speaker, and others who are associated with a party but have had the whip withdrawn. Although non-affiliated members, and members of small parties, sometimes physically sit on the crossbenches, they are not members of the crossbench parliamentary group . An "increasing number" of crossbenchers have been created peers for non-political reasons. Since its establishment in May 2000, the House of Lords Appointments Commission has nominated
2475-584: The NDP, held her Senate seat as an independent and was re-elected in the 1987 election. During her time in Parliament, Jo Vallentine continued her grassroots activism, and marched on the "Joint Facilities" base Pine Gap near Alice Springs. She was arrested. She also marched on the American Clark Air Base in the Philippines in 1989. In 1990, as the inaugural Greens WA Senate candidate, she
2550-490: The Senate and House of Representatives reflects the desire of the Constitution's authors to prevent the more populous states totally dominating the legislative process. In practice, however, most legislation (except for private member's bills ) in the Australian Parliament is initiated by the government, which has control over the lower house. It is then passed to the Senate, which has the opportunity to amend
2625-474: The Senate are: Other parties that have achieved Senate representation in the past include the Australian Conservatives (2017-2019), Derryn Hinch's Justice Party (2016-2019), Family First Party (2005-2011,2014-2016), Australian Democrats (1977-2008), Palmer United Party , Australian Motoring Enthusiast Party (2014-2016), Nuclear Disarmament Party , Liberal Movement , Liberal Democratic Party (2014-2019) and Democratic Labour Party (1955-1974). Due to
2700-435: The Senate incorporates more political diversity than the lower house ( House of Representatives ), which has historically been a two party body. The elected membership of the Senate more closely reflects the first voting preference of the electorate as a whole than does the composition of the House of Representatives, despite the large discrepancies from state to state in the ratio of voters to senators. This often means that
2775-524: The Senate's role as a house of review has increased with the expansion of its committee system . Senators from states ordinarily serve six-year terms, with half of the Senate up for re-election at each federal election along with the entirety of the House of Representatives. However, there is no constitutional requirement that Senate and House elections occur at the same time; the last Senate-only and House-only elections occurred in 1970 and 1972 respectively . The terms of senators from territories expire at
2850-429: The Senate, a joint sitting after a double dissolution is more likely than not to lead to a victory for the House over the Senate. When the Senate had an odd number of senators retiring at an election (3 or 5), 51% of the vote would lead to a clear majority of 3 out of 5 per state. With an even number of senators retiring at an election, it takes 57% of the vote to win 4 out of 6 seats, which may be insurmountable. This gives
2925-424: The Senate. The constitution grants the Senate nearly equivalent powers to the House of Representatives, with the exception that the Senate may not originate or amend money bills , but only reject or defer them. According to convention, the Senate plays no role in the formation of the executive government and the prime minister is drawn from the majority party or coalition in the House of Representatives. However,
3000-552: The Westminster system. This has led to the description of a " Washminster system " to describe the Australian political structure. Although the prime minister and treasurer , by convention (though not legal requirement), are members of the House of Representatives (after John Gorton was appointed prime minister in 1968, he resigned from the Senate and was elected to the House), other ministers may come from either house, and
3075-525: The above example. Names of parties can be shown only if the parties are registered, which requires, among other things, a minimum of 1,500 members. The order of parties on the ballot papers and the order of ungrouped candidates are determined by a random ballot conducted by the Australian Electoral Commission . Candidates, parties and groups pay a deposit of $ 2,000 per candidate, which is forfeited if they fail to achieve 4% of
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3150-517: The bill, pass or reject it. In the majority of cases, voting takes place along party lines , although there are occasional conscience votes . The Senate maintains a number of committees , which engage in a wide variety of inquiries. The results have no direct legislative power, but are valuable forums that raise many points of view that would otherwise not receive government or public notice. The system for electing senators has changed several times since Federation . The original arrangement involved
3225-527: The business of the House. The current convenor is The Earl of Kinnoull , who took the office in April 2023. While convenors are not part of the " usual channels " (i.e. the party whips who decide the business of the House), they have been included in their discussions in recent years. The following have served as Convenor of the Crossbenchers: In the federal Parliament of Australia as well as
3300-466: The chamber, as well as helping the rise of Australian minor parties. The 1984 election saw the introduction of group ticket voting , in order to reduce a high rate of informal voting that arose from the requirement that each candidate be given a preference, and to allow small parties and independent candidates a reasonable chance of winning a seat. This allowed voters to select a single party to distribute their preferences on their behalf (voting "above
3375-400: The composition of the Senate is different from that of the House of Representatives, contributing to the Senate's function as a house of review . With proportional representation, and the small majorities in the Senate compared to the generally larger majorities in the House of Representatives, and the requirement that the number of members of the House be "nearly as practicable" twice that of
3450-414: The day that they are elected. Their terms expire the day prior to the following general election day. While there is no constitutional requirement for the election of senators to take place at the same time as those for members of the House of Representatives, the government usually synchronises the dates of elections for the Senate and House of Representatives. However, because their terms do not coincide,
3525-438: The dissolution of the House of Representatives, typically at three-year intervals. Section 57 of the constitution provides for a double dissolution as a mechanism to break deadlocks between the House and Senate, whereby the entire Senate is dissolved and all seats made vacant. Casual vacancies are filled by the relevant state or territory parliament, or by the corresponding state or territory government on an interim basis if
3600-411: The election will be disrupted, and there can be half-Senate elections without a concurrent House election. The last time this occurred was on 21 November 1970 . The number of votes that a candidate must receive to be elected to the senate is referred to as a "quota". The quota is worked out by dividing the number of formal votes by one more than the number of vacancies to be filled and then adding one to
3675-449: The entire Senate (and the House of Representatives) is dissolved, in what is known as a double dissolution . Following a double dissolution, half the senators representing states serve terms ending on the third 30 June following the election (two to three years) and the rest serve a five to six-year term. Section 13 of the Constitution requires the Senate to allocate long and short terms amongst its members. The term of senators representing
3750-409: The government appoints a Senate leader and senators hold senior roles in the government as ministers of state and members of cabinet . Senators from the opposition likewise serve in the shadow ministry . The Senate elects one of its members to serve as president , who exercises only an ordinary vote and has no casting vote . Since the late 20th century, it has been rare for governments to hold
3825-496: The government or the official opposition (such as those belonging to New Zealand First from 2011 to 2017) are sometimes referred to as crossbenchers, but those who support the government in confidence and supply agreements are regarded as part of the government and sit on the government benches, and often receive official roles as ministers outside the cabinet or as parliamentary under-secretaries. From 2008 to 2017, ACT New Zealand , Te Pāti Māori and United Future MPs supported
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#17327930658683900-410: The incoming Parliament will for some time comprise the new House of Representatives and the old Senate, except for the senators representing the territories, until the new senators start their term on the next 1 July. Following a double dissolution, all 76 senators face re-election. If there is an early House election outside the 12-month period in which Senate elections can occur, the synchronisation of
3975-463: The largest of these designated the official opposition (and their leader is designated Leader of the Opposition ). Opposition parties other than the official opposition are typically called third parties. Third parties that hold a certain threshold of seats are granted official party status . In 2022 the "official opposition" is the Conservatives; the bloc Québecois, the NDP, and the Greens are
4050-447: The line and below the line voting were consistent with the constitution. The Australian Senate voting paper under the single transferable vote proportional representation system resembles the following example (shown in two parts), which shows the candidates for Victorian senate representation in the 2016 federal election . To vote correctly, electors must either: Because each state elects six senators at each half-Senate election,
4125-428: The line"), but voters were still able to vote directly for individual candidates and distribute their own preferences if they wished (voting "below the line") by numbering every box. Following 1981, the government has only had a majority in the Senate from 2005–2007; otherwise, negotiations with other parties and independents have generally been necessary to pass legislation. Group tickets were abolished in advance of
4200-504: The line, and are not required to fill all of the boxes. Both above and below the line voting now use optional preferential voting . For above the line, voters are instructed to number at least their first six preferences; however, a "savings provision" is in place to ensure that ballots will still be counted if less than six are given. For below the line, voters are required to number at least their first 12 preferences. Voters are free to continue numbering as many preferences as they like beyond
4275-402: The minimum number specified. Another savings provision allows ballot papers with at least 6 below the line preferences to be formal. The voting changes make it more difficult for new small parties and independent candidates to be elected to the Senate, but also allow a voter to voluntarily exhaust preferences — that is, to ensure their vote cannot flow to specific candidates or parties — if none of
4350-401: The minority National Party government. As such, these MPs were not considered to be crossbenchers or part of the opposition, as they were represented within the government. The term "crossbencher" is generally not used for the federal Parliament of Canada or any of the provincial or territorial legislatures . Instead, any party that is not the governing party is an "opposition party", with
4425-461: The need to obtain votes statewide, independent candidates have difficulty getting elected. The exceptions in recent times have been elected in less populous States — the former Tasmanian Senator Brian Harradine and the former South Australian Senator Nick Xenophon . David Pocock was also elected to represent the ACT at the 2022 election. It is less uncommon for a senator initially elected representing
4500-593: The opposition. Beginning in 2016, multiple non-partisan caucuses which fulfill a similar purpose as crossbenchers were formed in the Senate of Canada . The first, the Independent Senators Group (ISG), was created partly as a response to Prime Minister Justin Trudeau 's decision to appoint more non-partisan Senators. Similar to crossbenchers in the UK, the ISG chooses its own leader and does not use
4575-444: The parliament is not in session. A constitutional amendment passed in 1977 provides that casual vacancies must be filled by a member of the same political party as the previous senator. The Constitution of Australia established the Senate as the second chamber of the national parliament of the newly federated Australia . In contrast to countries employing a pure Westminster system the Senate plays an active role in legislation and
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#17327930658684650-547: The primary vote. Candidates, parties and groups earn a public subsidy if they gain at least 4% of the primary vote. At the 2019 federal election, funding was $ 2.756 per formal first preference vote. Under sections 7 and 8 of the Australian Constitution: These conditions have periodically been the source of debate, and within these conditions, the composition and rules of the Senate have varied significantly since federation. Under Section 24 of
4725-410: The quota for election is only one-seventh or 14.3% (one third or 33.3% for territories, where only two senators are elected). Once a candidate has been elected with votes reaching the quota amount, any votes they receive in addition to this may be distributed to other candidates as preferences, if there are still open seats to fill. With an odd number of seats in a half-Senate election (3 or 5), 50.1% of
4800-551: The recommendation of the Governor-General, with the last independent Senate election writ being issued by the Governor of Queensland during the Gair Affair in 1974. Slightly more than half of the Senate is contested at each general election (half of the 72 state senators, and all four of the territory senators), along with the entire House of Representatives. Except in the case of a double dissolution , senators for
4875-428: The result. The 2019 senate election was a half senate election, so 6 senate vacancies were contested in each state. At this election, the quotas in each state were: Each state elects the same number of senators, meaning there is equal representation for each of the Australian states, regardless of population, so the Senate, like many upper Houses, does not adhere to the principle of one vote one value . Tasmania , with
4950-446: The seats of 40 of the 76 senators (half of the 72 senators from the six states and all four of the senators from the territories) are contested, along with the entire House of Representatives; such an election is sometimes known as a half-Senate election. The seats of senators representing states elected at a half-Senate election are not contested at the next election, provided it is a half-Senate election. However, under some circumstances,
5025-423: The states are elected for fixed terms of six years, commencing on 1 July following the election, and ceasing on 30 June six years later. The term of the four senators from the territories is not fixed, but is defined by the dates of the general elections for the House of Representatives, the period between which can vary greatly, to a maximum of three years and three months. Territory senators commence their terms on
5100-425: The term is used by both the lower and upper houses of each parliament (where applicable), who sit on the crossbenches between the government and opposition benches. The last few federal elections have seen an increase in the size and power of the crossbench in both houses of Parliament. The Australian Parliament as elected at the 2010 election was the first hung parliament in the House of Representatives since
5175-525: The total to 60. In 1975, the two territories, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory , were given an entitlement to elect two senators each for the first time, bringing the number to 64. The senators from the Northern Territory also represent constituents from Australia's Indian Ocean Territories ( Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands ), while the senators from
5250-497: The two Houses have almost equal legislative power. As with most upper chambers in bicameral parliaments , the Senate cannot introduce or amend appropriation bills (bills that authorise government expenditure of public revenue) or bills that impose taxation, that role being reserved for the lower house; it can only approve, reject or defer them (as famously occurred in the lead up to the Dismissal ). That degree of equality between
5325-468: The vote wins a majority (2/3) or (3/5). With an even number of seats in a half-Senate election (6), 57.1% of the vote is needed to win a majority of seats (4/6). The ungrouped candidates in the far right column do not have a box above the line. Therefore, they can only get a primary (number 1) vote from electors who vote below the line. For this reason, some independents register as a group, either with other independents or by themselves, such as group B in
5400-481: The voter's candidate preferences are elected. The changes were subject to a challenge in front of High Court of Australia by sitting South Australian Senator Bob Day of the Family First Party . The senator argued that the changes meant the senators would not be "directly chosen by the people" as required by the constitution. The High Court rejected Day's challenge unanimously, deciding that both above
5475-655: Was higher than the number of Conservative peers for the first time. Although the Lords Spiritual (archbishops and senior bishops of the Church of England ) also have no party affiliation, they are not considered crossbenchers and do not sit on the crossbenches, their seats being on the Government side of the Lords Chamber. Parties supporting a minority government in a confidence and supply agreement in
5550-423: Was re-elected again but resigned on health grounds before completing her term. The casual vacancy was filled by Christabel Chamarette . Her efforts took a toll. After resigning from the Senate, Vallentine took time to recuperate from ill health. By 1994 she was helping found Alternatives to Violence Project in Western Australia, focused on sharing nonviolent skills with people in prisons. She also travelled with
5625-439: Was rejected. The size of the Senate has changed over the years. The Constitution originally provided for six senators for each state, resulting in a total of 36 senators. The Constitution permits the Parliament to increase the number of senators, provided that equal numbers of senators from each original state are maintained; accordingly, in 1948, Senate representation was increased from 6 to 10 senators for each state, increasing
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