Philosophy of culture is a branch of philosophy that examines the essence and meaning of culture .
64-417: Conservatism is a cultural , social , and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions , customs , and values . The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilisation in which it appears. In Western culture , depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek to promote and preserve a range of institutions, such as
128-451: A totalitarian ruler, but a monarch, or a traditionalist who acts like one. Many such movements in Spain, Austria, Hungary, Germany, and Italy have been explicitly monarchist […] The supporters of these movements differ from those of the centrists, tending to be wealthier, and more religious, which is more important in terms of a potential for mass support. Edmund Fawcett states that fascism
192-412: A "right-wing viewpoint occupying the political spectrum between [classical] liberalism and fascism ". Conservatism has been called a "philosophy of human imperfection" by Noël O'Sullivan , reflecting among its adherents a negative view of human nature and pessimism of the potential to improve it through 'utopian' schemes. Thomas Hobbes , the "intellectual godfather of the realist right", argued that
256-648: A badge of honor". Despite this, the descriptor has been adopted by intellectuals such as the Italian esoteric traditionalist Julius Evola , the Austrian monarchist Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn , the Colombian political theologian Nicolás Gómez Dávila , and the American historian John Lukacs . Religious conservatism principally applies the teachings of particular religions to politics—sometimes by merely proclaiming
320-541: A collective form of bildung : "For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people." In 1795, the linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era , scholars in Germany , especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as
384-660: A degree of religious toleration . Burke ultimately justified the social order on the basis of tradition: tradition represented the wisdom of the species, and he valued community and social harmony over social reforms. Another form of conservatism developed in France in parallel to conservatism in Britain. It was influenced by Counter-Enlightenment works by philosophers such as Joseph de Maistre and Louis de Bonald . Many continental conservatives do not support separation of church and state , with most supporting state cooperation with
448-405: A lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: Sapere aude , "Dare to be wise!" In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity , which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed
512-440: A moderate alternative to the extremes of right-wing nationalism and left-wing communism. Christian-democratic parties were especially popular among European women, who often voted for these parties to a large extent due to their pro-family policies. Social conservatives believe that society is built upon a fragile network of relationships which need to be upheld through duty, traditional values, and established institutions; and that
576-482: A powerful reactionary movement was German Romanticism , which centred around concepts of organicism, medievalism , and traditionalism against the forces of rationalism, secularism, and individualism that were unleashed in the French Revolution . In political discourse, being a reactionary is generally regarded as negative; Peter King observed that it is "an unsought-for label, used as a torment rather than
640-449: A pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world." In practice, culture referred to an élite ideal and was associated with such activities as art , classical music , and haute cuisine . As these forms were associated with urban life, "culture" was identified with "civilization" (from lat. civitas , city). Another facet of
704-428: A scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of "elementary ideas" ( Elementargedanken ); different cultures, or different "folk ideas" ( Völkergedanken ), are local modifications of the elementary ideas. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942)
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#1732765474391768-1387: A stream of anti-rationalist, romantic conservatism, but would still stay separate. Whereas Burke was more open to argumentation and disagreement, Maistre wanted faith and authority, leading to a more illiberal strain of thought. Authoritarian conservatism refers to autocratic regimes that portray authority as absolute and unquestionable. Authoritarian conservative movements show strong devotion towards religion, tradition, and culture while also expressing fervent nationalism akin to other far-right nationalist movements. Examples of authoritarian conservative dictators include Marshal Philippe Pétain in France, Regent Miklós Horthy in Hungary, General Ioannis Metaxas in Greece, King Alexander I in Yugoslavia, Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal, Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria, Generalissimo Francisco Franco in Spain, King Carol II in Romania, and Tsar Boris III in Bulgaria. Authoritarian conservative movements were prominent in
832-483: Is "resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them". Alexandre Kojève distinguishes between two different forms of traditional authority: Robert Nisbet acknowledges that the decline of traditional authority in the modern world is partly linked with the retreat of old institutions such as guild , order , parish , and family —institutions that formerly acted as intermediaries between
896-433: Is a strand in conservatism which reflects the belief that societies exist and develop organically and that members within them have obligations towards each other. There is particular emphasis on the paternalistic obligation ( noblesse oblige ) of those who are privileged and wealthy to the poorer parts of society, which is consistent with principles such as duty , organicism , and hierarchy . Its proponents often stress
960-401: Is less an attempt to uphold old institutions and more "a meditation on—and theoretical rendition of—the felt experience of having power, seeing it threatened, and trying to win it back". On another occasion, Robin argues for a more complex relation: Conservatism is a defense of established hierarchies, but it is also fearful of those established hierarchies. It sees in their assuredness of power
1024-462: Is necessary to ensure law and order, and social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of duty and responsibility to the nation. Originally opposed to capitalism and the industrial revolution , the conservative ideology in many countries adopted economic liberalism , especially in the United States where this ideology is known as fiscal conservatism . National conservatism prioritises
1088-832: Is primarily on social issues, where conservatives tend to reject behaviour that does not conform to some social norm . Modern conservative parties often define themselves by their opposition to liberal or socialist parties. The United States usage of the term conservative is unique to that country, where its first modern usage was for pro-free enterprise opponents of the New Deal . Imperial China Republic of China (before 1949) People's Republic of China (Mainland) Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) Macau (pro-Beijing) Republic of China (Taiwan, pan-Blue) Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) Hong Kong (centrist) Philosophy of culture It focuses on how human creativity, rationality, and collective experiences shape cultural identities. It traces
1152-408: Is strongly influenced by liberal stances. It incorporates the classical liberal view of minimal economic interventionism , meaning that individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference. However, individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life; therefore, liberal conservatives believe that a strong state
1216-660: Is to be found in the English conservative tradition, except perhaps a certain scepticism and a pragmatic emphasis". The book also contains chapters on French and German conservatism. O'Sullivan argued that fascism was one example of the new revolutionary style of modern politics, of which communism was also a manifestation. He also argued that fascism was an extreme example of the "activist" style of politics, which he defined as one that substitutes ideology for law, subordinates individuals to an all-embracing political order, has no intrinsic respect for constitutional forms, and rejects
1280-583: Is totalitarian, populist, and anti- pluralist , whereas authoritarian conservatism is somewhat pluralist but most of all elitist and anti-populist. He concludes: "The fascist is a nonconservative who takes anti-liberalism to extremes. The right-wing authoritarian is a conservative who takes fear of democracy to extremes." During the Cold War , right-wing military dictatorships were prominent in Latin America, with most nations being under military rule by
1344-543: The Catholic Church , such as had existed in France before the Revolution. Conservatives were also early to embrace nationalism , which was previously associated with liberalism and the Revolution in France. Another early French conservative, François-René de Chateaubriand , espoused a romantic opposition to modernity, contrasting its emptiness with the 'full heart' of traditional faith and loyalty. Elsewhere on
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#17327654743911408-602: The Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between "civilized" and "uncivilized." According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer 's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan 's theory of cultural evolution . Just as some critics have argued that
1472-709: The Rockingham branch of the Whig party . Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom. Burke's views were a mixture of conservatism and republicanism. He supported the American Revolution of 1775–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution of 1789–1799. He accepted the conservative ideals of private property and the economics of Adam Smith , but he thought that capitalism should remain subordinate to
1536-732: The Romantic movement was an interest in folklore , which led to identifying a "culture" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture , namely that of the ruling social group , and low culture . In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies. Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with anarchy ; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau , contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature". According to Hobbes and Rousseau,
1600-410: The nuclear family , organised religion , the military , the nation-state , property rights , rule of law , aristocracy , and monarchy . Conservatives tend to favour institutions and practices that enhance social order and historical continuity. Edmund Burke , an 18th-century Anglo-Irish statesman who opposed the French Revolution but supported the American Revolution , is credited as one of
1664-603: The social transformation of society. In popular usage, reactionism refers to a staunch traditionalist conservative political perspective of a person who supports the status quo and opposes social, political, and economic change. Some adherents of conservatism, rather than opposing change, seek to return to the status quo ante and tend to view the modern world in a negative light, especially concerning mass culture and secularism , although different groups of reactionaries may choose different traditional values to revive. Some political scientists, such as Corey Robin , treat
1728-430: The state of nature for humans was "poor, nasty, brutish, and short", requiring centralised authority with royal sovereignty to guarantee law and order . Edmund Burke , often called the father of modern conservatism, believed that human beings are steeped in original sin and that society therefore needs traditional institutions, such as an established church and a landed aristocracy , in order to function. Despite
1792-558: The 21st century, the authoritarian style of government experienced a worldwide renaissance with conservative statesmen such as President Vladimir Putin in Russia, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Turkey, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán in Hungary, Prime Minister Narendra Modi in India, and President Donald Trump in the United States. Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that
1856-484: The United Kingdom with exponents such as Prime Ministers Disraeli, Stanley Baldwin , Neville Chamberlain , Winston Churchill , and Harold Macmillan . In 19th-century Germany , Chancellor Otto von Bismarck adopted a set of social programs, known as state socialism , which included insurance for workers against sickness, accident, incapacity, and old age. The goal of this conservative state-building strategy
1920-540: The class basis of right-wing extremist politics in the 1920–1960 era. He reports: Conservative or rightist extremist movements have arisen at different periods in modern history, ranging from the Horthyites in Hungary, the Christian Social Party of Dollfuss in Austria, Der Stahlhelm and other nationalists in pre-Hitler Germany, and Salazar in Portugal, to the pre-1966 Gaullist movements and
1984-500: The conservative social ethic and that the business class should be subordinate to aristocracy. He insisted on standards of honour derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition and saw the aristocracy as the nation's natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive. He favoured an established church, but allowed for
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2048-610: The continent, German thinkers Justus Möser and Friedrich von Gentz criticised the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen that came of the Revolution. Opposition was also expressed by German idealists such as Adam Müller and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , the latter inspiring both leftist and rightist followers. Both Burke and Maistre were critical of democracy in general, though their reasons differed. Maistre
2112-453: The defence of national and cultural identity , often based on a theory of the family as a model for the state . National conservatism is orientated towards upholding national sovereignty , which includes limited immigration and a strong national defence. In Europe, national conservatives are usually eurosceptics . Yoram Hazony has argued for national conservatism in his work The Virtue of Nationalism (2018). Paternalistic conservatism
2176-459: The development of cultural thought from early modern discussions on national identity and Enlightenment ideals, through German and English Romanticism , to more scientific approaches. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) has formulated an individualist definition of "enlightenment" similar to the concept of bildung : "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity." He argued that this immaturity comes not from
2240-448: The distinction between high and low cultures is really an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, some critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is really an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects. Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen
2304-542: The established institutions of their time. According to Quintin Hogg , the chairman of the British Conservative Party in 1959: "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself." Conservatism is often used as a generic term to describe
2368-561: The execution of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and other top-ranking Romanian fascists. The exiled German Emperor Wilhelm II was an enemy of Adolf Hitler and stated that Nazism made him ashamed to be a German for the first time in his life. The Catholic seminarian António de Oliveira Salazar , who was Portugal's dictator for 40 years, denounced fascism and Nazism as a "pagan Caesarism " that did not recognise legal, religious, or moral limits. Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset has examined
2432-577: The forefathers of conservative thought in the 1790s along with Savoyard statesman Joseph de Maistre . The first established use of the term in a political context originated in 1818 with François-René de Chateaubriand during the period of Bourbon Restoration that sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution and establish social order. Conservatism has varied considerably as it has adapted itself to existing traditions and national cultures. Thus, conservatives from different parts of
2496-549: The government has a role in encouraging or enforcing traditional values or practices. A social conservative wants to preserve traditional morality and social mores , often by opposing what they consider radical policies or social engineering . Some social-conservative stances are the following: Traditionalist conservatism, also known as classical conservatism, emphasises the need for the principles of natural law , transcendent moral order, tradition , hierarchy , organicism , agrarianism , classicism , and high culture as well as
2560-486: The highly stratified capitalist systems of the West . In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion . According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms. In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved
2624-545: The importance of a social safety net to deal with poverty, supporting limited redistribution of wealth along with government regulation of markets in the interests of both consumers and producers. Paternalistic conservatism first arose as a distinct ideology in the United Kingdom under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli 's " One Nation " Toryism . There have been a variety of one-nation conservative governments in
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2688-496: The intersecting spheres of loyalty . Some traditionalists have embraced the labels reactionary and counter-revolutionary , defying the stigma that has attached to these terms since the Enlightenment . Having a hierarchical view of society, many traditionalist conservatives, including a few notable Americans such as Ralph Adams Cram , William S. Lind , and Charles A. Coulombe , defend the monarchical political structure as
2752-399: The lack of a universal definition, certain themes can be recognised as common across conservative thought. According to Michael Oakeshott : To be conservative […] is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the limited to the unbounded, the near to the distant, the sufficient to the superabundant, the convenient to
2816-488: The middle of the 1970s. One example of this was General Augusto Pinochet , who ruled over Chile from 1973 to 1990. According to Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn , military dictatorships arise in democratic systems in order to stop leftist parties from becoming totalitarian. The most recent instance occurred in Bolivia in 2024, when General Juan José Zúñiga staged a coup in order to overthrow the far-left president Luis Arce . In
2880-402: The monarchists in contemporary France and Italy. The right extremists are conservative, not revolutionary. They seek to change political institutions in order to preserve or restore cultural and economic ones, while extremists of the centre [fascists/Nazis] and left [communists/anarchists] seek to use political means for cultural and social revolution. The ideal of the right extremist is not
2944-443: The most natural and beneficial social arrangement. Conservative parties vary widely from country to country in the goals they wish to achieve. Both conservative and classical liberal parties tend to favour private ownership of property, in opposition to communist , socialist , and green parties, which favour communal ownership or laws regulating responsibility on the part of property owners. Where conservatives and liberals differ
3008-720: The nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire —developed a more inclusive notion of culture as " worldview "( Weltanschauung ). According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures. In 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for "the psychic unity of mankind". He proposed that
3072-483: The perfect, present laughter to utopian bliss. Such traditionalism may be a reflection of trust in time-tested methods of social organisation, giving 'votes to the dead'. Traditions may also be steeped in a sense of identity . In contrast to the tradition-based definition of conservatism, some left-wing political theorists like Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defence of social and economic inequality . From this perspective, conservatism
3136-495: The refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by "the folk", i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as " noble savages " living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by
3200-850: The role of religion in public life. Christian democracy is a moderately conservative centre-right ideology inspired by Christian social teaching . It originated as a reaction against the industrialisation and urbanisation associated with laissez-faire -capitalism . In post-war Europe, Christian-democratic parties dominated politics in several nations—the Christian People's Party in Belgium, CDU and CSU in Germany, Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil in Ireland, and Christian Democracy in Italy. Many post-war Europeans saw Christian democracy as
3264-458: The same era as fascism , with which it sometimes clashed. Although both ideologies shared core values such as nationalism and had common enemies such as communism , there was nonetheless a contrast between the traditionalist and elitist nature of authoritarian conservatism and the revolutionary and populist nature of fascism—thus it was common for authoritarian conservative regimes to suppress rising fascist and Nazi movements. The hostility between
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#17327654743913328-510: The social hierarchy, which includes factors such as age, experience, and wisdom. Conservatives often glorify hierarchies, as demonstrated in an aphorism by conservative philosopher Nicolás Gómez Dávila : "Hierarchies are celestial. In hell all are equal." The word hierarchy has religious roots and translates to 'rule of a high priest.' Authority is a core tenet of conservatism. More specifically, conservatives tend to believe in traditional authority . According to Max Weber , this form of authority
3392-433: The source of corruption, decadence and decline. Ruling regimes require some kind of irritant, a grain of sand in the oyster, to reactivate their latent powers, to exercise their atrophied muscles, to make their pearls. In Conservatism: A Rediscovery (2022), political philosopher Yoram Hazony argues that, in a traditional conservative community, members have importance and influence to the degree they are honoured within
3456-478: The state and the individual. Hannah Arendt argues that the modern world suffers an existential crisis with a "dramatic breakdown of all traditional authorities," which are needed for the continuity of an established civilisation. Edmund Burke has been widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. He served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to
3520-759: The term has been used to describe a wide range of views . Conservatism may be either libertarian or authoritarian , populist or elitist , progressive or reactionary , moderate or extreme . Scholars have tried to define conservatism as a set of beliefs or principles. Andrew Heywood argues that the five central beliefs of conservatism are tradition, human imperfection, organic society, authority/hierarchy, and property. Russell Kirk developed five canons of conservatism in The Conservative Mind (1953): Some political scientists, such as Samuel P. Huntington , have seen conservatism as situational. Under this definition, conservatives are seen as defending
3584-423: The two ideologies is highlighted by the struggle for power in Austria, which was marked by the assassination of the ultra-Catholic dictator Engelbert Dollfuss by Austrian Nazis . Likewise, Croatian fascists assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia . In Romania, as the fascist Iron Guard was gaining popularity and Nazi Germany was making advances on the European political stage, King Carol II ordered
3648-453: The value of those teachings, at other times by having those teachings influence laws. In most democracies, political conservatism seeks to uphold traditional family structures and social values. Religious conservatives typically oppose abortion, LGBT behaviour (or, in certain cases, identity), drug use, and sexual activity outside of marriage. In some cases, conservative values are grounded in religious beliefs, and conservatives seek to increase
3712-665: The way for the modern understanding of culture. No%C3%ABl O%27Sullivan Noël O'Sullivan is currently Research Professor of Political Philosophy at the University of Hull . He studied at the London School of Economics and Harvard University . In 1967 he joined the Politics Department at Hull University. In 1992 he was given a personal chair in political philosophy at Hull. In his book on conservatism O'Sullivan argued that "No single unifying idea
3776-547: The words reactionary and conservative as synonyms. Others, such as Mark Lilla , argue that reactionism and conservatism are distinct worldviews. Francis Wilson defines conservatism as "a philosophy of social evolution, in which certain lasting values are defended within the framework of the tension of political conflict". Some reactionaries favour a return to the status quo ante , the previous political state of society, which that person believes possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary society. An early example of
3840-411: The world, each upholding their respective traditions, may disagree on a wide range of issues. One of the three major ideologies along with liberalism and socialism , conservatism is the dominant ideology in many nations across the world, including Hungary , India , Iran , Israel , Italy , Japan , Poland , Russia , Singapore , and South Korea . Historically associated with right-wing politics ,
3904-464: Was pessimistic about humans being able to follow rules, while Burke was sceptical about humans' innate ability to make rules. For Maistre, rules had a divine origin, while Burke believed they arose from custom. The lack of custom for Burke, and the lack of divine guidance for Maistre, meant that people would act in terrible ways. Both also believed that liberty of the wrong kind led to bewilderment and political breakdown. Their ideas would together flow into
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#17327654743913968-784: Was progressive conservative, and he described himself as a believer in progressive conservatism. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also declared himself an advocate of progressive conservatism. In Canada , a variety of conservative governments have been part of the Red Tory tradition, with Canada's former major conservative party being named the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1942 to 2003. Prime Ministers Arthur Meighen , R. B. Bennett , John Diefenbaker , Joe Clark , Brian Mulroney , and Kim Campbell led Red Tory federal governments. Reactionary conservatism, also known as reactionism, opposes policies for
4032-537: Was to make ordinary Germans, not just the Junker aristocracy, more loyal to state and Emperor . Chancellor Leo von Caprivi promoted a conservative agenda called the "New Course". In the United States, President Theodore Roosevelt has been identified as the main exponent of progressive conservatism. Roosevelt stated that he had "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand". The Republican administration of President William Howard Taft
4096-482: Was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States. In the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word "culture" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of "the best that has been thought and said in the world." This concept of culture is comparable to the German concept of bildung : "...culture being
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