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58-614: In Roman mythology , Veritas ( Classical Latin : [ˈweː.rɪ.t̪aːs] ), meaning Truth, is the Goddess of Truth , a daughter of Saturn (called Cronus by the Greeks, the Titan of Time, perhaps first by Plutarch ), and the mother of Virtus . She is also sometimes considered the daughter of Jupiter (called Zeus by the Greeks), or a creation of Prometheus . The elusive goddess

116-801: A free citizen ? Can a superpower still be a republic ? How does well-meaning authority turn into murderous tyranny ? Major sources for Roman myth include the Aeneid of Virgil and the first few books of Livy 's history as well as Dionysius's Roman Antiquities . Other important sources are the Fasti of Ovid , a six-book poem structured by the Roman religious calendar , and the fourth book of elegies by Propertius . Scenes from Roman myth also appear in Roman wall painting , coins , and sculpture , particularly reliefs . The Aeneid and Livy's early history are

174-572: A continual development over several centuries, the beginnings of formal Latin literature started with the regular performance of comedies and tragedies in Rome in 240 BC, one year after the conclusion of the First Punic War . These initial comedies and tragedies were adapted from Greek drama by Livius Andronicus , a Greek prisoner of war who had been brought to Rome as a slave in 272 BC. Andronicus translated Homer 's Odyssey into Latin using

232-504: A logical unit. Latin can be used with conciseness, as in the works of Sallust and Tacitus . Or it can have wide, sweeping phrases, as in the works of Livy and the speeches of Cicero . Latin lacks poetic vocabulary that marks the Greek poetry. Some earlier Latin poets tried to make up for this deficiency by creating new compound words, as the Greeks had done. But Roman writers seldom invented words. Except in epic poetry, they tended to use

290-504: A long poem, De rerum natura . One of the most prolific writers of the period was Marcus Terentius Varro . Referred to as "the most learned of the Romans" by Quintillian , he wrote about a remarkable variety of subjects, from religion to poetry, but only his writings on agriculture and the Latin language are extant in their complete form. The emperor Augustus took a personal interest in

348-456: A mortal woman, the infant Hercules , on Juno 's breast while she is asleep so the baby will drink her divine milk and thus become immortal, an act which would endow the baby with godlike qualities. When Juno woke and realized that she was breastfeeding an unknown infant, she pushed him away, some of her milk spills, and the spurting milk became the Milky Way . In another version of the myth,

406-469: A native mythology. This perception is a product of Romanticism and the classical scholarship of the 19th century, which valued Greek civilization as more "authentically creative." From the Renaissance to the 18th century, however, Roman myths were an inspiration particularly for European painting . The Roman tradition is rich in historical myths, or legends , concerning the foundation and rise of

464-503: A separate work, greatly influenced later poetic theories. It stated the basic rules of classical writing as the Romans understood and used them. After Virgil died, Horace was Rome's leading poet. The Latin elegy reached its highest development in the works of Tibullus , Propertius , and Ovid . Most of this poetry is concerned with love. Ovid wrote the Fasti , which describes Roman festivals and their legendary origins. Ovid's greatest work,

522-479: A traditional Latin verse form called Saturnian meter . In 235 BC, Gnaeus Naevius , a Roman citizen, continued this tradition of producing dramas that were reworkings of Greek originals, or fabula palliata , and he expanded on this by producing a new type of drama, fabula praetexta , or tragedies based on Roman myths and history, starting in 222 BC. Later in life, Naevius composed an epic poem in Saturnian meter on

580-603: A vivid picture of the public and private life among the Roman governing class. Cicero's works on oratory are our most valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric. His philosophical works were the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages. His speeches inspired many European political leaders and the founders of the United States. Julius Caesar and Sallust were significant historical writers of Cicero's time. Caesar wrote commentaries on

638-432: A young man who is accidentally changed into a donkey. The story is filled with tales of love and witchcraft. Pagan Latin literature showed a final burst of vitality from the late 3rd century till the 5th centuries – Ammianus Marcellinus in history, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus in oratory, and Ausonius and Rutilius Claudius Namatianus in poetry. The Mosella by Ausonius demonstrated a modernism of feeling that indicates

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696-666: Is Sulpicia . In prose, Livy produced a history of the Roman people in 142 books. Only 35 survived, but they are a major source of information on Rome. From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until about 200, Roman authors emphasized style and tried new and startling ways of expression. During the reign of Nero from 54 to 68, the Stoic philosopher Seneca wrote a number of dialogues and letters on such moral themes as mercy and generosity. In his Natural Questions , Seneca analyzed earthquakes, floods, and storms. Seneca's tragedies greatly influenced

754-469: Is said to have hidden in the bottom of a holy well . She is depicted both as a virgin dressed in white and as the "naked truth" ( nuda veritas ) holding a hand mirror. In Western culture , the word may also serve as a motto . This Latin word veritas now appears in the mottos of many colleges , universities and other organizations. It is typically capitalized in mottoes (as Veritas ) for being an ideal like Truth, Kindness and Beauty. Veritas

812-699: Is the motto of: Additionally, the word appears in mottoes that are phrases or lists, e.g.: Caldwell College in Caldwell, New Jersey issues a "Veritas Award" each year in honor of the Dominican Sisters who founded and administer the college. Howard University , in Washington, D.C. , goes by the motto Veritas et Utilitas , translated to "Truth and Service", which is also a motto "Truth-Service" of Payap University , Thailand . The American communications company Verizon has its name derive from

870-593: The Aventine Triad – Ceres , Liber , and Libera – developed in association with the rise of plebeians to positions of wealth and influence. The gods represented distinctly the practical needs of daily life, and the Romans scrupulously accorded them the appropriate rites and offerings. Early Roman divinities included a host of "specialist gods" whose names were invoked in the carrying out of various specific activities. Fragments of old ritual accompanying such acts as plowing or sowing reveal that at every stage of

928-525: The Metamorphoses weaves various myths into a fast-paced, fascinating story. Ovid was a witty writer who excelled in creating lively and passionate characters. The Metamorphoses was the best-known source of Greek and Roman mythology throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It inspired many poets, painters, and composers. One of the few female poets of ancient Rome whose work has survived

986-515: The Middle Ages . Latin literature features the work of Roman authors, such as Cicero , Virgil , Ovid and Horace , but also includes the work of European writers after the fall of the Empire; from religious writers like Aquinas (1225–1274), to secular writers like Francis Bacon (1561–1626), Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), and Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Although literature in Latin followed

1044-432: The Roman army spread his cult as far afield as Roman Britain . The important Roman deities were eventually identified with the more anthropomorphic Greek gods and goddesses, and assumed many of their attributes and myths. Many astronomical objects are named after Roman deities, like the planets Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , and Neptune . In Roman and Greek mythology, Jupiter places his son born by

1102-540: The ancient Greeks and reinterpreted myths about Greek deities under the names of their Roman counterparts. The influence of Greek mythology likely began as early as Rome's protohistory . Classical mythology is the amalgamated tradition of Greek and Roman mythologies, as disseminated especially by Latin literature in Europe throughout the Middle Ages , into the Renaissance , and up to present-day uses of myths in fiction and movies. The interpretations of Greek myths by

1160-403: The war with Hannibal , any distinction between "indigenous" and "immigrant" gods begins to fade, and the Romans embraced diverse gods from various cultures as a sign of strength and universal divine favor. The absorption of neighboring local gods took place as the Roman state conquered neighboring territories. The Romans commonly granted the local gods of a conquered territory the same honors as

1218-605: The Archaic Triad – an unusual example within Indo-European religion of a supreme triad formed of two female deities and only one male. The cult of Diana became established on the Aventine Hill , but the most famous Roman manifestation of this goddess may be Diana Nemorensis , owing to the attention paid to her cult by J.G. Frazer in the mythographic classic The Golden Bough . What modern scholars call

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1276-494: The Elder . Cato wrote the first Latin history of Rome and of other Italian cities. He was the first Roman statesman to put his political speeches in writing as a means of influencing public opinion. Early Latin literature ended with Gaius Lucilius , who created a new kind of poetry in his 30 books of Satires (2nd century BC). He wrote in an easy, conversational tone about books, food, friends, and current events. Traditionally,

1334-534: The Gallic and civil wars in a straightforward style to justify his actions as a general. He wrote descriptions of people and their motives. The birth of lyric poetry in Latin occurred during the same period. The lyrics of Catullus , whom the writer Aulus Gellius called "the most elegant of poets", are noted for their emotional intensity. Contemporary with Catullus, Lucretius expounded the Epicurean philosophy in

1392-462: The Greeks had already written about. Even when they copied the Greeks, their translations were not straightforward replicas of the original Greek works. Only fragments of their plays have survived. Considerably more is known about early Latin comedy, as 26 Early Latin comedies are extant – 20 of which were written by Plautus ; the remaining six were written by Terence . These men modeled their comedies on Greek plays known as New Comedy , but treated

1450-455: The Romans often had a greater influence on narrative and pictorial representations of myths than Greek sources. In particular, the versions of Greek myths in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , written during the reign of Augustus , came to be regarded as canonical . Because ritual played the central role in Roman religion that myth did for the Greeks, it is sometimes doubted that the Romans had much of

1508-534: The Romans' interest in rhetoric, the art of speaking and persuading. Public speaking had great importance for educated Romans because most of them wanted successful political careers. When Rome was a republic , effective speaking often determined who would be elected or what bills would pass. After Rome became an empire , the ability to impress and persuade people by the spoken word lost much of its importance. But training in rhetoric continued to flourish and to affect styles of writing. A large part of rhetoric consists of

1566-513: The abandoned Hercules is given by Minerva to Juno for feeding, but Hercules' forcefulness causes Minerva to rip him from her breast in pain. The milk that squirts out forms the Milky Way. Latin literature Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language. The beginning of formal Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when

1624-480: The ability to present a familiar idea in a striking new manner that attracts attention. Latin authors became masters of this art of variety. Latin is a highly inflected language, with many grammatical forms for various words. As a result, it can be used with a pithiness and brevity unknown in English. It lends itself to elaboration, because its tight syntax holds even the longest and most complex sentence together as

1682-513: The best extant sources for Rome's founding myths . Material from Greek heroic legend was grafted onto this native stock at an early date. The Trojan prince Aeneas was cast as husband of Lavinia , daughter of King Latinus , patronymical ancestor of the Latini , and therefore through a convoluted revisionist genealogy as forebear of Romulus and Remus . By extension, the Trojans were adopted as

1740-443: The city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities but a pervasive sense of divinely ordered destiny. In Rome's earliest period, history and myth have a mutual and complementary relationship. As T. P. Wiseman notes: The Roman stories still matter , as they mattered to Dante in 1300 and Shakespeare in 1600 and the founding fathers of the United States in 1776. What does it take to be

1798-430: The combination of the words veritas and horizon - chosen from 8,500 candidates with $ 300 million spent on marketing the new brand. Roman mythology Roman mythology is the body of myths of ancient Rome as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans , and is a form of Roman folklore . "Roman mythology" may also refer to the modern study of these representations, and to

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1856-560: The community or Roman state. Heroism is an important theme. When the stories illuminate Roman religious practices, they are more concerned with ritual, augury , and institutions than with theology or cosmogony . Roman mythology also draws on Greek mythology , primarily during the Hellenistic period of Greek influence and through the Roman conquest of Greece , via the artistic imitation of Greek literary models by Roman authors. The Romans identified their own gods with those of

1914-636: The earlier gods of the Roman state religion . In addition to Castor and Pollux , the conquered settlements in Italy seem to have contributed to the Roman pantheon Diana , Minerva , Hercules , Venus , and deities of lesser rank, some of whom were Italic divinities, others originally derived from the Greek culture of Magna Graecia . In 203 BC, Rome imported the cult object embodying Cybele from Pessinus in Phrygia and welcomed its arrival with due ceremony . Both Lucretius and Catullus , poets contemporary in

1972-427: The elegance and Classicism of their style. Examples of these were Anthony Alsop and Vincent Bourne , who were noted for the ingenious way that they adapted their verse to describing details of life in the 18th century while never departing from the purity of Latin diction. One of the last to be noted for the quality of his Latin verse well into the 19th century was Walter Savage Landor . Much Latin writing reflects

2030-426: The end of classical literature as such. Writers who laid the foundations of Christian Latin literature during the 4th century and 5th century included the church fathers Augustine of Hippo , Jerome , and Ambrose , and the first great Christian poet, Prudentius . Some Latin writing by Christian women also survives: the prison diary of the martyr Perpetua of Carthage , and an account of a Christian pilgrimage by

2088-474: The epigram achieved the stinging quality still associated with it. Juvenal satirized vice. The historian Tacitus painted an unforgettably dark picture of the early empire in his Histories and Annals , both written in the early 2nd century. His contemporary Suetonius wrote biographies of the 12 Roman rulers from Julius Caesar through Domitian . The letters of Pliny the Younger described Roman life of

2146-606: The first Punic War, in which he had fought. Other epic poets followed Naevius. Quintus Ennius wrote an historical epic, the Annals (soon after 200 BC), describing Roman history from the founding of Rome to his own time. He adopted the Greek dactylic hexameter, which became the standard verse form for Roman epics. He became well known for his tragic dramas. Successors in this field include Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius . These three writers rarely used episodes from Roman history , but they wrote Latin versions of tragic themes that

2204-406: The first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome. Latin literature flourished for the next six centuries. The classical era of Latin literature can be roughly divided into several periods: Early Latin literature , The Golden Age , The Imperial Period and Late Antiquity . Latin was the language of the ancient Romans as well as being the lingua franca of Western and Central Europe throughout

2262-461: The gods Mars and Quirinus , who were often identified with each other. Mars was a god of both war and agriculture; he was honored in March and October. Quirinus was the patron of the armed community in time of peace. The 19th-century scholar Georg Wissowa thought that the Romans distinguished two classes of gods, the di indigetes and the di novensides or novensiles : the indigetes were

2320-462: The growth of tragic drama in Europe. His nephew Lucan wrote the Pharsalia (about 60), an epic poem describing the civil war between Caesar and Pompey . The Satyricon (about 60) by Petronius was the first picaresque Latin novel. Only fragments of the complete work survive. It describes the adventures of various low-class characters in absurd, extravagant, and dangerous situations, often in

2378-415: The harvest. Jupiter , the ruler of the gods, was honored for the aid his rains might give to the farms and vineyards. In his more encompassing character he was considered, through his weapon of lightning, the director of human activity. Owing to his widespread domain, the Romans regarded him as their protector in their military activities beyond the borders of their own community. Prominent in early times were

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2436-877: The height of Latin literature has been assigned to the period from 81 BC to AD 17, although recent scholarship has questioned the assumptions that privileged the works of this period over both earlier and later works. This period is usually said to have begun with the first known speech of Cicero and ended with the death of Ovid . Cicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose. The writing he produced from about 80 BC until his death in 43 BC exceeds that of any Latin author whose work survives in terms of quantity and variety of genre and subject matter, as well as possessing unsurpassed stylistic excellence. Cicero's many works can be divided into four groups: (1) letters, (2) rhetorical treatises, (3) philosophical works, and (4) orations. His letters provide detailed information about an important period in Roman history and offer

2494-638: The influences of other cultures in response to social change. The earliest pantheon included Janus, Vesta , and the so-called Archaic Triad of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, whose three patrician flamens were of the highest order . According to tradition, Numa Pompilius , the Sabine second king of Rome , founded Roman religion; Numa was believed to have had as his consort and adviser a Roman goddess or nymph of fountains and of prophecy, Egeria . The Etruscan-influenced Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva later became central to official religion, replacing

2552-524: The late 6th century BC from the Cumaean Sibyl . Some aspects of archaic Roman religion survived in the lost theological works of the 1st-century BC scholar Varro , known through other classical and Christian authors. Although traditional Roman religion was conservative in ritual rather than dogmatic in doctrine, the meaning of the rituals they perpetuated could be adapted, expanded, and reinterpreted by accretions of myths, etiologies , commentary, and

2610-708: The literary works produced during his years of power from 27 BC to AD 14. This period is sometimes called the Augustan Age of Latin Literature. Virgil published his pastoral Eclogues , the Georgics , and the Aeneid , an epic poem describing the events that led to the creation of Rome. Virgil told how the Trojan hero Aeneas became the ancestor of the Roman people. Virgil provided divine justification for Roman rule over

2668-434: The mid-1st century BC, offer disapproving glimpses of Cybele's wildly ecstatic cult. In some instances, deities of an enemy power were formally invited through the ritual of evocatio to take up their abode in new sanctuaries at Rome. Communities of foreigners ( peregrini ) and former slaves (libertini) continued their own religious practices within the city. In this way Mithras came to Rome and his popularity within

2726-416: The mythical ancestors of the Roman people. The characteristic myths of Rome are often political or moral, that is, they deal with the development of Roman government in accordance with divine law, as expressed by Roman religion , and with demonstrations of the individual's adherence to moral expectations ( mos maiorum ) or failures to do so. Narratives of divine activity played a more important role in

2784-455: The operation a separate deity was invoked, the name of each deity being regularly derived from the verb for the operation. Tutelary deities were particularly important in ancient Rome. Thus, Janus and Vesta guarded the door and hearth, the Lares protected the field and house, Pales the pasture, Saturn the sowing, Ceres the growth of the grain, Pomona the fruit, and Consus and Ops

2842-486: The original gods of the Roman state, their names and nature indicated by the titles of the earliest priests and by the fixed festivals of the calendar, with 30 such gods honored by special festivals; the novensides were later divinities whose cults were introduced to the city in the historical period, usually at a known date and in response to a specific crisis or felt need. Arnaldo Momigliano and others, however, have argued that this distinction cannot be maintained. During

2900-520: The period. Quintilian composed the most complete work on ancient education that we possess. Important works from the 2nd century include the Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius , a collection of anecdotes and reports of literary discussions among his friends; and the letters of the orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto to Marcus Aurelius . The most famous work of the period was Metamorphoses , also called The Golden Ass , by Apuleius . This novel concerns

2958-412: The pilgrim Egeria . During the Renaissance there was a return to the Latin of classical times, called for this reason Neo-Latin . This purified language continued to be used as the lingua franca among the learned throughout Europe, with the great works of Descartes , Francis Bacon , and Baruch Spinoza all being composed in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were

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3016-438: The plots and wording of the originals freely. Plautus scattered songs throughout his plays and added to the humor with puns and wisecracks, as well as comic actions by the actors. Terence's plays were more austere in tone, dealing with domestic situations. His works provided the chief inspiration for French and English comedies of the 17th century AD. The prose of the period is best known through On Agriculture (160 BC) by Cato

3074-543: The subject matter as represented in the literature and art of other cultures in any period. Roman mythology draws from the mythology of the Italic peoples and shares mythemes with Proto-Indo-European mythology . The Romans usually treated their traditional narratives as historical, even when these have miraculous or supernatural elements. The stories are often concerned with politics and morality, and how an individual's personal integrity relates to his or her responsibility to

3132-557: The system of Greek religious belief than among the Romans, for whom ritual and cultus were primary. Although Roman religion was not based on scriptures and their exegesis , priestly literature was one of the earliest written forms of Latin prose . The books (libri) and commentaries (commentarii) of the College of Pontiffs and of the augurs contained religious procedures, prayers, and rulings and opinions on points of religious law. Although at least some of this archived material

3190-518: The works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727), and Latin remains a necessary skill for modern readers of great early modern works of linguistics, literature, and philosophy. Several of the leading English poets wrote in Latin as well as English. Milton's 1645 Poems are one example, but there were also Thomas Campion , George Herbert and Milton's colleague Andrew Marvell . Some indeed wrote chiefly in Latin and were valued for

3248-841: The world of petty crime. Epic poems included the Argonautica of Gaius Valerius Flaccus , following the story of Jason and the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece, the Thebaid of Statius , following the conflict of Oedipus's sons and the Seven Against Thebes, and the Punica of Silius Italicus , following the Second Punic War and the invasions of Hannibal into Italy. At the hands of Martial ,

3306-522: The world. Although Virgil died before he could put the finishing touches on his poem, it was soon regarded as the greatest work of Latin literature. Virgil's friend Horace wrote Epodes , Odes , Satires , and Epistles . The perfection of the Odes in content, form, and style has charmed readers for hundreds of years. The Satires and Epistles discuss ethical and literary problems in an urbane, witty manner. Horace's Art of Poetry , probably published as

3364-458: Was available for consultation by the Roman senate , it was often occultum genus litterarum , an arcane form of literature to which by definition only priests had access. Prophecies pertaining to world history and to Rome's destiny turn up fortuitously at critical junctures in history, discovered suddenly in the nebulous Sibylline books , which Tarquin the Proud (according to legend) purchased in

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