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113-414: Vitamins are organic molecules (or a set of closely related molecules called vitamers ) that are essential to an organism in small quantities for proper metabolic function. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism in sufficient quantities for survival, and therefore must be obtained through the diet . For example, vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others; it

226-466: A " toxic food environment ", where fat- and sugar-laden foods have taken precedence over healthy nutritious foods. In these developed countries, overnutrition can be prevented by choosing the right kind of food. More fast food is consumed per capita in the United States than in any other country. This mass consumption of fast food results from its affordability and accessibility. Fast food, which

339-651: A community. In the study by Ghattas et al. (2020), the probability of overnutrition is significantly higher in higher-income families than in disadvantaged families. High food prices is a major factor preventing low income households from getting nutritious food For example, Khan and Kraemer (2009) found that in Bangladesh , low socioeconomic status was associated with chronic malnutrition since it inhibited purchase of nutritious foods (like milk, meat, poultry, and fruits). Food shortages may also contribute to malnutritions in countries which lack technology. However, in

452-515: A conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life." However, his conclusions were rejected by his advisor, Gustav von Bunge . A similar result by Cornelis Adrianus Pekelharing appeared in Dutch medical journal Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde in 1905, but it was not widely reported. In East Asia , where polished white rice

565-460: A deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage. Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for cellular respiration . For

678-429: A fourteenth, choline . Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Vitamin A acts as a regulator of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. Vitamin D provides a hormone-like function, regulating mineral metabolism for bones and other organs. The B complex vitamins function as enzyme cofactors (coenzymes) or the precursors for them. Vitamins C and E function as antioxidants . Both deficient and excess intake of

791-418: A global increase in food insecurity and hunger between 2011 and 2020. In 2015, 795 million people (about one in ten people on earth) had undernutrition. It is estimated that between 691 and 783 million people in the world faced hunger in 2022. According to UNICEF, 2.4 billion people were moderately or severely food insecure in 2022, 391 million more than in 2019. These increases are partially related to

904-492: A group of undernourished children in a hospital in Mexico City , Mexico. They defined three categories of malnutrition: first, second, and third degree. The degree of malnutrition is calculated based on a child's body size compared to the median weight for their age. The risk of death increases with increasing degrees of malnutrition. An adaptation of Gomez's original classification is still used today. While it provides

1017-403: A lack of breastfeeding may contribute to undernourishment. Anorexia nervosa and bariatric surgery can also cause malnutrition. Undernutrition due to lack of adequate breastfeeding is associated with the deaths of an estimated one million children annually. Illegal advertising of breast-milk substitutes contributed to malnutrition and continued three decades after its 1981 prohibition under

1130-422: A lack of education about proper nutrition, only having access to a single food source, or from poor healthcare access and unhealthy environments. It is not just the total amount of calories that matters but specific nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin A deficiency, iron deficiency or zinc deficiency can also increase risk of death. Overnutrition caused by overeating is also a form of malnutrition. In

1243-515: A maximum daily dosage referred to as the tolerable upper intake level (UL or Upper Limit). Vitamin products above these regulatory limits are not considered supplements and should be registered as prescription or non-prescription ( over-the-counter drugs ) due to their potential side effects. The European Union, United States and Japan establish ULs. Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports

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1356-468: A month to more than six months, depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores. Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or

1469-406: A multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus develops from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin , bone , and muscle . If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop

1582-612: A nation's development." Among those affected, very few people experience the most visible and severe effects: disabling goiters , cretinism and dwarfism . These effects occur most commonly in mountain villages. However, 16 percent of the world's people have at least mild goiter (a swollen thyroid gland in the neck)." Social conditions have a significant influence on the health of people. The social determinants of undernutrition mainly include poor education, poverty, disease burden and lack of women's empowerment. Identifying and addressing these determinants can eliminate undernutrition in

1695-600: A new classification system for malnutrition. Instead of using just weight for age measurements, Waterlow's system combines weight-for-height (indicating acute episodes of malnutrition) with height-for-age to show the stunting that results from chronic malnutrition. One advantage of the Waterlow classification is that weight for height can be calculated even if a child's age is unknown. The World Health Organization frequently uses these classifications of malnutrition, with some modifications. Undernutrition weakens every part of

1808-577: A number of different disorders. Some vitamins have documented acute or chronic toxicity at larger intakes, which is referred to as hypertoxicity. The European Union and the governments of several countries have established Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for those vitamins which have documented toxicity (see table). The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but excessive intake ( vitamin poisoning ) from dietary supplements does occur. In 2016, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multi-vitamin/mineral formulations

1921-636: A prescription. For most vitamins, pharmacopoeial standards have been established. In the United States, the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof. Likewise, monographs of the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market. The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K

2034-474: A regulative force must exist within living bodies. Berzelius also contended that compounds could be distinguished by whether they required any organisms in their synthesis (organic compounds) or whether they did not ( inorganic compounds ). Vitalism taught that formation of these "organic" compounds were fundamentally different from the "inorganic" compounds that could be obtained from the elements by chemical manipulations in laboratories. Vitalism survived for

2147-877: A result of micronutrient deficiencies. It adversely affects physical and mental functioning, and causes changes in body composition and body cell mass. Undernutrition is a major health problem, causing the highest mortality rate in children, particularly in those under 5 years, and is responsible for long-lasting physiologic effects. It is a barrier to the complete physical and mental development of children. Undernutrition can manifest as stunting, wasting, and underweight. If undernutrition occurs during pregnancy, or before two years of age, it may result in permanent problems with physical and mental development. Extreme undernutrition can cause starvation , chronic hunger, Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM), and/or Moderate Acute Malnutrition (MAM). The signs and symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies depend on which micronutrient

2260-482: A rice-based diet, and that the symptoms were reversed when the chickens were switched to whole-grain rice. He called this "the anti-beriberi factor", which was later identified as vitamin B 1 , thiamine. In 1930, Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta-carotene , the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified other carotenoids . Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent-Györgyi's discovery of ascorbic acid and made significant contributions to

2373-452: A short period after the formulation of modern ideas about the atomic theory and chemical elements . It first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid , a compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen . A further experiment was Wöhler's 1828 synthesis of urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate . Urea had long been considered an "organic" compound, as it

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2486-404: A single element and so not generally considered chemical compounds . The word "organic" in this context does not mean "natural". Vitalism was a widespread conception that substances found in organic nature are formed from the chemical elements by the action of a "vital force" or "life-force" ( vis vitalis ) that only living organisms possess. In the 1810s, Jöns Jacob Berzelius argued that

2599-634: A small percentage of Earth's crust , they are of central importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. Living things incorporate inorganic carbon compounds into organic compounds through a network of processes ( the carbon cycle ) that begins with the conversion of carbon dioxide and a hydrogen source like water into simple sugars and other organic molecules by autotrophic organisms using light ( photosynthesis ) or other sources of energy. Most synthetically-produced organic compounds are ultimately derived from petrochemicals consisting mainly of hydrocarbons , which are themselves formed from

2712-535: A source of vitamin D, as "bottled sunshine", and bananas as a "natural vitality food". They promoted foods such as yeast cakes, a source of B vitamins, on the basis of scientifically determined nutritional value, rather than taste or appearance. In 1942, when flour enrichment with nicotinic acid began, a headline in the popular press said "Tobacco in Your Bread." In response, the Council on Foods and Nutrition of

2825-549: A special category under the general umbrella of foods , not drugs. As a result, the manufacturer, and not the government, has the responsibility of ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In the United States , a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994. There

2938-412: A sustained diet that is deficient in both protein and energy. This causes their metabolism to adapt to prolong survival. The primary symptoms are severe wasting, leaving little or no edema ; minimal subcutaneous fat ; and abnormal serum albumin levels. It is traditionally seen in cases of famine , significant food restriction, or severe anorexia . Conditions are characterized by extreme wasting of

3051-421: A transition metal and to oxygen, and are often prepared directly from metal and carbon monoxide . Nickel tetracarbonyl is typically classified as an organometallic compound as it satisfies the broad definition that organometallic chemistry covers all compounds that contain at least one carbon to metal covalent bond; it is unknown whether organometallic compounds form a subset of organic compounds. For example,

3164-1692: A variety of ways. One major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. Organic compounds can also be classified or subdivided by the presence of heteroatoms , e.g., organometallic compounds , which feature bonds between carbon and a metal , and organophosphorus compounds , which feature bonds between carbon and a phosphorus . Another distinction, based on the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers . Natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are still extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially. Examples include most sugars , some alkaloids and terpenoids , certain nutrients such as vitamin B 12 , and, in general, those natural products with large or stereoisometrically complicated molecules present in reasonable concentrations in living organisms. Further compounds of prime importance in biochemistry are antigens , carbohydrates , enzymes , hormones , lipids and fatty acids , neurotransmitters , nucleic acids , proteins , peptides and amino acids , lectins , vitamins , and fats and oils . Compounds that are prepared by reaction of other compounds are known as " synthetic ". They may be either compounds that are already found in plants/animals or those artificial compounds that do not occur naturally . Most polymers (a category that includes all plastics and rubbers ) are organic synthetic or semi-synthetic compounds. Many organic compounds—two examples are ethanol and insulin —are manufactured industrially using organisms such as bacteria and yeast. Typically,

3277-437: A very dry mouth; decreased urine output and/or dark urine; increased heart rate with decreasing blood pressure; and altered mental status . Protein-calorie malnutrition can cause cognitive impairments . This most commonly occurs in people who were malnourished during a "critical period ... from the final third of gestation to the first 2 years of life". For example, in children under two years of age, iron deficiency anemia

3390-443: A vitamin can potentially cause clinically significant illness, although excess intake of water-soluble vitamins is less likely to do so. All the vitamins were discovered between 1913 and 1948. Historically, when intake of vitamins from diet was lacking, the results were vitamin deficiency diseases. Then, starting in 1935, commercially produced tablets of yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C became available. This

3503-420: A way to compare malnutrition within and between populations, this classification system has been criticized for being " arbitrary " and for not considering overweight as a form of malnutrition. Also, height alone may not be the best indicator of malnutrition; children who are born prematurely may be considered short for their age even if they have good nutrition. In the 1970s, John Conrad Waterlow established

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3616-486: Is European Union equivalent of RDA; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. For Thiamin and Niacin the PRIs are expressed as amounts per MJ of calories consumed. MJ = megajoule = 239 food calories. UL or Upper Limit Tolerable upper intake levels. ND ULs have not been determined. NE EARs have not been established. In those who are otherwise healthy, there

3729-465: Is a deficiency , excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients which adversely affects the body's tissues and form. Malnutrition is a category of diseases that includes undernutrition and overnutrition . Undernutrition is a lack of nutrients, which can result in stunted growth , wasting , and underweight . A surplus of nutrients causes overnutrition, which can result in obesity . In some developing countries , overnutrition in

3842-415: Is a protein in raw egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin ; it is deactivated by cooking. Pyrithiamine, a synthetic compound, has a molecular structure similar to thiamine, vitamin B 1 , and inhibits the enzymes that use thiamine. Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of

3955-972: Is any compound that contains a significant amount of carbon—even though many of the organic compounds known today have no connection to any substance found in living organisms. The term carbogenic has been proposed by E. J. Corey as a modern alternative to organic , but this neologism remains relatively obscure. The organic compound L -isoleucine molecule presents some features typical of organic compounds: carbon–carbon bonds , carbon–hydrogen bonds , as well as covalent bonds from carbon to oxygen and to nitrogen. As described in detail below, any definition of organic compound that uses simple, broadly-applicable criteria turns out to be unsatisfactory, to varying degrees. The modern, commonly accepted definition of organic compound essentially amounts to any carbon-containing compound, excluding several classes of substances traditionally considered "inorganic". The list of substances so excluded varies from author to author. Still, it

4068-710: Is generally agreed upon that there are (at least) a few carbon-containing compounds that should not be considered organic. For instance, almost all authorities would require the exclusion of alloys that contain carbon, including steel (which contains cementite , Fe 3 C ), as well as other metal and semimetal carbides (including "ionic" carbides, e.g, Al 4 C 3 and CaC 2 and "covalent" carbides, e.g. B 4 C and SiC , and graphite intercalation compounds, e.g. KC 8 ). Other compounds and materials that are considered 'inorganic' by most authorities include: metal carbonates , simple oxides of carbon ( CO , CO 2 , and arguably, C 3 O 2 ),

4181-580: Is highest among children under five. In 2021, 148.1 million children under five years old were stunted, 45 million were wasted, and 37 million were overweight or obese. The same year, an estimated 45% of deaths in children were linked to undernutrition. As of 2020 , the prevalence of wasting among children under five in South Asia was reported to be 16% moderately or severely wasted. As of 2022 , UNICEF reported this prevalence as having slightly improved, but still being at 14.8%. In Asia, India has one of

4294-429: Is important. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Vitamins A and D can accumulate in the body, which can result in dangerous hypervitaminosis . Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency due to malabsorption is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis . Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin

4407-534: Is lacking. However, undernourished people are often thin and short, with very poor energy levels; and swelling in the legs and abdomen is also common. People who are undernourished often get infections and frequently feel cold. Micronutrient undernutrition results from insufficient intake of vitamins and minerals. Worldwide, deficiencies in iodine , Vitamin A , and iron are the most common. Children and pregnant women in low-income countries are at especially high risk for micronutrient deficiencies. Anemia

4520-403: Is likely to affect brain function acutely, and probably also chronically. Similarly, folate deficiency has been linked to neural tube defects . Iodine deficiency is "the most common preventable cause of mental impairment worldwide." "Even moderate [iodine] deficiency, especially in pregnant women and infants , lowers intelligence by 10 to 15 I.Q. points , shaving incalculable potential off

4633-719: Is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease . Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals, but they may increase mortality, though the two large studies that support this conclusion included smokers for whom it was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful. A 2018 meta-analysis found no evidence that intake of vitamin D or calcium for community-dwelling elderly people reduced bone fractures. Europe has regulations that define limits of vitamin (and mineral) dosages for their safe use as dietary supplements. Most vitamins that are sold as dietary supplements are not supposed to exceed

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4746-493: Is low in cost and nutrition, is high in calories. Due to increasing urbanization and automation , people are living more sedentary lifestyles. These factors combine to make weight gain difficult to avoid. Overnutrition also occurs in developing countries. It has appeared in parts of developing countries where income is on the rise. It is also a problem in countries where hunger and poverty persist. Economic development, rapid urbanisation and shifting dietary patterns have increased

4859-449: Is more common in developing countries . Stunting is more prevalent in urban slums than in rural areas. Studies on malnutrition have the population categorised into different groups including infants, under-five children, children, adolescents, pregnant women, adults and the elderly population. The use of different growth references in different studies leads to variances in the undernutrition prevalence reported in different studies. Some of

4972-666: Is most commonly caused by iron deficiency , but can also result from other micronutrient deficiencies and diseases. This condition can have major health consequences. It is possible to have overnutrition simultaneously with micronutrient deficiencies; this condition is termed the double burden of malnutrition . 'Undernutrition' sometimes refers specifically to protein–energy malnutrition (PEM). This condition involves both micronutrient deficiencies and an imbalance of protein intake and energy expenditure. It differs from calorie restriction in that calorie restriction may not result in negative health effects. Hypoalimentation (underfeeding)

5085-486: Is no FDA approval process for dietary supplements, and no requirement that manufacturers prove the safety or efficacy of supplements introduced before 1994. The Food and Drug Administration must rely on its Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with supplements. In 2007, the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 21, part III took effect, regulating Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) in

5198-488: Is not considered a vitamin in the first instance but is in the second. Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers. For example, there are eight vitamers of vitamin E : four tocopherols and four tocotrienols . The term vitamin does not include the three other groups of essential nutrients : minerals , essential fatty acids , and essential amino acids . Major health organizations list thirteen vitamins: Some sources include

5311-479: Is on a carbon atom. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbides , carbonates (excluding carbonate esters ), simple oxides of carbon (for example, CO and CO 2 ) and cyanides are generally considered inorganic compounds . Different forms ( allotropes ) of pure carbon, such as diamond , graphite , fullerenes and carbon nanotubes are also excluded because they are simple substances composed of

5424-406: Is one cause of undernutrition. Two forms of PEM are kwashiorkor and marasmus ; both commonly coexist. Kwashiorkor is primarily caused by inadequate protein intake. Its symptoms include edema , wasting, liver enlargement , hypoalbuminaemia , and steatosis ; the condition may also cause depigmentation of skin and hair. The disorder is further identified by a characteristic swelling of

5537-506: Is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan . Vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others. Vitamin B 12 is the only vitamin or nutrient not available from plant sources. The Food Fortification Initiative lists countries which have mandatory fortification programs for vitamins folic acid, niacin, vitamin A and vitamins B 1 , B 2 and B 12 . The body's stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B 12 are stored in significant amounts, mainly in

5650-440: Is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F–J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B, which became a complex of vitamins. Organic compound Due to carbon's ability to catenate (form chains with other carbon atoms ), millions of organic compounds are known. The study of the properties, reactions, and syntheses of organic compounds comprise

5763-605: The American Medical Association approved of the Food and Nutrition Board 's new names niacin and niacin amide for use primarily by non-scientists. It was thought appropriate to choose a name to dissociate nicotinic acid from nicotine , to avoid the perception that vitamins or niacin-rich food contains nicotine, or that cigarettes contain vitamins. The resulting name niacin was derived from ni cotinic ac id + vitam in . Researchers also focused on

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5876-645: The DNA of an organism is altered to express compounds not ordinarily produced by the organism. Many such biotechnology -engineered compounds did not previously exist in nature. A great number of more specialized databases exist for diverse branches of organic chemistry. The main tools are proton and carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy , IR Spectroscopy , Mass spectrometry , UV/Vis Spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography . Deficiency disease Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients , resulting in health problems. Specifically, it

5989-496: The Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine . Funk created the name from vital and amine , because it appeared that these organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other similar dietary-deficiency diseases were required for life, hence "vital", and were chemical amines, hence "amine". This was true of thiamine , but after it was found that vitamin C and other such micronutrients were not amines,

6102-595: The Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums , severe pain, and death. In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy , which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy , which was adopted by the British Royal Navy . This led to

6215-496: The WHO International Code of Marketing Breast Milk Substitutes . Maternal malnutrition can also factor into the poor health or death of a baby. Over 800,000 neonatal deaths have occurred because of deficient growth of the fetus in the mother's womb . Deriving too much of one's diet from a single source, such as eating almost exclusively potato, maize or rice, can cause malnutrition. This may either be from

6328-781: The allotropes of carbon, cyanide derivatives not containing an organic residue (e.g., KCN , (CN) 2 , BrCN , cyanate anion OCN , etc.), and heavier analogs thereof (e.g., cyaphide anion CP , CSe 2 , COS ; although carbon disulfide CS 2 is often classed as an organic solvent). Halides of carbon without hydrogen (e.g., CF 4 and CClF 3 ), phosgene ( COCl 2 ), carboranes , metal carbonyls (e.g., nickel tetracarbonyl ), mellitic anhydride ( C 12 O 9 ), and other exotic oxocarbons are also considered inorganic by some authorities. Nickel tetracarbonyl ( Ni(CO) 4 ) and other metal carbonyls are often volatile liquids, like many organic compounds, yet they contain only carbon bonded to

6441-480: The immune system . Protein and energy undernutrition increases susceptibility to infection; so do deficiencies of specific micronutrients (including iron, zinc , and vitamins). In communities or areas that lack access to safe drinking water , these additional health risks present a critical problem. Undernutrition plays a major role in the onset of active tuberculosis . It also raises the risk of HIV transmission from mother to child, and increases replication of

6554-431: The liver , and an adult's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B 12 in some cases for years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B 3 (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks. For vitamin C, the first symptoms of scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from

6667-536: The prevalence of moderate and severe wasting could increase by 14% due to COVID-19; coupled with reductions in nutrition and health services coverage, this could result in over 128,000 additional deaths among children under 5 in 2020 alone. Although COVID-19 is less severe in children than in adults, the risk of severe disease increases with undernutrition. Other major causes of hunger include manmade conflicts, climate changes , and economic downturns. Undernutrition can occur either due to protein-energy wasting or as

6780-447: The right to food , Jean Ziegler proposes that agricultural waste , such as corn cobs and banana leaves , should be used as fuel instead of crops. In some developing countries, overnutrition (in the form of obesity) is beginning to appear in the same communities where malnutrition occurs. Overnutrition increases with urbanisation, food commercialisation and technological developments and increases physical inactivity. Variations in

6893-498: The European Union (same concept as RDAs), followed by what three government organizations deem to be the safe upper intake. RDAs are set higher than EARs to cover people with higher than average needs. Adequate Intakes (AIs) are set when there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs. Governments are slow to revise information of this nature. For the U.S. values, with the exception of calcium and vitamin D, all of

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7006-594: The Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine "...for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye." Wald's contribution was discovering the role vitamin A had in the process. Once discovered, vitamins were actively promoted in articles and advertisements in McCall's , Good Housekeeping , and other media outlets. Marketers enthusiastically promoted cod-liver oil ,

7119-511: The United States, more than half of all adults are now overweight—a condition that, like hunger, increases susceptibility to disease and disability, reduces worker productivity , and lowers life expectancy . Overeating is much more common in the United States, since most people have adequate access to food. Many parts of the world have access to a surplus of non-nutritious food. Increased sedentary lifestyles also contribute to overnutrition. Yale University psychologist Kelly Brownell calls this

7232-553: The belly , and extremities which disguises the patient's undernourished condition. 'Kwashiorkor' means 'displaced child' and is derived from the Ga language of coastal Ghana in West Africa. It means "the sickness the baby gets when the next baby is born," as it often occurs when the older child is deprived of breastfeeding and weaned to a diet composed largely of carbohydrates. Marasmus (meaning 'to waste away') can result from

7345-543: The beneficial effects of which are questionable. As one example, in the 1950s, the Wonder Bread company sponsored the Howdy Doody television show, with host Buffalo Bob Smith telling the audience, "Wonder Bread builds strong bodies 8 ways", referring to the number of added nutrients . The term "vitamin" was derived from "vitamine", a portmanteau coined in 1912 by the biochemist Casimir Funk while working at

7458-446: The benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food. Most countries place dietary supplements in

7571-623: The chemistry of flavins , which led to the identification of lactoflavin . For their investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B 2 , they both received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937. In 1931, Albert Szent-Györgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that "hexuronic acid" was actually vitamin C , and gave a sample to Charles Glen King , who proved its activity counter to scurvy in his long-established guinea pig scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-Györgyi

7684-404: The data date to 1997–2004. All values are consumption per day: EAR US Estimated Average Requirements. RDA US Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. AI US and EFSA Adequate Intake; AIs established when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs. PRI Population Reference Intake

7797-611: The definition of malnutrition to include "all its forms, including obesity, undernutrition, and other dietary risks." The World Health Organization and The Lancet Commission have also identified "[t]he double burden of malnutrition", which occurs from "the coexistence of overnutrition (overweight and obesity) alongside undernutrition (stunted growth and wasting)." It is estimated that nearly one in three persons globally has at least one form of malnutrition: wasting , stunting , vitamin or mineral deficiency, overweight, obesity, or diet-related noncommunicable diseases. Undernutrition

7910-478: The developing world, eighty percent of malnourished children live in countries that produce food surpluses, according to estimates from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) . The economist Amartya Sen observes that, in recent decades, famine has always been a problem of food distribution , purchasing power , and/or poverty, since there has always been enough food for everyone in the world. There are also sociopolitical causes of malnutrition. For example,

8023-576: The discipline known as organic chemistry . For historical reasons, a few classes of carbon-containing compounds (e.g., carbonate salts and cyanide salts ), along with a few other exceptions (e.g., carbon dioxide , and even hydrogen cyanide despite the fact it contains a carbon-hydrogen bond), are generally considered inorganic . Other than those just named, little consensus exists among chemists on precisely which carbon-containing compounds are excluded, making any rigorous definition of an organic compound elusive. Although organic compounds make up only

8136-515: The elderly, undernutrition is more commonly due to physical, psychological, and social factors, not a lack of food. Age-related reduced dietary intake due to chewing and swallowing problems, sensory decline, depression, imbalanced gut microbiome, poverty and loneliness are major contributors to undernutrition in the elderly population. Malnutrition is also attributed due to wrong diet plan adopted by people who aim to reduce their weight without medical practitioners or nutritionist advice. There has been

8249-487: The essential vitamins, notably vitamins D and E. Well-researched human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin ( pellagra ), vitamin C (scurvy), folate (neural tube defects) and vitamin D (rickets). In much of the developed world these deficiencies are rare due to an adequate supply of food and the addition of vitamins to common foods. In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and

8362-938: The evidence of covalent Fe-C bonding in cementite , a major component of steel, places it within this broad definition of organometallic, yet steel and other carbon-containing alloys are seldom regarded as organic compounds. Thus, it is unclear whether the definition of organometallic should be narrowed, whether these considerations imply that organometallic compounds are not necessarily organic, or both. Metal complexes with organic ligands but no carbon-metal bonds (e.g., (CH 3 CO 2 ) 2 Cu ) are not considered organometallic; instead, they are called metal-organic compounds (and might be considered organic). The relatively narrow definition of organic compounds as those containing C-H bonds excludes compounds that are (historically and practically) considered organic. Neither urea CO(NH 2 ) 2 nor oxalic acid (COOH) 2 are organic by this definition, yet they were two key compounds in

8475-466: The first person to receive an award mentioning vitamins, even though it was not specifically about vitamin D. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1929 was awarded to Christiaan Eijkman and Frederick Gowland Hopkins for their contributions to the discovery of vitamins. Thirty-five years earlier, Eijkman had observed that chickens fed polished white rice developed neurological symptoms similar to those observed in military sailors and soldiers fed

8588-428: The form of obesity is beginning to appear within the same communities as undernutrition. Most clinical studies use the term 'malnutrition' to refer to undernutrition. However, the use of 'malnutrition' instead of 'undernutrition' makes it impossible to distinguish between undernutrition and overnutrition, a less acknowledged form of malnutrition. Accordingly, a 2019 report by The Lancet Commission suggested expanding

8701-401: The functions of the human body. In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki , who succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid (later Orizanin ). He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal. When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it

8814-467: The growth references used in studies include the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) growth charts, WHO reference 2007, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth charts, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), WHO reference 1995, Obesity Task Force (IOTF) criteria and Indian Academy of Pediatrics (IAP) growth charts. The prevalence of undernutrition

8927-698: The health status of individuals in the same society are associated with the societal structure and an individual's socioeconomic status which leads to income inequality, racism, educational differences and lack of opportunities. Infectious diseases which increase nutrient requirements, such as gastroenteritis , pneumonia , malaria , and measles , can cause malnutrition. So can some chronic illnesses, especially HIV/AIDS . Malnutrition can also result from abnormal nutrient loss due to diarrhea or chronic small bowel illnesses, like Crohn's disease or untreated coeliac disease . "Secondary malnutrition" can result from increased energy expenditure. In infants,

9040-404: The high pressure and temperature degradation of organic matter underground over geological timescales. This ultimate derivation notwithstanding, organic compounds are no longer defined as compounds originating in living things, as they were historically. In chemical nomenclature, an organyl group , frequently represented by the letter R, refers to any monovalent substituent whose open valence

9153-635: The highest burden of wasting with over 20% wasted children. However, the burden of undernutrition among under-five children in African countries is much higher. A pooled analysis of the prevalence of chronic undernutrition among under-five children in East Africa was identified to be 33.3%. This prevalence of undernutrition among under-five children ranged from 21.9% in Kenya to 53% in Burundi. In Tanzania,

9266-404: The hypothesis that other diseases, such as rickets, pellagra, coeliac disease, and scurvy could also be cured by vitamins. Max Nierenstein a friend and Reader of Biochemistry at Bristol University reportedly suggested the "vitamine" name (from "vital amine"). The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and, by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines , the word

9379-423: The immediate risk factors has become a major health priority. The recent evidence on the impact of diet-induced obesity in fathers and mothers around the time of conception is identified to negatively program the health outcomes of multiple generations. According to UNICEF, at least 1 in every 10 children under five is overweight in 33 countries. In 1956, Gómez and Galvan studied factors associated with death in

9492-430: The long term. Identification of the social conditions that causes malnutrition in children under five has received significant research attention as it is a major public health problem. Undernutrition most commonly results from a lack of access to high-quality, nutritious food. The household income is a socio-economic variable that influences the access to nutritious food and the probability of under and overnutrition in

9605-506: The manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for dietary supplements. Even though product registration is not required, these regulations mandate production and quality control standards (including testing for identity, purity and adulterations) for dietary supplements. In the European Union, the Food Supplements Directive requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without

9718-601: The mineral mellite ( Al 2 C 6 (COO) 6 ·16H 2 O ). A slightly broader definition of the organic compound includes all compounds bearing C-H or C-C bonds. This would still exclude urea. Moreover, this definition still leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-halogen compounds. For example, CF 4 and CCl 4 would be considered by this rule to be "inorganic", whereas CHF 3 , CHCl 3 , and C 2 Cl 6 would be organic, though these compounds share many physical and chemical properties. Organic compounds may be classified in

9831-446: The most part, vitamins are obtained from the diet, but some are acquired by other means: for example, microorganisms in the gut flora produce vitamin K and biotin; and one form of vitamin D is synthesized in skin cells when they are exposed to a certain wavelength of ultraviolet light present in sunlight . Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume: for example, vitamin A is synthesized from beta carotene ; and niacin

9944-482: The muscles and a gaunt expression. Excessive consumption of energy-dense foods and drinks and limited physical activity causes overnutrition. It causes overweight, defined as a body mass index (BMI) of 25 or more, and can lead to obesity (a BMI of 30 or more). Obesity has become a major health issue worldwide. Overnutrition is linked to chronic non-communicable diseases like diabetes , certain cancers, and cardiovascular diseases . Hence identifying and addressing

10057-443: The need to ensure adequate nutrition, especially to compensate for what was lost in the manufacture of processed foods . Robert W. Yoder is credited with first using the term vitamania , in 1942, to describe the appeal of relying on nutritional supplements rather than on obtaining vitamins from a varied diet of foods. The continuing preoccupation with a healthy lifestyle led to an obsessive consumption of vitamins and multi-vitamins,

10170-542: The nickname limey for British sailors. However, during the 19th century, limes grown in the West Indies were substituted for lemons; these were subsequently found to be much lower in vitamin C. As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases . In the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic , the prevailing medical theory

10283-471: The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic , which continues to highlight the weaknesses of current food and health systems. It has contributed to food insecurity , increasing hunger worldwide; meanwhile, lower physical activity during lockdowns has contributed to increases in overweight and obesity. In 2020, experts estimated that by the end of the year, the pandemic could have double the number of people at risk of suffering acute hunger. Similarly, experts estimated that

10396-441: The percentage losses of various nutrients from food types and cooking methods. Some vitamins may become more "bio-available" – that is, usable by the body – when foods are cooked. The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat—such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water-soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into

10509-602: The population of a community might be at increased risk for malnutrition if government is poor and the area lacks health-related services. On a smaller scale, certain households or individuals may be at an even higher risk due to differences in income levels , access to land, or levels of education. Community plays a crucial role in addressing the social causes of malnutrition. For example, communities with high social support and knowledge sharing about social protection programs can enable better public service demands. Better public service demands and social protection programs minimise

10622-566: The prevalence of stunting, among children under five varied from 41% in lowland and 64.5% in highland areas. Undernutrition by underweight and wasting was 11.5% and 2.5% in lowland and 22.% and 1.4% in the highland areas of Tanzania respectively. In South Sudan, the prevalence of undernutrition explained by stunting, underweight and wasting in under-five children were 23.8%, 4.8% and 2.3% respectively. In 28 countries, at least 30% of children were still affected by stunting in 2022. Vitamin A deficiency affects one third of children under age 5 around

10735-455: The risk of malnutrition in these communities. It is argued that commodity speculators are increasing the cost of food. As the real-estate bubble in the United States was collapsing, it is said that trillions of dollars moved to invest in food and primary commodities, causing the 2007–2008 food price crisis . The use of biofuels as a replacement for traditional fuels raises the price of food. The United Nations special rapporteur on

10848-473: The use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin. People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency, but may be consuming less than the recommended amounts; a national food and supplement survey conducted in the US over 2003–2006 reported that over 90% of individuals who did not consume vitamin supplements were found to have inadequate levels of some of

10961-844: The virus . Undernutrition can cause vitamin-deficiency-related diseases like scurvy and rickets . As undernutrition worsens, those affected have less energy and experience impairment in brain functions. This can make it difficult (or impossible) for them to perform the tasks needed to acquire food, earn an income, or gain an education. Undernutrition can also cause acute problems, like hypoglycemia (low blood sugar ). This condition can cause lethargy, limpness, seizures , and loss of consciousness . Children are particularly at risk and can become hypoglycemic after 4 to 6 hours without food. Dehydration can also occur in malnourished people, and can be life-threatening, especially in babies and small children. There are many different signs of dehydration in undernourished people. These can include sunken eyes;

11074-589: The vitalism debate. However, the IUPAC Blue Book on organic nomenclature specifically mentions urea and oxalic acid as organic compounds. Other compounds lacking C-H bonds but traditionally considered organic include benzenehexol , mesoxalic acid , and carbon tetrachloride . Mellitic acid , which contains no C-H bonds, is considered a possible organic compound in Martian soil. Terrestrially, it, and its anhydride, mellitic anhydride , are associated with

11187-570: The water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded. In setting human nutrient guidelines, government organizations do not necessarily agree on amounts needed to avoid deficiency or maximum amounts to avoid the risk of toxicity. For example, for vitamin C, recommended intakes range from 40 mg/day in India to 155 mg/day for the European Union. The table below shows U.S. Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins, PRIs for

11300-577: The word was shortened to "vitamin" in English. Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble . In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake

11413-420: The world – 42% – were unable to afford a healthy diet in 2021. Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including elderly people and women (in particular while pregnant or breastfeeding children under five years of age). Undernutrition is an increasing health problem in people aged over 65 years, even in developed countries, especially among nursing home residents and in acute care hospitals. In

11526-472: The world, leading to 670,000 deaths and 250,000–500,000 cases of blindness . Vitamin A supplementation has been shown to reduce all-cause mortality by 12 to 24%. As of June 2021, 1.9 billion adults were overweight or obese, and 462 million adults were underweight. Globally, two billion people had iodine deficiency in 2017. In 2020, 900 million women and children had anemia, which is often caused by iron deficiency.  More than 3.1 billion people in

11639-513: Was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish-born biochemist Casimir Funk , working in London, isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "vitamine". It was later to be known as vitamin B 3 (niacin), though he described it as "anti-beri-beri-factor" (which would today be called thiamine or vitamin B 1 ). Funk proposed

11752-468: Was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference, hence "vitamin", after researchers began to suspect that not all "vitamines" (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component. The Nobel Prize for Chemistry for 1928 was awarded to Adolf Windaus "for his studies on the constitution of the sterols and their connection with vitamins",

11865-687: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1938, Richard Kuhn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on carotenoids and vitamins, specifically B 2 and B 6 . Five people have been awarded Nobel Prizes for direct and indirect studies of vitamin B 12 : George Whipple , George Minot and William P. Murphy (1934), Alexander R. Todd (1957), and Dorothy Hodgkin (1964). In 1967, George Wald , Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline were awarded

11978-535: Was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi, but they mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it. That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies

12091-645: Was followed in the 1950s by the mass production and marketing of vitamin supplements , including multivitamins , to prevent vitamin deficiencies in the general population. Governments have mandated the addition of some vitamins to staple foods such as flour or milk, referred to as food fortification , to prevent deficiencies. Recommendations for folic acid supplementation during pregnancy reduced risk of infant neural tube defects . from plant origin as provitamin A / all- trans -beta-carotene: orange, ripe yellow fruits, leafy vegetables, carrots, pumpkin, squash, spinach The value of eating certain foods to maintain health

12204-413: Was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman , who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent a kind of polyneuritis that was the equivalent of beriberi. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors" – in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats etc.  – that are necessary for

12317-445: Was known to occur only in the urine of living organisms. Wöhler's experiments were followed by many others, in which increasingly complex "organic" substances were produced from "inorganic" ones without the involvement of any living organism, thus disproving vitalism. Although vitalism has been discredited, scientific nomenclature retains the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds. The modern meaning of organic compound

12430-475: Was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a person may help with night blindness , an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency. The advance of ocean voyages during the Age of Discovery resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews. In 1747,

12543-528: Was reported by 63,931 individuals to the American Association of Poison Control Centers with 72% of these exposures in children under the age of five. In the US, analysis of a national diet and supplement survey reported that about 7% of adult supplement users exceeded the UL for folate and 5% of those older than age 50 years exceeded the UL for vitamin A. The USDA has conducted extensive studies on

12656-504: Was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food . In 1881, Russian medical doctor Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy at the University of Tartu . He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins , fats , carbohydrates , and salts . The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made

12769-581: Was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B 1 was endemic . In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro , a British-trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy , observed that beriberi was endemic among low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers who consumed a Western-style diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two battleships ; one crew

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