108-656: Vivekananda Kendra is a Hindu nationalist social service and nation-building organisation, claiming to represent the heritage of Swami Vivekananda . the organisation is based near the Vivekananda Rock Memorial in Kanyakumari . The organisation was founded on 7 January 1972 by Eknath Ranade , a senior pracharak of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. Its current president is A. Balakrishnan. The organisation has constructed
216-460: A synecdoche describing the indigenous traditions. Hindu nationalist ideologies and political languages were very diverse both linguistically and socially. Since Hinduism does not represent an identifiable religious group, terms such as 'Hindu nationalism', and 'Hindu', are considered problematic in the case of religious and nationalism discourse. As Hindus were identifiable as a homogeneous community, some individual Congress leaders were able to induce
324-526: A "doctrine of consensus" reflecting regional customs and preferences. Of the four extant Dharmasastras, Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and Naradasmriti are the most important surviving texts. But, states Robert Lingat, numerous other Dharmasastras whose manuscripts are now missing, have enjoyed equal authority. Between the three, the Manusmriti became famous during the colonial British India era, yet modern scholarship states that other Dharmasastras such as
432-636: A 'dead letter'. On 11 July 1949, the Government of India lifted the ban on the RSS by issuing a communique stating that the decision to lift the ban on the RSS had been taken in view of the RSS leader Golwalkar's undertaking to make the group's loyalty towards the Constitution of India and acceptance and respect towards the National Flag of India more explicit in the Constitution of the RSS, which
540-524: A British convoy aimed at British officer Kingsford. Both were arrested trying to flee. Aurobindo was also arrested on 2 May 1908 and sent to Alipore Jail . The report sent from Andrew Fraser , the then Lt Governor of Bengal to Lord Minto in England declared that although Sri Aurobindo came to Calcutta in 1906 as a Professor at the National College, "he has ever since been the principal advisor of
648-412: A constitution was drafted for RSS, which, however, initially did not meet any of Patel's demands. After a failed attempt to agitate again, eventually the RSS's constitution was amended according to Patel's wishes except the procedure for selecting the head of the organisation and the enrolment of pre-adolescents. However, the organisation's internal democracy which was written into its constitution, remained
756-508: A hermeneutic strategy that asserted that the Vedas once contained all knowledge including that of ideal Dharma, but parts of Vedas have been lost. Human customs developed from the original complete Vedas, but given the lost text, one must use customs between good people as a source to infer what the original Vedas might have stated the Dharma to be. This theory, called the 'lost Veda' theory, made
864-484: A larger compilation of texts, called the Kalpasūtras which give an aphoristic description of the rituals, ceremonies and proper procedures. The Kalpasutras contain three sections, namely the Śrautasūtras which deal with vedic ceremonies, Gṛhyasūtras which deal with rites of passage rituals and domestic matters, and Dharmasūtras which deal with proper procedures in one's life. The Dharmasūtras of Āpastamba and Baudhāyana form
972-517: A life of renounciate, the Anushilan Samiti declined. One of the revolutionaries, Bagha Jatin , who managed to escape the trial started a group which would be called Jugantar . Jugantar continued with its armed struggle against the colonial government, but the arrests of its key members and subsequent trials weakened its influence. Many of its members were imprisoned for life in the notorious Andaman Cellular jail. A revolutionary movement
1080-591: A major concept in Hindu nationalism. Madan Mohan Malviya , an educationist and a politician with the Indian National Congress was also a vociferous proponent of the philosophy of Bhagavad Gita (Bhagavad Gītā). He was the president of the Indian National Congress in the year 1909 and 1918. He was seen as a 'moderate' in the Congress and was also considered very close to Gandhi. He popularized
1188-451: A modern reconstruction of these texts. Scholars such as Jolly and Aiyangar have gathered some 2,400 verses of the lost Bṛhaspatismṛti text in this manner. Brihaspati-smriti was likely a larger and more comprehensive text than Manusmriti, yet both Brihaspati-smriti and Katyayana-smriti seem to have been predominantly devoted to judicial process and jurisprudence. The writers of Dharmasastras acknowledged their mutual differences, and developed
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#17327761185861296-570: A part of larger Kalpasutra texts, all of which has survived into the modern era. The sūtra tradition ended around the beginning of the common era and was followed by the poetic octosyllable verse style called the śloka . The verse style was used to compose the Dharmaśāstras such as the Manusmriti , the Hindu epics, and the Puranas . The age of Smṛtis that ended around the second half of
1404-519: A religion is not universal, it cannot be eternal. A narrow religion, a sectarian religion, an exclusive religion can live only for a limited time and a limited purpose. This is the one religion that can triumph over materialism by including and anticipating the discoveries of science and the speculations of philosophy. In 1910, he withdrew from political life and spent his remaining life doing spiritual exercises and writing. But his works kept inspiring revolutionaries and struggles for independence, including
1512-737: A single author. They were viewed by the ancient and medieval era commentators, states Olivelle, to be the works of many authors. Robert Lingat adds that these texts suggest that "a rich literature on dharma already existed" before these were first composed. These texts were revised and interpolated through their history because the various text manuscripts discovered in India are inconsistent with each other, and within themselves, raising concerns of their authenticity. The Dharmaśāstra texts present their ideas under various categories such as Acara, Vyavahara, Prayascitta and others, but they do so inconsistently. Some discuss Acara but do not discuss Vyavahara, as
1620-545: A solid waste management and bio-gas plant in Mahabalipuram. Vivekananda Kendra received the Gandhi Peace Prize for 2015 for its contribution to rural development , education and development of natural resources. Hindu nationalist Hindu nationalism has been collectively referred to as the expression of social and political thought, based on the native spiritual and cultural traditions of
1728-426: A source of dharma, but both state that the geographical location of such polite cultured people does not limit the usefulness of universal precepts contained in their practices. In case of conflict between different sources of dharma, Gautama Dharmasutra states that the Vedas prevail over other sources, and if two Vedic texts are in conflict then the individual has a choice to follow either. The nature of Dharmasūtras
1836-466: A state of servitude. He was part of the Anushilan Samiti , a revolutionary group working towards the goal of Indian independence In his brief political career spanning only four years, he led a delegation from Bengal to the Indian National Congress session of 1907 and contributed to the revolutionary newspaper Bande Mataram . In his famous Uttarpara Speech , he outlined the essence and
1944-570: A student was educated in contemporary Western thought . He joined Brahmo Samaj briefly before meeting Ramakrishna , who was a priest in the temple of the goddess Kali in Calcutta and who was to become his guru. Under the influence of Orientalism , Perennialism and Universalism , Vivekananda re-interpreted Advaita Vedanta , presenting it as the essence of Hindu spirituality, and the development of human's religiosity. This project started with Ram Mohan Roy of Brahmo Samaj, who collaborated with
2052-490: A symbolism with "Hindu" meaning inside the general stance of secular nationalism . The diversity of Indian cultural groups and moderate positions of Hindu nationalism have sometimes made it regarded as cultural nationalism rather than a religious one. Historian Baij Nath Puri writes that the Vijayanagar empire (1336–1646) "was the result of the Hindu nationalist movement against Muslim intrusion and domination of
2160-574: A uniform code of conduct and there were no divergent or dissenting views. Written after the Dharmasūtras, these texts use a metered verse and are much more elaborate in their scope than Dharmasutras. The word Dharmaśāstras never appears in the Vedic texts, and the word śāstra itself appears for the first time in Yaska's Nirukta text. Katyayana's commentary on Panini's work (~3rd century BCE), has
2268-550: A very terse incomplete sentence structure which are difficult to understand and leave much to the reader to interpret. The Dharmasastras are derivative works on the Dharmasutras, using a shloka (four 8-syllable verse style chandas poetry, Anushtubh meter), which are relatively clearer. The Dharmasutras can be called the guidebooks of dharma as they contain guidelines for individual and social behavior, ethical norms, as well as personal, civil and criminal law. They discuss
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#17327761185862376-630: Is dharma . The central focus of these texts is how a Brahmin male should conduct himself during his lifetime. The text of Āpastamba which is best preserved has a total of 1,364 sūtras out of which 1,206 (88 per cent) are devoted to the Brahmin, whereas only 158 (12 per cent) deals with topics of general nature. The structure of the Dharmasūtras begin with the vedic initiation of a young boy followed by entry into adulthood, marriage and responsibilities of adult life that includes adoption, inheritance, death rituals and ancestral offerings. According to Olivelle,
2484-826: Is a concept which is central not only in Hinduism but also in Jainism and Buddhism. The term means a lot of things and has a wide scope of interpretation. The fundamental meaning of Dharma in Dharmasūtras, states Olivelle is diverse, and includes accepted norms of behavior, procedures within a ritual, moral actions, righteousness and ethical attitudes, civil and criminal law, legal procedures and penance or punishment, and guidelines for proper and productive living. The term Dharma also includes social institutions such as marriage, inheritance, adoption, work contracts, judicial process in case of disputes, as well personal choices such as meat as food and sexual conduct. The source of dharma
2592-426: Is a dominant form of Hindu nationalist politics in India. As a political ideology, the term Hindutva was articulated by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1923. The Hindutva movement has been described as a variant of "right-wing extremism" and as "almost fascist in the classical sense", adhering to a concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony . Some analysts dispute the "fascist" label, and suggest Hindutva
2700-676: Is an extreme form of " conservatism " or "ethnic absolutism". Some have also described Hindutva as a separatist ideology . Hindutva is championed by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Hindu Nationalist volunteer organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Sanatan Sanstha , the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), and other organisations in an ecosystem called the Sangh Parivar . In
2808-486: Is hard to say whether they were historical authors of these texts. The issue of authorship is further complicated by the fact that apart from Āpastamba the other Dharmasūtras have various alterations made at later times. Excellence Practise righteousness ( dharma ), not unrighteousness. Speak the truth, not an untruth. Look at what is distant, not what's near at hand. Look at the highest, not at what's less than highest. — Vasishtha Dharmasutra 30.1 There
2916-500: Is normative, they tell what people ought to do, but they do not tell what people actually did. Some scholars state that these sources are unreliable and worthless for historical purposes instead to use archaeology, epigraphy and other historical evidence to establish the actual legal codes in Indian history. Olivelle states that the dismissal of normative texts is unwise, as is believing that the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras texts present
3024-930: Is rooted in Dharmasutra texts dated to the 1st millennium BCE that emerged from Kalpa (Vedanga) studies in the Vedic era. The textual corpus of Dharmaśāstra were composed in poetic verse, and are part of the Hindu Smritis , constituting divergent commentaries and treatises on ethics particularly duties, and responsibilities to oneself and family as well as those required as a member of society. The texts include discussion of ashrama (stages of life), varna (social classes), purushartha (proper goals of life), personal virtues and duties such as ahimsa (non-violence) against all living beings, rules of just war , and other topics. Dharmaśāstra became influential in modern colonial India history, when they were formulated by early British colonial administrators to be
3132-516: Is still difficult to determine who these real authors were. The extant Dharmasūtra texts are listed below: The Dharmasūtra of Āpastamba and Baudhayana form a part of the Kalpasūtra but it is not easy to establish whether they were historical authors of these texts or whether these texts were composed within certain institutions attributed to their names. Moreover, Gautama and Vasiṣṭha are ancient sages related to specific vedic schools and therefore it
3240-605: Is the oldest. There is confusion regarding the geographical provenance of these documents. According to Bühler and Kane, Āpastamba came from South India probably from a region corresponding to modern Andhra Pradesh . Baudhāyana also came from south although evidence regarding this is weaker than that of Āpastamba. Gautama likely came from western region, nearer to the northwestern region to which Pāṇini belonged, and one which corresponds to where Maratha people in modern India are found. Nothing can be said about Vasiṣṭha due to lack of any evidence. Scholars have varied opinions about
3348-521: Is uncertainty regarding the dates of these documents due to lack of evidence concerning these documents. Kane has posited the following dates for the texts, for example, though other scholars disagree: Gautama 600 BCE to 400 BCE, Āpastamba 450 BCE to 350 BCE, Baudhāyana 500 BCE to 200 BCE, and Vasiṣṭha 300 BCE to 100 BCE. Patrick Olivelle suggests that Apastamba Dharmasutra is the oldest of the extant texts in Dharmasutra genre and one by Gautama second oldest, while Robert Lingat suggests that Gautama Dharmasutra
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3456-453: Is undoubtedly one of true democracy in which the meanest citizen could be sure of swift justice without an elaborate and costly procedure". He also emphasised that it meant respect for all religions: "My Hinduism teaches me to respect all religions. In this lies the secret of Ramarajya". While Gandhi had clarified that "by Ram Rajya I do not mean Hindu Raj. I mean by Ram Rajya, Divine Raj, the kingdom of God," his concept of "Rama Rajya" became
3564-474: Is very different from the theological reference to the Vedas, and the dharma taught in the Dharmaśāstra has little to do with the Vedas. These were customs, norms or pronouncements of the writers of these texts that were likely derived from evolving regional ethical, ideological, cultural and legal practices. The Dharmasutra and Dharmaśāstra texts, as they have survived into the modern era, were not authored by
3672-546: The Bengal Presidency was divided into West Bengal and East Pakistan . After the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi by Nathuram Godse , the Sangh Parivar was plunged into distress when the RSS was accused of involvement in his murder. Along with the conspirators and the assassin, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was also arrested. The court acquitted Savarkar, and the RSS was found be to completely unlinked with
3780-605: The Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh and political party Bharatiya Jana Sangh also grew into considerable prominence by the end of the decade. Another prominent development was the formation of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), an organisation of Hindu religious leaders, supported by the RSS, to unite the various Hindu religious denominations and to usher a social reform. The first VHP meeting in Mumbai
3888-620: The British House of commons , or the soviet rule of Russia or the Fascist rule of Italy or the Nazi rule of Germany . They have systems suited to their genius. We must have ours suited to ours. What that can be is more than I can tell. I have described it as Ramarajya i.e., sovereignty of the people based on pure moral authority." Gandhi emphasised that "Rāma Rājya" to him meant peace and justice, adding that "the ancient ideal of Ramarajya
3996-601: The Constitution of India , accept the Tricolor as the National Flag of India, define the power of the head of the organisation, make the organisation democratic by holding internal elections, authorisation of their parents before enrolling the pre-adolescents into the movement, and to renounce violence and secrecy. Golwalkar launched an agitation against this demand during which he was imprisoned again. Later,
4104-502: The Dharmashastra The King was considered an incarnation of Lord Vishnu and was the chief authority over legislative, judiciary and executive functions. The judiciary functions were decided based on the principles of Hindu Dharma codes of conduct. The king had full rights to expel any person who offended the country and also to pardon the offenders and grant their return to the country. The government in practicality
4212-421: The Indian National Congress in 1886 and was also one of the key members of the revolutionary India House . Though Mahatma Gandhi never called himself a "Hindu nationalist"; he believed in and propagated concepts like Dharma and introduced the concept of the "Rāma Rājya" (Rule of Lord Rāma ) as part of his social and political philosophy. Gandhi said "By political independence I do not mean an imitation to
4320-661: The Indian subcontinent . "Hindu nationalism" is a simplistic translation of Hindū Rāṣṭravād . It is better described as "Hindu polity". The native thought streams became highly relevant in Indian history when they helped form a distinctive identity about the Indian polity and provided a basis for questioning colonialism. These also inspired Indian nationalists during the independence movement based on armed struggle, coercive politics, and non-violent protests. They also influenced social reform movements and economic thinking in India. Today, Hindutva (meaning ' Hinduness ' )
4428-526: The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Babasaheb Apte 's lifelong pet sentence was "Vivekananda is like Gita for the RSS." Some historians have observed that this helped the nascent Independence movement with a distinct national identity and kept it from being the simple derivative function of European nationalism. Sri Aurobindo was a nationalist and one of the first to embrace the idea of complete political independence for India. He
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4536-607: The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh founded in 1925, and of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (the present-day ruling Bharatiya Janata Party ) under another euphemistic relabelling Bharatiyata (Indianness). " Lal-Bal-Pal " is the phrase that is used to refer to the three nationalist leaders Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal who held sway over the Indian Nationalist movement and
4644-509: The Unitarian Church , and propagated a strict monotheism. This reinterpretation produced neo-Vedanta , in which Advaita Vedanta was combined with disciplines such as yoga and the concept of social service to attain perfection from the ascetic traditions in what Vivekananda called the "practical Vedanta". The practical side essentially included participation in social reform. He made Hindu spirituality, intellectually available to
4752-409: The law of the land for all non-Muslims (Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs) in the Indian subcontinent , after Sharia set by Emperor Aurangzeb , was already accepted as the law for Muslims in colonial India. The Dharmashastras are based on ancient Dharmasūtra texts, which themselves emerged from the literary tradition of the Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sāma, and Atharva) composed in 2nd millennium BCE to
4860-666: The British colonial government banned military drills and the use of uniforms in non-official organizations, Golwalkar terminated the RSS military department. RSS had played no role in the Quit India Movement nor the naval revolt . The Bengali Hindu Homeland Movement refers to the movement of the Bengali Hindu people for the Partition of Bengal in 1947 to create a homeland for themselves within India, in
4968-674: The Christian missionaries as a body, with honorable exceptions, have actively supported a system which has impoverished, enervated and demoralized a people considered to be among the gentlest and most civilized on earth. The influence of the Hindu renaissance movements was such that by the turn of the 20th century, there was a confluence of ideas of Hindu cultural nationalism with the ideas of Indian nationalism . Both could be spoken synonymously even by tendencies that were seemingly opposed to sectarian communalism and Hindu majoritism. The Hindu renaissance movements held considerable influence over
5076-421: The Congress moved from the polite accusation that colonial rule was "un-British" to the forthright claim of Tilak that "Swaraj is my birthright and I will have it". Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal was another prominent figure of the Indian nationalist movement, who is considered a modern Hindu reformer, who stood for Hindu cultural nationalism and was opposed to sectarian communalism and Hindu majoritism. He joined
5184-567: The Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras. The Dharmasutras were numerous, but only four texts have survived into the modern era. The most important of these texts are the sutras of Apastamba , Gautama , Baudhayana , and Vasistha . These extant texts cite writers and refer opinions of seventeen authorities, implying that a rich Dharmasutras tradition existed prior to when these texts were composed. The extant Dharmasutras are written in concise sutra format, with
5292-553: The Hindus all over Bharat by defeating the forces of Aurangzeb . Maharajadhiraja Prithvi Narayan Shah proclaimed the newly unified Kingdom of Nepal as Asal Hindustan ("Real Land of Hindus") because North India was ruled by the Islamic Mughal rulers . The proclamation was made to enforce the Hindu social code Dharmaśāstra over his reign and refer to his country as being inhabitable for Hindus . He also referred to
5400-474: The Indian expatriates in London. When Gandhi visited London in 1909, he shared a platform with the revolutionaries where both the parties politely agreed to disagree, on the question of adopting a violent struggle and whether Ramayana justified such violence. Gandhi, while admiring the "patriotism" of the young revolutionaries, had "dissented vociferously" from their "violent blueprints" for social change. In turn,
5508-673: The Sanskrit phrase " Satyameva Jayate " (Truth alone triumphs), from the Mundaka Upanishad , which today is the national motto of the Republic of India. He founded the Benaras Hindu University in 1919 and became its first Vice-Chancellor. Another leader of prime importance in the ascent of Hindu nationalism was Keshav Baliram Hedgewar of Nagpur . Hedgewar as a medical student in Calcutta had been part of
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#17327761185865616-569: The Shrautasutras and Grihyasutras texts of the Kalpa (Vedanga) . The hymns of Ṛgveda are one of the earliest texts composed in verse. The Brāhmaṇa which belongs to the middle vedic period followed by the vedāṇga are composed in prose. The basic texts are composed in an aphoristic style known as the sutra which literally means thread on which each aphorism is strung like a pearl. The Dharmasūtras are composed in sutra style and were part of
5724-528: The Tagadhari to be the highest in the hierarchy. The ethnolinguistic group of people of Tamang , Sherpa and Tharu origin were tagged under the title Matwali ("Liquor Drinkers"), while those of Khas , Newari and Terai origin were termed Tagadhari ("Wearers of the Sacred Thread"). The Tagadhari castes could not be enslaved following any criminal punishment unless they had been expelled from
5832-745: The Unrighteous (adharma) do not go around saying, 'here we are!'; Nor do gods, Gandharvas or ancestors declare, 'This is righteous and that is unrighteous'." Most laws are based on agreement between the Aryas, stated Āpastamba, on what is right and what is wrong. Laws must also change with ages, stated Āpastamba, a theory that became known as Yuga dharma in Hindu traditions. Āpastamba also asserted in verses 2.29.11–15, states Olivelle, that "aspects of dharma not taught in Dharmasastras can be learned from women and people of all classes". Āpastamba used
5940-521: The Vedas, and approval of one's conscience (Atmasantushti, self-satisfaction). The Dharmashastra texts include conflicting claims on the sources of dharma. The theological claim therein asserts, without any elaboration, that Dharma just like the Vedas are eternal and timeless, the former is directly or indirectly related to the Vedas. Yet these texts also acknowledge the role of Smriti, customs of polite learned people, and one's conscience as source of dharma. The historical reality, states Patrick Olivelle,
6048-526: The Vedas, the Smriti (tradition), acāra (the practice) of those who know the Veda. These three sources are also found in later Dharmashastra literature. Baudhāyana Dharmasutra lists the same three, but calls the third as śiṣṭa (शिष्ट, literally polite cultured people) or the practice of cultured people as the third source of dharma. Both Baudhāyana Dharmasutra and Vāsiṣṭha Dharmasutra make the practices of śiṣṭa as
6156-405: The Vedic texts, nor can the behavioral rules included therein be found in any of the Vedas. This led to the incongruity between the search for legal codes and dharma rules in the theological versus the reality of epistemic origins of dharma rules and guidelines. The Hindu scholar Āpastamba, in a Dharmasutra named after him (~400 BCE), made an attempt to resolve this issue of incongruity. He placed
6264-661: The Westernized audience. His famous speech in the Parliament of the World's Religions at Chicago on 11 September 1893, followed a huge reception of his thought in the West and made him a well-known figure in the West and subsequently in India too. His influence can still be recognised in popular Western spirituality , such as nondualism , New Age and the veneration of Ramana Maharshi . A major element of Vivekananda's message
6372-534: The Yajnavalkyasmriti appear to have played a greater role in guiding the actual Dharma. Further, the Dharmasastras were open texts, and they underwent alterations and rewriting through their history. All Dharma , in Hindu traditions, has its foundation in the Vedas . The Dharmashastra texts enumerate four sources of Dharma – the precepts in the Vedas, the tradition, the virtuous conduct of those who know
6480-491: The ancient Indian texts would be carried forward by other movements in Bengal and across India. Arya Samaj is considered one of the overarching Hindu renaissance movements of the late nineteenth century. Swami Dayananda , the founder of Arya Samaj, rejected idolatry, caste restriction and untouchability, child marriage and advocated equal status and opportunities for women. He opposed "Brahmanism" (which he believed had led to
6588-499: The assassination, many prominent leaders of the RSS were arrested, and the RSS as an organisation was banned on 4 February 1948 by the then Home Minister Patel. During the court proceedings in relation to the assassination Godse began claiming that he had left the organisation in 1946. The then Indian Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister, Vallabhbhai Patel had remarked that the "RSS men expressed joy and distributed sweets after Gandhi's death". The charged RSS leaders were acquitted of
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#17327761185866696-575: The authorities after these events. Subsequently, Hinduisation became the main policy of the Kingdom of Nepal . Prof. Harka Gurung speculates that the presence of Islamic Mughal rule and Christian British rule in India compelled the foundation of Hindu Nationalism in the Kingdom of Nepal , to build a haven for Hindus there. The policies of the old Bharadari governments of the Gorkha Kingdom were derived from ancient Hindu texts such as
6804-456: The caste. The main broad caste categories in Nepal are Tagadharis (sacred thread bearers), Matwalis (liquor drinkers) and Dalits (or untouchables). Many Hindu reform movements originated in the nineteenth century. These movements led to fresh interpretations of the ancient scriptures of Upanishads and Vedanta and also emphasised on social reform. The marked feature of these movements
6912-503: The centre for revolutionary ideas and was the college where revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh studied. While leading a procession against the Simon Commission , he was fatally injured in the lathi charge . His death led revolutionaries like Chandrashekar Azad and Bhagat Singh to assassinate the British police officer J. P. Saunders , who they believed was responsible for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai. Bal Gangadhar Tilak
7020-485: The chronology of these documents. Regarding the age of Āpastamba and Gautama there are opposite conclusions. According to Bühler and Lingat Āpastamba is younger than Baudhāyana. Vasiṣṭha is surely a later text. The structure of these Dharmasūtras primarily addresses the Brahmins both in subject matter and the audience. The Brahmins are the creators and primary consumers of these texts. The subject matter of Dharmasūtras
7128-648: The conspiracy charge by the Supreme Court of India . Following his release in August 1948, Golwalkar wrote to Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to lift the ban on RSS. After Nehru replied that the matter was the responsibility of the Home Minister, Golwalkar consulted Vallabhai Patel regarding the same. Patel then demanded an absolute pre-condition that the RSS adopt a formal written constitution and make it public, where Patel expected RSS to pledge its loyalty to
7236-467: The conspirators. The Hindu Mahasabha , of which Godse was a member, lost membership and popularity. The effects of public outrage had a permanent effect on the Hindu Mahasabha. The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, which was started in 1925, had grown by the end of British rule in India. In January 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse , a former member of the RSS. Following
7344-508: The corruption of the knowledge of Vedas) as much as he opposed Christianity and Islam. Although Arya Samaj was often considered as a social movement, many revolutionaries and political leaders of the Indian Independence movement like Ramprasad Bismil , Bhagat Singh , Shyamji Krishnavarma , Bhai Paramanand and Lala Lajpat Rai were inspired by it. Another 19th-century Hindu reformer was Swami Vivekananda . Vivekananda as
7452-554: The death of Hedgewar in 1940, M. S. Golwalkar became head of the organization. RSS continued to avoid participation in anti-British activities, as Golwalkar did not want to give the British colonial administration any excuse to ban the RSS. After the Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution demanding a separate Pakistan, the RSS campaigned for a Hindu nation, but stayed away from the independence struggle. When
7560-405: The duties and rights of people at different stages of life like studenthood, householdership, retirement and renunciation. These stages are also called ashramas . They also discuss the rites and duties of kings, judicial matters, and personal law such as matters relating to marriage and inheritance. However, Dharmasutras typically did not deal with rituals and ceremonies, a topic that was covered in
7668-435: The early centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. These Vedic branches split into various other schools ( shakhas ) possibly for a variety of reasons such as geography, specialization and disputes. Each Veda is further divided into two categories namely the Saṃhitā which is a collection of mantra verses and the Brahmanas which are prose texts that explain the meaning of the Samhita verses. The Brāhmaṇa layer expanded and some of
7776-467: The famous Chittagong Uprising . Both Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo are credited with having founded the basis for a vision of freedom and glory for India in the spirituality and heritage of Hinduism. In 1924, Mahatma Gandhi wrote: This [Christian] proselytization will mean no peace in the world. Conversions are harmful to India. If I had the power and could legislate I should certainly stop all proselytizing ... It pains me to have to say that
7884-468: The first half of the 20th century, factions of Indian National Congress continued to be identified with "Hindu politics" and ideas of a Hindu nation. The word "Hindu", throughout history, had been used as an inclusive description that lacked a definition and was used to refer to the native traditions and people of India. It was only in the late 18th century that the word "Hindu" came to be used extensively with religious connotation, while still being used as
7992-426: The first millennium CE was followed by that of commentaries around the 9th century called nibandha . This legal tradition consisted of commentaries on earlier Dharmasūtras and Smritis. About 20 Dharmasutras are known, some surviving into the modern era just as fragments of their original. Four Dharmasūtras have been translated into English, and most remain in manuscripts. All carry the names of their authors, but it
8100-543: The focal point of Hindu movements in Independent India. The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh started by him became one of the most prominent Hindu organisation with its influence ranging in the social and political spheres of India. In 1930, when Mahatma Gandhi started Satyagraha movement against the British Government, Hedgewar participated in the movement in his capacity and did not let the RSS join
8208-454: The freedom movement officially. The RSS portrayed itself as a social movement rather than a political party, and did not play a central role in any of the Indian independence movement . However, the RSS emphatically rejected the Congress policy of cooperation with the Muslims. Subsequently, in 1934, the Congress banned its members from joining RSS, Hindu Mahasabha or Muslim League. After
8316-495: The goal of India's nationalist movement thus: I say no longer that nationalism is a creed, a religion, a faith; I say that it is the Sanatan Dharma which for us is nationalism. This Hindu nation was born with the Sanatan Dharma, with it, it moves and with it, it grows. When the Sanatan Dharma declines, then the nation declines, and if the Sanatan Dharma were capable of perishing, with the Sanatan Dharma it would perish. In
8424-417: The importance of the Veda scriptures second and that of samayacarika or mutually agreed and accepted customs of practice first. Āpastamba thus proposed that scriptures alone cannot be source of Law (dharma), and dharma has an empirical nature. Āpastamba asserted that it is difficult to find absolute sources of law, in ancient books or current people, states Patrick Olivelle with, "The Righteous (dharma) and
8532-579: The independence struggle in the early parts of twentieth century. Lala Lajpat Rai belonged to the northern province of Punjab. He was influenced greatly by the Arya Samaj and was part of the Hindu reform movement. He joined the Indian National Congress in 1888 and became a prominent figure in the Indian Independence Movement. He started numerous educational institutions. The National College at Lahore started by him became
8640-428: The king. This forms the early structure of the Dharma texts. However, in the Dharmasūtras of Gautama, Baudhāyana and Vasiṣṭha some sections such as inheritance and penance are reorganized, and moved from householder section to king-related section. Ollivelle suggests that these changes may be because of chronological reasons where civil law increasingly became part of the king's administrative responsibilities. Dharma
8748-541: The newer esoteric layers of text that explore the hidden meanings behind Vedic rituals were called Aranyakas while the philosophical sections came to be called the Upanishads . The Vedic basis of Dharma literature is found in the Brahmana layer of the Vedas. Towards the end of the Vedic period, after the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, the language of the Vedic texts composed centuries earlier grew too archaic to
8856-538: The oldest known single mention of the word Dharmaśāstras . The extant Dharmaśāstras texts are listed below: In addition, numerous other Dharmaśāstras are known, partially or indirectly, with very different ideas, customs and conflicting versions. For example, the manuscripts of Bṛhaspatismṛti and the Kātyāyanasmṛti have not been found, but their verses have been cited in other texts, and scholars have made an effort to extract these cited verses, thus creating
8964-623: The ongoing superstitions, and believed in a monotheistic Vedic religion. His major emphasis was social reform. He fought against Caste discrimination and advocated equal rights for women . Although the Brahmos found favourable responses from the British government and Westernized Indians, they were largely isolated from the larger Hindu society due to their intellectual Vedantic and Unitarian views. However their efforts to systematise Hindu spirituality based on rational and logical interpretation of
9072-579: The people of that time. This led to the formation of Vedic Supplements called the Vedangas which literally means 'limbs of the Veda'. The Vedangas were ancillary sciences that focused on understanding and interpreting the Vedas composed many centuries earlier, and included Shiksha (phonetics, syllable), Chandas (poetic metre), Vyakarana (grammar, linguistics), Nirukta (etymology, glossary), Jyotisha (timekeeping, astronomy), and Kalpa (ritual or proper procedures). The Kalpa Vedanga studies gave rise to
9180-417: The reason Dharmasutras introduced vedic initiation was to make the individual subject to Dharma precepts at school, by making him a 'twice born' man, because children were considered exempt from Dharma precepts in the vedic tradition. The structure of Dharmasūtra of Āpastamba begins with the duties of the student, then describes householder duties and rights such as inheritance, and ends with administration of
9288-609: The rest of Northern India as Mughlan (Country of Mughals ) and called the region infiltrated by Muslim foreigners. After the Gorkhali conquest of the Kathmandu valley , King Prithvi Narayan Shah expelled Christian Capuchin missionaries from Patan and renamed Nepal as Asali Hindustan (the real land of Hindus ). The Tagadharis enjoyed a privileged status in the Nepalese capital and they were also given greater access to
9396-521: The revolutionaries disliked his adherence to constitutionalism and his close contacts with moderate leaders of the Indian National Congress. Moreover, they considered his method of "passive resistance" effeminate and humiliating. The India House was soon to face closure following the assassination of William Hutt Curzon Wyllie by the revolutionary Madan Lal Dhingra , who was close to India House . Savarkar also faced charges and
9504-495: The revolutionary activities of the Hindu Mahasabha, Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar. He was charged with sedition in 1921 by the British Administration and served a year in prison. He was briefly a member of the Indian National Congress. In 1925, he left the Congress to form the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) with the help of Hindu Mahasabha Leader B. S. Moonje , Bapuji Soni, Gatate Ji etc., which would become
9612-418: The revolutionary movements against British rule and formed the philosophical basis for the struggles and political movements that originated in the first decade of the twentieth century. Anushilan Samiti was one of the prominent revolutionary movements in India in the early part of the twentieth century. It was started as a cultural society in 1902, by Aurobindo and the followers of Bankim Chandra to propagate
9720-424: The revolutionary party. It is of utmost importance to arrest his potential for mischief, for he is the prime mover and can easily set tools, one to replace another". But charges against Aurobindo were never proved and he was acquitted. Many members of the group faced charges and were transported and imprisoned for life. Others went into hiding. In 1910, when, Aurobindo withdrew from political life and decided to live
9828-417: The same speech, he also gave a comprehensive perspective of Hinduism, which is at variance with the geocentric view developed by the later day Hindu nationalist ideologues such as Veer Savarkar and Deendayal Upadhyay: But what is the Hindu religion? What is this religion which we call Sanatan, eternal? It is the Hindu religion only because the Hindu nation has kept it, after all, in this Peninsula it grew up in
9936-534: The seclusion of the sea and the Himalayas, because in this sacred and ancient land it was given as a charge to the Aryan race to preserve through the ages. But it is not circumscribed by the confines of a single country, it does not belong peculiarly and forever to a bounded part of the world. That which we call the Hindu religion is the eternal religion, because it is the universal religion which embraces all others. If
10044-506: The south". The empire was also administered based on Hindu dharmasastras , and Vedas were the major sources of the prevailing law. Shivaji with his quests is noted to have foun a firm footing for Hindu nationalism in with the foundation of the Maratha Empire . Shivaji was also an inspiration for Hindu nationalist activists such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak . Vinayak Damodar Savarkar writes that Shivaji had 'electrified' minds of
10152-420: The study of customs of good people as a source of dharma and guide to proper living, states Olivelle. Testimony during a trial The witness must take an oath before deposing. Single witness normally does not suffice. As many as three witnesses are required. False evidence must face sanctions. — Gautama Dharmasutras 13.2–13.6 The sources of dharma according to Gautama Dharmasutra are three:
10260-625: The teachings of the Bhagavad Gita . But soon the Samiti had its goal to overthrow British colonial rule in India Various branches of the Samiti sprung across India in the guise of suburban fitness clubs but secretly imparted arms training to its members with the implicit aim of using them against the British colonial administration. On 30 April 1908 at Muzaffarpur , two revolutionaries, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki, threw bombs at
10368-643: The tribals. Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas Dharmaśāstra ( Sanskrit : धर्मशास्त्र ) are Sanskrit Puranic Smriti texts on law and conduct, and refer to treatises ( śāstras ) on Dharma . Like Dharmasūtra which are based upon Vedas , these texts are also elaborate law commentaries based on vedas, Dharmashastra themselves evolved from dharmshutra. There are many Dharmashastras, variously estimated to number from 18 to over 100. Each of these texts exists in many different versions, and each
10476-707: The wake of Muslim League 's proposal and campaign to include the entire province of Bengal within Pakistan, which was to be a homeland for the Muslims of British India . The movement began in late 1946, especially after the Great Calcutta Killing and Noakhali genocide , gained significant momentum in April 1947 and in the end met with success on 20 June 1947 when the legislators from the Hindu majority areas returned their verdict in favour of Partition and
10584-512: Was a nationalist leader from the Central Indian province of Maharashtra. He has been widely acclaimed the "Father of Indian unrest" who used the press and Hindu occasions like Ganesh Chaturthi and symbols like the Cow to create unrest against the British administration in India. Tilak joined the Indian National Congress in 1890. Under the influence of such leaders, the political discourse of
10692-674: Was a question that loomed in the minds of Dharma text writers, and they tried to seek "where guidelines for Dharma can be found?" They sought to define and examine vedic injunctions as the source of Dharma, asserting that like the Vedas, Dharma is not of human origin. This worked for rituals-related rules, but in all other matters this created numerous interpretations and different derivations. This led to documents with various working definitions, such as dharma of different regions ( deshadharma ), of social groups ( jatidharma ), of different families ( kuladharma ). The authors of Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra admit that these dharmas are not found in
10800-674: Was attended among others by all the Shankaracharyas, Jain leaders, Sikh leader Master Tara Singh Malhotra , the Dalai Lama and contemporary Hindu leaders like Swami Chinmayananda . From its initial years, the VHP led a concerted attack on the social evils of untouchability and casteism while launching social welfare programmes in the areas of education and health care, especially for the Scheduled Castes, backward classes, and
10908-402: Was inspired by the writings of Swami Vivekananda and the novels of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay . He "based his claim for freedom for India on the inherent right to freedom, not on any charge of misgovernment or oppression". He believed that the primary requisite for national progress, national reform, is the free habit of free and healthy national thought and action and that it was impossible in
11016-406: Was nationalism. He saw his effort very much in terms of a revitalisation of the Hindu nation, which carried Hindu spirituality and which could counter Western materialism. The notions of the superiority of Western culture against the culture of India , were to be questioned based on Hindu spirituality. It also became a main inspiration for Hindu nationalism today. One of the most revered leaders of
11124-555: Was not an absolute monarchy due to the dominance of Nepalese political clans such as the Pande family and the Thapa family , making the Shah monarch a puppet ruler. These basic Hindu templates provide the evidence that Nepal was administered as a Hindu state. The Nepali civil code , Muluki Ain , was commissioned by Jung Bahadur Rana after his European tour and enacted in 1854. It
11232-535: Was rooted in traditional Hindu Law and codified social practices for several centuries in Nepal. The law also comprised Prāyaścitta (avoidance and removal of sin) and Ācāra (the customary law of different communities). It was an attempt to include the entire Hindu as well as the non-Hindu population of Nepal of that time into a single hierarchic civic code from the perspective of the Khas rulers. The Nepalese jati arrangement in terms of Hindu Varnashrama takes
11340-405: Was started by Shyamji Krishnavarma , a Sanskritist and an Arya Samajist, in London, under the name of India House in 1905. The brain behind this movement was said to be V D Savarkar . Krishnaverma also published a monthly " Indian Sociologist ", where the idea of an armed struggle against the British colonial government was openly espoused. The movement had become well known for its activities in
11448-524: Was that they countered the notion of the superiority of Western culture during the colonial era. This led to the upsurge of patriotic ideas that formed the cultural and ideological basis for the independence movement in Colonial India. The Brahmo Samaj was started by a Bengali scholar, Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Ram Mohan Roy endeavoured to create from the ancient Upanishadic texts, a vision of rationalist 'modern' India. Socially, he criticized
11556-536: Was to be worked out in a democratically. After the ban was revoked RSS resumed its activities. The 1960s saw the volunteers of the RSS join the different social and political movements. Movements that saw a large presence of volunteers included the Bhoodan , a land reform movement led by prominent Gandhian Vinoba Bhave and the Sarvodaya led by another Gandhian Jayaprakash Narayan . RSS supported trade union,
11664-528: Was transported. Shyamji Krishna Varma fled to Paris. India House gave formative support to ideas that were later formulated by Savarkar in his book named ' Hindutva '. Hindutva was to gain relevance in the run-up to the Indian Independence and form the core ideology of the political party Hindu Mahasabha , of which Savarkar became president in 1937. It also formed the key ideology, under the euphemistic relabelling Rashtriyatva (nationalism), for
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