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125-676: It is awarded in five classes either for personal heroism or, to commanders, for leadership. Some of the heroic actions recognized by an award of the Virtuti Militari are equivalent to those meriting the British Victoria Cross and the American Medal of Honor . Soon after its introduction, however, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was destroyed in the partitions of Poland (1795), and

250-530: A Women's Auxiliary Service unit, and twelve artillery units. A new Chapter was chosen for times of peace on 24 November 1922. The following year, the last decoration of the Virtuti Militari was granted for World War I and the Polish-Bolshevik War , and further awards were halted. On 25 March 1933 the Sejm passed a new "Order of Virtuti Militari Act" ( Ustawa o Orderze Virtuti Militari ); this modified

375-540: A combined gross domestic product of over $ 9 trillion, 78% of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: India ($ 3.737 trillion), United Kingdom ($ 3.124 trillion), Canada ($ 1.652 trillion), and Australia ($ 1.379 trillion). In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had

500-981: A constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member; that it should comply with Commonwealth values, principles and priorities as set out in the Harare Declaration ; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and conventions. South Sudanese politicians have expressed interest in joining the Commonwealth. A senior Commonwealth source stated in 2006 that "many people have assumed an interest from Israel, but there has been no formal approach". Israel and Palestine are both potential candidates for membership. Jan Henryk D%C4%85browski Jan Henryk Dąbrowski ( Polish pronunciation: [ˈjan ˈxɛnrɨɡ dɔmˈbrɔfskʲi] ; also known as Johann Heinrich Dąbrowski (Dombrowski) in German and Jean Henri Dombrowski in French; 2 August 1755  – 6 June 1818)

625-421: A different class of soldiers and for various deeds: Each recipient of the Virtuti Militari, regardless of rank or post, received a yearly salary of 300 złoty . Other privileges included the right of pre-emption when buying a state-owned land property or applying for a state post. Children of recipients received additional points during examinations in state schools and universities. Additionally, recipients of

750-638: A former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g., Bangladesh to Pakistan, Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Singapore to Malaysia). Mozambique, in 1995, was the first country to join without such a constitutional connection, leading to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda, formerly under Belgian and German rule, joined. Consideration for Rwanda's admission

875-455: A fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised King George VI as " Head of the Commonwealth ". In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these

1000-456: A report on potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting . New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM . New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, this is due to being

1125-735: A republic in January 1950, it would remain in the Commonwealth and accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". Upon hearing this, King George VI told Menon : "So, I've become 'as such'". Some other Commonwealth countries that have since become republics have chosen to leave, whilst others, such as Guyana , Mauritius and Dominica , have remained members. India's inaugural prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru declared on 16 May 1949, shortly following

1250-720: A republic in accordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act 1948 ; in doing so, it also formally left the Commonwealth. Whilst Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London . Under the London Declaration , as drafted by V. K. Krishna Menon , India agreed, when it became

1375-1282: A single battle in 1939, and from 1942 the commander of the First Polish Armoured Division . I Class (13 awarded): • Marshal of the USSR and Marshal of Poland Konstanty Rokossowski • Marshal Michał Rola-Żymierski • General Aleksei Antonov • Marshal Leonid Brezhnev (revoked 1990) • Marshal of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito • Major General Nikolai Bulganin • Marshal Andriey Grechko • Marshal Ivan Koniev • Marshal Alexander Vasilievski • Marshal Georgy Zhukov • Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery • General Ludvík Svoboda • General Karol Świerczewski (posthumous) II Class (18 awarded): • Lt General Stanisław Popławski • Lt General Juliusz Rómmel • Lt General Karol Świerczewski • Major Henryk Sucharski III Class (57 awarded) • Lt General Sarkis Martirosyan • Lt General Bolesław Kieniewicz • Lt General Władysław Korczyc • Lt General Marian Spychalski IV Class (227 awarded) • Captain Władysław Raginis (posthumous) The Soviet -backed Polish Armies fighting on

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1500-630: A statute for the decoration had been drafted, which was based on one that was created for the Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa . The regulation changed the shape of the decoration from a medal to a cross, which has not changed substantially since then. It also introduced five classes to the order. The first members of the decoration's chapter were also its first recipients. For the Polish-Russian War in Defence of

1625-488: A tenth the area of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and a fifth of its population, was now tied to Russia in a personal union . In Congress Poland, the Virtuti Militari medal was renamed the "Polish Military Medal" ( Medal Wojskowy Polski ). Both the statutes of Virtuti Militari and privileges granted to recipients were preserved. A special commission was created to award the Virtuti Militari to veterans of

1750-648: A while, attempting to convince the Prussian authorities that they needed Poland as an ally against Austria and Russia. He was unsuccessful, and with the Third Partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia and Austria, Poland disappeared from the map of Europe. Dąbrowski's next solution was to convince the French Republic that it should support a Polish cause, and create a Polish military formation. This proved to be more successful, and indeed Dąbrowski

1875-459: Is awarded: Initially each of the high commanders of the Army had a quota of Virtuti Militari to be awarded to his soldiers. However, the system was soon changed and, since then, the order has been usually awarded centrally for individual acts of bravery after being nominated by the chain of command . According to the decree of 10 October 1812, each of the recipients of a Golden or Silver Cross had

2000-409: Is not represented. Commonwealth citizens are eligible to apply for British emergency passports . Australia issues Documents of Identity in exceptional circumstances to resident Commonwealth citizens who are unable to obtain valid travel documents from their countries of origin and must travel urgently. The close association amongst Commonwealth countries is reflected in the diplomatic protocols of

2125-664: Is remembered in the history of Poland as the organiser of Polish Legions in Italy during the Napoleonic Wars . (These Legions are also often known as the "Dąbrowski's Legions".) This event gave hope to contemporary Poles, and is still remembered in the Polish national anthem , named after Dąbrowski. Dąbrowski began his work in 1796, when he came to Paris and soon afterwards met Napoleon Bonaparte in Milan . On 7 January 1797 he

2250-520: Is symbolic, representing the free association of independent members, the majority of which (36) are republics , and five have monarchs of different royal houses ( Brunei , Eswatini , Lesotho , Malaysia and Tonga ). The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth Heads of Government , including (amongst others) prime ministers and presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM

2375-692: Is the supreme court of 14 Commonwealth countries, including the Cook Islands and Niue which are under the Realm of New Zealand (though New Zealand itself does not make appeals to the Privy Council). Commonwealth nationals are eligible for appointment to the High Court of Fiji , with the Court relying on judges from other Commonwealth nations. Commonwealth citizens are eligible to serve in

2500-582: Is the successor to the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Meetings and, earlier, the Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers and others. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs. The head of government hosting

2625-464: The 2nd Polish Corps ; Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski , commander of the large Armia Krajowa resistance movement and leader of the Warsaw Uprising ; and Stanisław Maczek , one of the best armor commanders of the war, who devised the first anti- blitzkrieg strategy as early as 1940 and was the commander of the 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade , considered to be the only Polish unit not to have lost

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2750-579: The Allied forces , Dwight D. Eisenhower ; French General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny ; Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov ; and Serbian guerrilla leader Draža Mihailović . Among the most famous recipients of the medal during this period were Tadeusz Kutrzeba , creator of the Bzura counterattack plan and participant in the defence of Warsaw during the Invasion of Poland ; Władysław Anders , commander of

2875-807: The Armia Ludowa resistance organization. Although the decree of the Polish Committee of National Liberation was loosely based on the act of the Polish Sejm of 1933, the exclusive right to award the decoration to soldiers was granted to the Home National Council . In 1947 the right passed to the President of Poland , then to the Polish Council of State after that body replaced the presidency. Between 1943 and 1989,

3000-640: The British Armed Forces . According to the British Army , "Commonwealth soldiers are, and always will be, an important and valued part of the fabric of the British Army." Thousands of potential Commonwealth recruits have been turned away due to a lack of eligible vacancies. Gurkha soldiers from Nepal , though it is not a Commonwealth country, have long fought alongside British and Commonwealth troops. They continue to be recruited by

3125-661: The Eastern Front were also awarding the Virtuti Militari. On 11 November 1943 General Zygmunt Berling awarded Silver Crosses to sixteen veterans of the Battle of Lenino . On 22 December 1944 the Soviet-backed Polish Committee of National Liberation passed a "Virtuti Militari Award Act", which accepted the medal as the highest military decoration of both the 1st Polish Army of the Red Army and

3250-663: The Fourth Coalition against France. The ensuing conflict was known as the Greater Poland Uprising , and Dabrowski was the chief leader of Polish insurgent forces. In February 1807, the remaining infantry and cavalry regiments who had continued in French service in Italy were reorganized in Silesia , in the cities of Wrocław , Prudnik , Nysa , Korfantów and Brzeg , into a Polish-Italian Legion ( PolaccoItalienne ). Dąbrowski distinguished himself at

3375-670: The Greater Poland Uprising of 1806 . He participated in the Napoleonic Wars , taking part in the Polish-Austrian war and the French invasion of Russia until 1813. After Napoleon's defeat, he accepted a senatorial position in the Russian-backed Congress Poland , and was one of the organizers of the Army of Congress Poland . The Polish national anthem , " Poland Is Not Yet Lost ", written and first sung by

3500-638: The Grodno Sejm reintroduced the decoration, it was banned again on 7 January 1794, at the insistence of Russia's Catherine the Great . Only a year later, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth itself shared the fate of its decoration when what remained of the Commonwealth was annexed by its neighbors in the partitions of Poland . King Stanisław II August abdicated the same year. During his reign, 526 medals had been granted: 440 Silver Medals and Crosses, 85 Golden Medals and Crosses, and 1 Commander's Cross. Among

3625-701: The Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War , and the end of apartheid in South Africa. The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme , which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has

3750-525: The High Court case of Sue v Hill , the United Kingdom was held to be a "foreign power". Similarly, in Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs , the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be "aliens". Commonwealth citizens may receive consular assistance from other Commonwealth countries. In particular, British embassies and consulates may provide assistance to Commonwealth nationals in non-Commonwealth countries if their own country

3875-551: The London Declaration in 1949, which modernised the community and established the member states as "free and equal". It continues to be known colloquially as the British Commonwealth . The Head of the Commonwealth is Charles III . He is king of 15 member states, known as the Commonwealth realms , whilst 36 other members are republics , and five others have different monarchs. Although he became head upon

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4000-551: The Polish Defensive War of 1939, the fast German and Soviet advance (Polish territory was overrun by its enemies in five weeks from the beginning of the invasion ) prevented the Chapter from awarding the medals. Instead, commanders of divisions and brigades usually rewarded the bravery of their soldiers with their own crosses received before the war. This was the case of the 18th Pomeranian Uhlan Regiment , awarded

4125-784: The Polish Government in Exile introduced the Virtuti Militari as the highest military decoration of the Polish Army in exile. The legal basis for the election of a new Chapter was the Act of 1933. During the Second World War , the Virtuti Militari was also often bestowed to senior military officers of allied armies, including British General Bernard Montgomery ; the American Supreme Commander of

4250-516: The Polish parliament in 1830 deposed the Tsar as King of Poland. When the resultant November Uprising broke out, the Tsar reacted by sending in Russian troops. • Gen. Józef Piłsudski , Józef Haller de Hallenburg • Lt.Gen. Wacław Iwaszkiewicz • Brig. Franciszek Latinik , Jan Romer , Edward Rydz • Col. Mieczysław Kuliński , Stanisław Skrzyński • Maj. Mieczysław Mackiewicz After

4375-535: The Second Republic of Poland and the Polish Sejm reintroduced the Virtuti Militari on 1 August the following year under a new official name, the "Military Award Virtuti Militari" ( Order Wojskowy Virtuti Militari ). A new statute of the decoration was also passed, and the class system introduced under the Duchy of Warsaw was re-introduced. According to the new statute, crosses of each class could be awarded to

4500-750: The Second World War . The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan was established for pilots from across the Empire and Dominions, created by the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Troops from Australia, Britain, the British Raj and New Zealand made up the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in post-war Japan. After the Second World War ended, the British Empire

4625-589: The Siege of Tczew , the Siege of Gdańsk and at the Battle of Friedland . In 1807, the Duchy of Warsaw was established in the recaptured territories, essentially as a satellite of Bonaparte's France. Dąbrowski became disappointed with Napoleon, who offered him monetary rewards, but no serious military or government position. He was also awarded the Virtuti Militari medal that year. In 1809, he set out to defend Poland against an Austrian invasion under

4750-547: The United Nations General Assembly by the secretariat as an observer . The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication amongst the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of

4875-605: The invasion of France , then led his soldiers back to Poland in May after Napoleon's abdication . Dąbrowski always associated independent Poland with a Polish Army, and offered his services to the new power, which promised to organize such a formation: Russia. He was one of the generals entrusted by the Tsar Alexander of Russia with the reorganization of the Duchy's army into the Army of Congress Poland . In 1815 he received

5000-470: The rule of law , as promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games . A majority of Commonwealth countries are small states , with small island developing states constituting almost half its membership. Queen Elizabeth II , in her address to Canada on Dominion Day in 1959, pointed out that the Confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the "first independent country within

5125-402: The 20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was originally created as the British Commonwealth of Nations through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference , and formalised by the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The current Commonwealth of Nations was formally constituted by

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5250-434: The 27th (Polish) Infantry Division in the VIII Corps under Poniatowski. During the German campaign of 1813 , he led his division at the Battle of Leipzig , where he took command of the VIII Corps on 19 October following Poniatowski's death. On 28 October he became the commander-in-chief of the all remaining Polish troops in French service, succeeding Antoni Paweł Sułkowski . He defended Compiègne in February 1814 during

5375-464: The British Army ( Brigade of Gurkhas ), Indian Army ( Gorkha regiments ) and Royal Brunei Armed Forces ( Gurkha Reserve Unit ), as well the Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force . Most members of Brunei's Gurkha Reserve Unit are veterans from the British Army and Singaporean police. The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931 , as

5500-468: The British Empire". She declared: "So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations." As long ago as 18 January 1884 Lord Rosebery , while visiting Adelaide , South Australia , had described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent , as a "Commonwealth of Nations". Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from

5625-399: The CHOGM is called the chair-in-office (CIO) and retains the position until the following CHOGM. The Commonwealth Secretariat , established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation amongst member governments and countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in

5750-408: The Commonwealth countries. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchange high commissioners instead of ambassadors . Further institutional connections exist between Commonwealth countries. These include, between some, connections to other parts of the Commonwealth in their judicial and military institutions. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

5875-413: The Commonwealth had a population of 2.5 billion. The Commonwealth is the largest association of ' Third World ' or ' Global South ' countries. With a population of 1.4 billion, India is the most populous Commonwealth country. Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 12,000 people. The status of "member in arrears" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The status

6000-432: The Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature. Burma (Myanmar since 1989) and Aden (now part of Yemen) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Former British protectorates and mandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Palestine (part of which became

6125-521: The Commonwealth's fundamental political values. The secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth secretary-general , who is elected by the Commonwealth heads of government for no more than two four-year terms. The secretary-general and two deputy secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present secretary-general is Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal , from Dominica, who took office on 1 April 2016, succeeding Kamalesh Sharma of India (2008–2016). The first secretary-general

6250-415: The Communist authorities of the People's Republic of Poland awarded the medal to 5,167 people and organisations. Some of the crosses were given to the officers and leaders of the Red Army and of other armies allied with the Soviet Union during and after World War II. Among the recipients of the Golden Cross (Class IV) was destroyer ORP Błyskawica , probably the only warship in the world to be awarded

6375-452: The Constitution of 1792, a total of 63 officers and 290 NCOs and privates were awarded the Virtuti Militari. The statute was never fully implemented, however, since soon after its introduction the King acceded to the Targowica Confederation , which on 29 August 1792 abolished the decoration and prohibited its wearing. Anyone who wore the medal could be demoted and expelled from the army by Poland's new authorities. Although on 23 November 1793

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6500-463: The Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term ' Commonwealth ' was officially adopted to describe the community. These aspects to the relationship were formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which applied to Canada without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Newfoundland never did as due to economic hardship and

6625-427: The Declaration, during the Constituent Assembly Debates that: We join the Commonwealth obviously because we think it is beneficial to us and to certain causes in the world that we wish to advance. The other countries of the Commonwealth want us to remain there because they think it is beneficial to them. It is mutually understood that it is to the advantage of the nations in the Commonwealth and therefore they join. At

6750-575: The Dominions as well as the United Kingdom. The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, when the term British Commonwealth of Nations was substituted for British Empire in the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of the Irish Free State . In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference , the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to

6875-414: The English language and historical-cultural ties. The chief institutions of the organisation are the Commonwealth Secretariat , which focuses on intergovernmental relations, and the Commonwealth Foundation , which focuses on non-governmental relations between member nations. Numerous organisations are associated with and operate within the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of

7000-423: The Grand Cross given to Leonid Brezhnev on 21 July 1974. On 16 October 1992, the Polish Sejm passed a new Virtuti Militari Act, which is based on the act of 1933. It restored the Chapter of Virtuti Militari abolished by the communist authorities, while also confirming all decorations bestowed by both the Polish government in exile and the Soviet-backed authorities in Poland. In 1995, President Lech Wałęsa revoked

7125-494: The Italian Order of the Iron Crown . In December 1805, during the War of the Third Coalition , Dąbrowski participated in the Italian blockade of Venice , and was briefly commander of the province of Pescara in the Napoleonic Kingdom of Naples the following year. Together with Józef Wybicki he was summoned again by Napoleon in the fall of 1806 and tasked with recreating the Polish formation, which Napoleon wanted to use to recapture Greater Poland from Prussia, which had joined

7250-468: The Napoleonic campaigns of 1812, 1813, and 1814. By 1820, an additional 1,213 crosses of all classes had been awarded. Also, on 5 June 1817, a royal decree ennobled all officers who received the Golden Cross. At the time, the Kingdom of Poland was one of the few constitutional monarchies in Europe, with the Emperor of the Russian Empire as Polish king. The country was given one of the most liberal constitutions in nineteenth-century Europe, although it

7375-432: The Order given to Ivan Serov , who was accused of being responsible for the deaths of thousands of Poles. In 2006, President Lech Kaczyński revoked the Cross of the Order given to Wincenty Romanowski , who tortured anti-Communist fighters. Since 1989 there have been no new awards of the Virtuti Militari, and a new act of parliament introduced a rule setting the final deadline for awards at "no later than five years after

7500-454: The Polish legionnaires, mentions Dąbrowski by name, and is also known as "Dąbrowski's Mazurka ". Dąbrowski was born to Jan Michał Dąbrowski and Zofia Maria Dąbrowska ( née Sophie von Lettow), in Pierzchów , Crown of the Kingdom of Poland , on 29 August 1755. He grew up in Hoyerswerda , Electorate of Saxony , where his father served as a colonel in the Saxon Army . He joined the Royal Saxon Horse Guards in 1770 or 1771. His family

7625-446: The State of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), British Somaliland (which united with the former Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the Somali Republic ), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971) and the United Arab Emirates (1971). The post-war Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth II in her Christmas Day 1953 broadcast, in which she envisioned the Commonwealth as "an entirely new conception – built on

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7750-417: The Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws — the Status of the Union Act, 1934 , and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act, 1934 — were passed by the Parliament of South Africa to confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state, and to incorporate the Statute of Westminster into the law of South Africa . Commonwealth countries and the Empire were involved in every major theatre of

7875-466: The UK (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonised countries, predominantly non- white and developing countries. It was often used in debates regarding immigration from these countries. The United Kingdom and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the Old Commonwealth, or more pointedly as the 'white Commonwealth', in reference to what had been known as the 'White Dominions'. On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became

8000-577: The United Kingdom's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the losses of India and Singapore. Whilst British politicians at first hoped that the Commonwealth would preserve and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, argues Krishnan Srinivasan . Early enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire at Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale (see also: Commonwealth diaspora ). The term New Commonwealth gained usage in

8125-423: The United Kingdom, have preferential citizenship acquisition or residency policies for Commonwealth citizens. Initially, Commonwealth countries were not considered to be "foreign" to each other as their citizens were British subjects . Citizenship laws have evolved independently in each Commonwealth country. For example, in Australia, for the purpose of considering certain constitutional and legal provisions in

8250-402: The Virtuti Militari had a right to be saluted by other soldiers of equal rank and NCOs, and ordinary soldiers could be promoted to the next higher rank upon receiving the award. The new Chapter of the decoration ( Kapituła Orderu Virtuti Militari ) was comprised twelve recipients of the crosses, four from each class from I to IV. The head of the chapter was Marshal of Poland Józef Piłsudski ,

8375-421: The Virtuti Militari of General Stanisław Grzmot-Skotnicki after the battle of Krojanty , where elements of the regiment successfully delayed the advance of the German infantry on 1 September, the first day of the Second World War . Following the fall of Poland in 1939, much of the Polish Army was evacuated to France, where it was reconstructed under the command of General Władysław Sikorski . In January 1941,

8500-427: The War Order of Virtuti Militari has shared its country's fate, and has been abolished and reintroduced several times. The order was originally created on 22 June 1792 by King Stanisław II August to commemorate the victorious Battle of Zieleńce . Initially, it comprised two classes: a golden medal for generals and officers , and a silver one for non-commissioned officers and ordinary soldiers. By August 1792,

8625-476: The appeal of the Polish Four-Year Sejm to all Poles serving abroad to join the Polish army, and not seeing much opportunity to advance in his military career in the now-peaceful Saxony, on 28 June 1792, Dąbrowski joined the Army of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with a rank of podpułkownik and on 14 July he was promoted to the rank of vice- brigadier . Joining in the final weeks of the Polish–Russian War of 1792 , he did not see combat in it. Unfamiliar with

8750-440: The assault on Zamość . I Class (none awarded) II Class (1 awarded): • General Jan Skrzynecki (for the battles of Wawer and Dębe Wielkie ) III Class (105 awarded) IV Class (1794 awarded) e.g. Antoni Patek In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna , when European powers reorganised Europe following the Napoleonic wars, the Kingdom of Poland —known unofficially as the "Congress Poland"—was created. This state, with

8875-403: The beginning of 1803. As a commander of his legion he played an important part in the war in Italy, entered Rome in May 1798, and distinguished himself greatly at the Battle of Trebia on 19 June 1799, where he was wounded, as well as in other battles and combats of 1799–1801. From the time the Legions garrisoned Rome, Dąbrowski obtained a number of trophies from a Roman representative, namely

9000-473: The beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs. Whilst some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, their monarchies developed differently and soon became essentially independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a separate legal personality in each realm, even though

9125-619: The cessation of hostilities." In wartime, the President of the Republic of Poland could award the OWVM for heroism in battle. Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations , often simply referred to as the Commonwealth , is an international association of 56 member states , the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire from which it developed. They are connected through their use of

9250-509: The command of Prince Józef Poniatowski . Joining the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw shortly after the Battle of Raszyn , he took part in the first stages of the offensive on Galicia , and then organized the defense of Greater Poland. In June 1812, Dąbrowski commanded the 17th (Polish) Infantry Division in the V Corps of the Grande Armée , during Napoleon's invasion of Russia . He was ordered to besiege Babruysk fortress and to cover

9375-526: The continuation of military struggle against the occupiers. The Grodno Sejm , held in the fall of 1793, nominated him for a membership in a military commission; this caused him to be viewed with suspicion by the majority of the dissatisfied military, and he was not included in the preparations for the upcoming uprising. Thus he was taken by surprise when the Kościuszko Insurrection erupted, and his own brigade mutinied. He declared his support for

9500-570: The country sought closer ties with the Anglophone world . Under the formula of the London Declaration , Charles III is the Head of the Commonwealth . However, when the monarch dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become the new head of the Commonwealth. Despite this, at their meeting in April 2018, Commonwealth leaders agreed that Prince Charles should succeed his mother Elizabeth II as head after her death . The position

9625-419: The country to hold new elections before a full suspension of Commonwealth membership would be considered. Prior to Togo's admission at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting , Togolese Foreign Minister Robert Dussey said that he expected Commonwealth membership to provide opportunities for Togolese citizens to learn English and access new educational and cultural resources. He also remarked that

9750-588: The death of his mother, Elizabeth II , the position is not technically hereditary. Member states have no legal obligations to one another, though some have institutional links to other Commonwealth nations. Citizenship of a Commonwealth country affords benefits in some member countries, particularly in the United Kingdom , and Commonwealth countries are represented to one another by high commissions rather than embassies. The Commonwealth Charter defines their shared values of democracy , human rights and

9875-866: The end of hostilities. Classes I to III were awarded after nomination by the Chapter; Classes IV and V were nominated through the chain of command (usually by the commander of a division or brigade). Apart from the twelve members of the Chapter, all recipients of Class I had a right to take part in the voting. II Class (3 awarded): • Lt General Władysław Anders • Lt General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski • Brigadier General Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski III Class (6 awarded) • Lt General Władysław Anders • Lt General Stanisław Maczek • Brigadier General Bronisław Duch • Lt General Tadeusz Kutrzeba • Brigadier General Franciszek Kleeberg • Brigadier General Antoni Chruściel IV Class (201 awarded) V Class (5363 awarded) • Brigadier General Wilhelm Orlik-Rueckemann • Commander Bolesław Trzaskowski During

10000-585: The end of the Suez Crisis. The first member to be admitted without having any constitutional link to the British Empire was Mozambique in 1995 following its first democratic elections. Mozambique was a former Portuguese colony . Its entry preceded the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda became the second country to be admitted to the Commonwealth not to have any constitutional links to Britain. It

10125-521: The famous recipients of the medal in this period were General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski (1755–1818), the organiser of Polish Legions in Italy during the Napoleonic Wars, after whom the Polish national anthem Mazurek Dąbrowskiego is named, and General Józef Chłopicki (1771–1854). Also, on 20 May 1809, Sergeant Joanna Żubr became the first woman to receive the decoration (V class) for her part in

10250-548: The father of the Second Polish Republic , Józef Piłsudski . In particular, his mention in the Polish national anthem , also known as "Dąbrowski's Mazurek", contributed to his fame in Poland. It is not uncommon for modern works of Polish history to describe him as a "(national) hero". Dąbrowski is also remembered outside of Poland for his historical contributions. His name, in the French version "Dombrowsky",

10375-517: The final Third Partition of Poland , which ended the existence of Poland as an independent country, he became actively involved in promoting the cause of Polish independence abroad. He was the founder of the Polish Legions in Italy serving under Napoleon Bonaparte from 1795, and as a general in Italian and French service he contributed to the brief restoration of the Polish state during

10500-556: The first crosses to eleven members of a Provisional Chapter. On 22 January 1920, to commemorate the anniversary of the outbreak of the January Uprising , the first soldiers and officers were officially decorated with the Virtuti Militari for their deeds during World War I and the Polish-Ukrainian War . By 1923, when the award of new medals was halted, the Chapter had awarded crosses to 6,589 recipients. Most of

10625-564: The first one in 1887 , leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in 1911. The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts in 1917 when he coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations" and envisioned the "future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence" at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , attended by delegates from

10750-549: The former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements are that members must accept and comply with the Harare principles , be fully sovereign states , recognise King Charles III as head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership. These requirements had undergone review, and

10875-557: The growing dissatisfaction of his soldiers and their commanders. They were particularly disappointed by a peace treaty between France and Russia signed in Lunéville on 9 February 1801, which dashed Polish hopes of Bonaparte freeing Poland. Shortly afterwards, in March, Dąbrowski reorganized both Legions at Milan into two 6,000-strong units. Disillusioned with Napoleon after the Lunéville treaty, many legionnaires resigned afterwards; of

11000-478: The highest military award for all Polish soldiers fighting alongside France in the Napoleonic Wars . The official name of the decoration was changed to the Military Medal of the Duchy of Warsaw ; however, soldiers remained faithful to the former name. The royal decree also introduced a new class system that has been in use ever since, with the class of the cross depending on the rank of the soldier to whom it

11125-542: The highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace". However, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States. Furthermore, the loss of defence and financial roles undermined Joseph Chamberlain's early 20th-century vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial preference, mutual defence and social growth. In addition,

11250-542: The highest-ranking national medal. Błyskawica Recipients of Class V of the Virtuti Militari included military units, including two infantry divisions, six infantry regiments, three artillery regiments, four tank regiments, three air force regiments, as well as smaller units. After Poland overthrew the Communist rule in 1989, a number of Virtuti Militari awards made by the communist authorities were brought into question. On 10 July 1990, President Wojciech Jaruzelski revoked

11375-629: The insurgents after the liberation of Warsaw, and from then on took an active part in the uprising, defending Warsaw and leading an army corps in support of an uprising in Greater Poland . His courage was commended by Tadeusz Kościuszko himself, the Supreme Commander of the National Armed Forces, who promoted him to the rank of general. After the failure of the uprising he remained in partitioned Poland for

11500-539: The intricacies of Polish politics, like many of Poniatowski's supporters, he joined the Targowica Confederation in late 1792. Dąbrowski was seen as a cavalry expert, and King Stanisław August Poniatowski was personally interested in obtaining Dąbrowski's services. As a cavalryman educated in a Dresden military school under Count Maurice Bellegarde , a reformer of the Saxon army's cavalry, Dąbrowski

11625-1127: The most famous recipients of the Virtuti Militari in this period were Prince Józef Antoni Poniatowski (1763–1813) and Tadeusz Kościuszko (1746–1817), both able military commanders during the War in Defense of the Constitution and the Kościuszko Uprising . I Class (2 awarded): • Prince Józef Poniatowski (25 February 1809) • Louis Nicolas Davout (22 March 1809) II Class (10 awarded): • Józef Zajączek (1 February 1808) • Jan Henryk Dąbrowski (6 March 1808) • Karol Kniaziewicz (17 November 1812) • Stanisław Fiszer (22 August 1809) • Michał Sokolnicki (22 August 1809) • Aleksander Rożniecki (22 August 1809) • Józef Chłopicki (26 November 1810) • Amilkar Kosiński (17 November 1812) • Ludwik Pac (1 October 1813) • Mikołaj Bronikowski III Class (504 awarded) IV Class (23 awarded) In 1806, Lt. Gen. Prince Józef Poniatowski

11750-525: The need for financial assistance from London, Newfoundland voluntarily accepted the suspension of self-government in 1934 and governance reverted to direct control from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as its tenth province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively. Although the Union of South Africa was not amongst the Dominions that needed to adopt

11875-531: The ones that the Polish king, Jan III Sobieski , had sent there after his victory over the Ottoman Empire at the siege of Vienna in 1683; amongst these was an Ottoman standard which subsequently became part of the Legions' colors, accompanying them from then on. However, the legions were never able to reach Poland and did not liberate the country, as Dąbrowski had dreamed. Napoleon did, however, notice

12000-530: The only living Pole awarded the Grand Cross with Star. As commander-in-chief of the Polish Army , he could award medals of Classes I to III with the consent of the Chapter, and Classes IV and V upon receiving an application from the commander of a division or brigade. The Polish national feast day of 3 May was chosen as the feast day of the Virtuti Militari. On 1 January 1920 Józef Piłsudski awarded

12125-651: The others, thousands perished when the Legions were sent in the Saint-Domingue expedition in 1803; by that time Dąbrowski was no longer in command of the Legions. Dąbrowski, meanwhile, spent the first few years of the new century as a general in the service of the Italian Republic and its successor, the Kingdom of Italy . In 1804 he received the Officer cross of Legion of Honour , and the next year,

12250-479: The outbreak of this uprising against Russia the Polish Sejm decreed, on 19 February 1831, that the decoration be restored to its original name, the "Order Virtuti Militari." Between 3 March and October that year 3,863 crosses were awarded. Recipients of the Silver Cross included three women: After the defeat of the uprising, Tsar Nicholas I abolished the decoration and banned its use. On 31 December 1831 it

12375-829: The partitioning powers abolished the decoration and prohibited its wearing. Since then, the award has been reintroduced, renamed and banned several times, with its fate closely reflecting the vicissitudes of the Polish people . Throughout the decoration's existence, thousands of soldiers and officers, Polish and foreign, several cities and one ship have been awarded the Virtuti Militari for valor or outstanding leadership in war. There have been no new awards since 1989. • Lt.Gen. Józef Poniatowski , Tadeusz Kościuszko • Maj.Gen. Michał Wielhorski , Stanisław Mokronowski , Józef Zajączek • Brig. Eustachy Sanguszko • Col. Józef Poniatowski, Michał Chomętowski • Lt.Col. Ludwik Kamieniecki • Maj. Mikołaj Bronikowski, Józef Szczutowski Lt. Michał Cichocki, Ludwik Metzel Throughout its history,

12500-612: The power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration. Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration , the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would "as a rule" have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member. In addition to this new rule,

12625-400: The recipients were veterans of the Polish-Bolshevik War , but among them were also the veterans of all wars in which Polish soldiers fought in the twentieth century, as well as some veterans of the January Uprising . Among the recipients of the Silver Cross were two cities, Lwów and Verdun , as well as the banners of fourteen infantry regiments, six cavalry regiments, an engineer battalion,

12750-494: The reputation of the Commonwealth and confirm the opinion of many people and civic organisations that the leaders of its governments do not really care for democracy and human rights, and that its periodic, solemn declarations are merely hot air." In 2022, the former French territories of Togo and Gabon joined the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth comprises 56 countries, across all inhabited continents. 33 members are small states, including 25 small island developing states. In 2023,

12875-408: The rest of their lives. Finally, the annual salary of 300 złotys was freed from taxes and could not be impounded by the courts. Also, the criteria for granting the crosses became more strict: The Silver Cross could also be awarded to military units, cities and civilians. All classes of the Virtuti Militari medal were awarded by the commander-in-chief during the war or former commander-in-chief after

13000-594: The right flank of the French army near Mogilev and Minsk . However, by October the Franco-Russian war was over and the French forces, decimated by a severe winter, had to retreat. At the disastrous Battle of the Berezina in late November that year, Dąbrowski was wounded, and his leadership and tactics in it were criticized. After the March 1813 reorganization of the Grande Armée, Dąbrowski commanded

13125-402: The right to a yearly salary until promoted to officer or (if demobilised ) for life. In addition, during the Napoleonic Wars , the present tradition of awarding the soldiers with the Virtuti Militari in front of the unit was established. Between 1806 and 1815, there were 2569 crosses awarded to Polish soldiers fighting on all fronts, from Santo Domingo to Russia and from Italy to Spain. Among

13250-526: The same person is monarch of each realm. At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, were planning what later became the European Union , and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent the United Kingdom from becoming isolated in economic affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth

13375-410: The same time, it is made perfectly clear that each country is completely free to go its own way; it may be that they may go, sometimes go so far as to break away from the Commonwealth...Otherwise, apart from breaking the evil parts of the association, it is better to keep a co-operative association going which may do good in this world rather than break it. The London Declaration is often seen as marking

13500-426: The shape of all the crosses and extended the privileges granted to recipients by the act of 1919. All recipients of the decoration had the right to buy railway tickets at 20% of their normal prices. The state paid for the medical care of recipients and was obliged to provide each with a job that would enable him to "live a decent life". The government was ordered to provide money, food, and clothing to war invalids for

13625-535: The time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, and in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French prime minister Guy Mollet proposed to British prime minister Anthony Eden that their two countries be joined in a "union" . When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the Commonwealth, possibly with "a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis ". These ideas faded away with

13750-642: The titles of general of cavalry and senator- voivode of the new Congress Kingdom . He was also awarded the Order of the White Eagle on 9 December that year. Soon afterward he withdrew from active politics. He retired in the following year to his estates in Winna Góra in the Grand Duchy of Posen , Kingdom of Prussia , where he died on 6 June 1818, from a combination of pneumonia and gangrene . He

13875-474: Was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–1975), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–1990), Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–1999), and Don McKinnon of New Zealand (2000–2008). Some member states grant particular rights to Commonwealth citizens. The United Kingdom and several others, mostly in the Caribbean , grant the right to vote to resident Commonwealth citizens. Some countries, including

14000-586: Was a Belgian trust territory that had been a district of German East Africa until World War I . In 2022, Togo , a former French mandate territory, and Gabon , a former French colony, joined the Commonwealth, despite never having been under British rule. Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth in September 2023 following a military coup , with two years given by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group for

14125-633: Was a Polish general and statesman, widely respected after his death for his patriotic attitude, and described as a national hero who spent his whole life restoring the legacy of Poland. Dąbrowski initially served in the Saxon Army and joined the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Army in 1792, shortly before the Second Partition of Poland . He was promoted to the rank of general in the Kościuszko Uprising of 1794. After

14250-409: Was asked to help modernize the Polish cavalry , serving in the ranks of the 1st Greater Poland Cavalry Brigade ( 1 Wielkpolska Brygada Kawalerii Narodowej ). In January 1793, stationed around Gniezno with two units of cavalry, about 200 strong, he briefly engaged the Prussian forces entering Poland in the aftermath of the Second Partition of Poland , and afterwards became a known activist, advocating

14375-534: Was authorized by the Cisalpine Republic to create Polish legions, which would be part of the army of the newly created Republic of Lombardy . In April, Dąbrowski lobbied for a plan to push through to the Polish territories in Galicia , but that was blocked by Napoleon who instead decided to use those troops on the Italian front. Dąbrowski's Polish soldiers fought at Napoleon's side from May 1797 until

14500-513: Was buried in the church in Winna Góra. Over the years, Dąbrowski wrote several military treatises, primarily about the Legions, in German, French and Polish. Dąbrowski was often criticized by his contemporaries, and by the early Polish historiography , but his image improved with time. He has been often compared to the two other military heroes of the time of Partitions and the Legions, Tadeusz Kościuszko and Józef Poniatowski , and to

14625-687: Was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by the Commonwealth Secretariat . Rwanda was permitted to join despite the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) finding that "the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that it "does not therefore qualify for admission". CHRI commented that: "It does not make sense to admit a state that already does not satisfy Commonwealth standards. This would tarnish

14750-427: Was four times larger than its trade with Europe. In 1956 and 1957, the British government, under Prime Minister Anthony Eden , considered a "Plan G" to create a European free trade zone whilst also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth. The United Kingdom also considered inviting Scandinavian and other European countries to join the Commonwealth, so that it would become a major economic common market. At

14875-399: Was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, and members of the Commonwealth. There remain the 14 mainly self-governing British overseas territories which retain some political association with the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration , the word "British" was dropped from the title of

15000-704: Was of Polish origin. Nonetheless, in his childhood and youth he grew up surrounded by German culture in Saxony , and signed his name as Johann Heinrich Dąbrowski. He fought in the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778–1779), during which time his father died. Shortly afterwards in 1780 he married Gustawa Rackel. He lived in Dresden , and steadily progressed through the ranks, becoming a Rittmeister in 1789. He served as Adjutant general of King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony , from 1788 to 1791. Following

15125-475: Was originally known as " special membership ", but was renamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Membership 's recommendation. There are currently no members in arrears. The most recent member in arrears, Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011. Nauru had alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its financial situation. In 2019, the Commonwealth members had

15250-466: Was promoted to commander-in-chief of all forces of the Duchy of Warsaw , the short-lived Polish state allied with Napoleon I of France . As one of the first recipients of the Virtuti Militari, Poniatowski insisted on the reintroduction of the decoration. Finally on 26 December 1806, the King of Saxony and Duke of Warsaw Fryderyk August Wettin accepted the proposal and reintroduced the Virtuti Militari as

15375-1698: Was replaced with the "Polish Sign of Honor" ( Polski Znak Honorowy ), an exact copy of the original cross but awarded only to Russians for services to the Tsarist authorities. I Class (6 awarded): • Marshal of Poland Józef Piłsudski • Ferdinand Foch (France) • King of Romania Ferdinand I • King of the Belgians Albert I • King of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes Alexander I • King of Italy Vittorio Emmanuele III II Class (19 awarded): • Field Marshals: Yasukata Oku (Japan) • Kageaki Kawamura (Japan) • Armando Diaz (Italy) • Gen. Zygmunt Zieliński • Stanisław Szeptycki • Maxime Weygand (France) • Lucjan Żeligowski • John Pershing (United States) • Duke of Aosta Emmanuele Filiberto (Italy) • Gen.dyw. Edward Rydz • Stanisław Haller de Hallenburg • Jan Romer • Kazimierz Sosnkowski • Leonard Skierski • Władysław Sikorski • Wacław Iwaszkiewicz • Duke of Torino Emmanuele Filiberto (Italy) • Gen.bryg. Tadeusz Jordan-Rozwadowski III Class (14 awarded) • płk Stefan Dąb-Biernacki , ppłk Gustaw Paszkiewicz , Maj. Zygmunt Piasecki • and 11 foreigners IV Class (50 awarded) • ppłk Gustaw Paszkiewicz , Kazimierz Rybicki , Stefan Dąb-Biernacki • Maj. Zygmunt Piasecki • rotm Stanisław Radziwiłł (posthumously) • Sgt. Kazimierz Sipika, Stanisław Jakubowicz • and 43 foreigners Class V (8,300 awarded) • Mieczyslaw Garsztka • Stanislaw Jackowski • Walery Sławek Poland regained its independence in 1918 as

15500-592: Was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace , liberty , human rights , equality , and free trade . These criteria were unenforceable for two decades, until, in 1991,

15625-775: Was very different from the Polish Constitution of 3rd May of the late Commonwealth. The Polish desire for freedom and respect for traditional privileges was a source of constant friction between the Poles and the Russians. The main problem was that the tsars, who had absolute power in Russia, similarly wanted no restrictions on their rule in Poland. Nicholas I of Russia decided in 1825 not to be crowned king of Poland , and he continued to limit Polish liberties. In response to repeated curtailment of Polish constitutional rights,

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