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51-404: Current rounded estimates are 11.7 to 10.7 ka BP equivalent to about 9,750–8,750 calendar years BCE. The sea ended gradually when isostatic rise of Scandinavia closed or nearly closed its effluents, altering the balance between saline and fresh water. The Yoldia Sea became Ancylus Lake . The Yoldia Sea stage had three phases of which only the middle phase had brackish water. The name of the sea

102-558: A seaway along the Central Swedish lowland , roughly between Gothenburg and Stockholm . The cutoff was the result of isostatic rise being faster than the concurrent post-glacial sea level rise . In the words of Svante Björck the Ancylus Lake "is perhaps the most enigmatic (and discussed) of the many Baltic stages". The lake's outlet and elevation relative to sea-level was for long time surrounded by controversy. It

153-610: A simple scheme for the evolution of the Baltic Sea where small local ice-lakes were succeeded by the Yoldia Sea that then evolved directly to the Littorina Sea . The lake was named by Gerard De Geer in 1890 after the fossils. The lack of an obvious outlet of the lake led to intermittent debates involving not only Munthe and De Geer but also Ernst Antevs , Arvid Högbom , Axel Gavelin , N.O. Holst and H. Hedström. As

204-615: Is adapted from the obsolete name of the bivalve, Portlandia arctica (previously known as Yoldia arctica ), found around Stockholm . This bivalve requires cold saline water. It characterizes the middle phase of the Yoldia Sea, during which saline water poured into the Baltic, before the acceleration of glacial melting. The Baltic Ice Lake , the Yoldia Sea, the Ancylus Lake and the Littorina Sea are four recognized stages in

255-515: Is always placed after the year number (for example: 70 BC but AD 70), which preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation "AD" is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium , as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). Since "BC" is the English abbreviation for Before Christ , it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death (i.e., after

306-452: Is generally accepted by experts there is a 27-year difference between AP and AD reference. The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC. The historical evidence is too fragmentary to allow a definitive dating, but the date is estimated through two different approaches—one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in

357-530: Is now known that the lake was above sea level, included Lake Vänern , and drained westward through three outlets at Göta Älv , Uddevalla and Otteid . As result of the continued isostatic uplift of Sweden, the outlets in central Sweden were severed. In turn this resulted in the lake tipping over a till substrate at what is now the Great Belt in Denmark. Being located no less than 10 m above sea level

408-713: The Byzantine Era . No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world . Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham , dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami). Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Spanish Era (also called Era of the Caesars ), which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became

459-530: The Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries. Although anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, the term "Before Christ" (or its equivalent) did not become common until much later. Bede used the expression "anno [...] ante incarnationem Dominicam" (in the year before the incarnation of the Lord) twice. "Anno ante Christi nativitatem" (in

510-671: The Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries. In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of

561-527: The Gregorian and Julian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means "in the year of the Lord" but is often presented using "our Lord" instead of "the Lord", taken from the full original phrase " anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi ", which translates to "in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ ". The form "BC" is specific to English , and equivalent abbreviations are used in other languages:

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612-554: The Julian or Gregorian calendars , AD 1 is immediately preceded by 1 BC, with nothing in between them (there was no year zero ). There are debates as to whether a new decade, century, or millennium begins on a year ending in zero or one. For computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1, etc. In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in

663-455: The Latin form, rarely used in English, is ante Christum natum (ACN) or ante Christum (AC). This calendar era takes as its epoch the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus. Years AD are counted forward since that epoch and years BC are counted backward from the epoch. There is no year zero in this scheme; thus the year AD 1 immediately follows

714-572: The death of Jesus ), which would mean that the approximately 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would be included in neither the BC nor the AD time scales. The anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate years in his Easter table . His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in older Easter tables , as he did not wish to continue

765-427: The Ancylus Lake 8800 years B.P. The salt-water that entered the lake resulted in episodic brackish water pulses. The final end of the Ancylus Lake, however, came 7800–7200 year B.C. when Øresund was flooded causing a massive inflow of salt-water. Shorelines of Ancylus Lake can be found today at c. 60 m above sea level in southern Finland and at c. 200 m near the northern Gulf of Bothnia . In 1887 Henrik Munthe

816-535: The Ancylus Lake. Svea River was finally dismissed in 1981 when potholes there were found to predate the lake. The demise of Svea River led authors in the late 1970s and 1980s to revisit the idea that the fresh-water Ancylus Lake was at sea level. Further studies confirmed then that Vänern was part of the lake and that it was above sea level, dismissing the idea of a sea-level lake a second time. Before Christ The terms anno Domini ( AD ) and before Christ ( BC ) are used when designating years in

867-477: The Common Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years (but not for BC years in the case of astronomical years; e.g., 1 BC is year 0, 45 BC is year −44). Traditionally, English follows Latin usage by placing the "AD" abbreviation before the year number, though it is also found after the year. In contrast, "BC"

918-702: The Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus . The Anglo-Saxon historian Bede , who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , which he completed in AD 731. In the History he also used the Latin phrase ante [...] incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo ("in

969-669: The Svea River canyon was the outlet of the Ancylus Lake gradually lost ground by the works of Sten Florin, Astrid Cleve and Curt Fredén . In 1927 Cleve who was already "an outcast of the geological community" commented in an opinion piece in Svenska Dagbladet on a proposal of making Svea River a national monument. She supported the idea of protecting the area but criticized the established interpretation of Munthe and von Post. Munthe replied in Dagens Nyheter and

1020-609: The Yoldia shoreline are above sea level today while other parts remain below. The Yoldia Sea toward its end was about 30m below current sea level. A channel at the location of the Neva River connected Yoldia Sea to Lake Ladoga . The Yoldia Sea existed entirely within the Boreal Blytt–Sernander period . The forests and species lining its shores were boreal. Mesolithic cultures continued to occupy Denmark/south Sweden and

1071-543: The alternative abbreviations CE and BCE (sometimes written C.E. and B.C.E.) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC. The "Common/Current Era" ("CE") terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references but still uses the same epoch as the anno Domini notation. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. […] do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than

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1122-461: The brackish phase that lasted from 11.3 to 11.1 ka BP. Geographically, the Gulf of Bothnia remained under the ice. The Gulf of Finland was open but most of Finland was an archipelago , over which debris carried by glacial streams gradually spread. A land bridge joined Germany to southern Sweden through Denmark. Relieved of its weight of ice, Finland rose gradually and unevenly from the sea. Parts of

1173-640: The conventional B.C./A.D." Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西 元 ( xī yuán ; 'Western Era'). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted 公元 ( gōngyuán ; 'Common Era') for all purposes domestic and foreign. In the AD year numbering system, whether applied to

1224-519: The dead and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament . It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking

1275-476: The debate went over to a personal quarrel in two more newspaper letters in January 1928. Cleve outlined her ideas for Svea River and Ancylus Lake in detail in 1930 making an alternative and intricate theory involving tectonic movements. By 1946 she had changed mind as she then proposed an altogether different theory claiming the Svea River canyons and potholes formed by subglacial drainage and had nothing to do with

1326-502: The end of the world. Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius. The " Historia Brittonum " attributed to Nennius written in the 9th century makes extensive use of the Anno Passionis (AP) dating system which was in common use as well as the newer AD dating system. The AP dating system took its start from 'The Year of The Passion'. It

1377-482: The lake began thus to drain to the sea through the Dana River between 9000 and 8900 years B.C. The formation of the Dana River is thought to have caused a dramatic erosion of sediments, peatlands and forests along its path. This led initially to a relatively rapid fall in the lake level over hundreds of years, which then continued at a slower pace. Another consequence of the lowering of the lake and isostatic uplift

1428-418: The lake to form the next sea phase, the initial Littorina Sea . Ancylus Lake Ancylus Lake is a name given by geologists to a large freshwater lake that existed in northern Europe approximately from 9500 to 8000 years BC being in effect one of various predecessors to the modern Baltic Sea . The Ancylus Lake replaced the Yoldia Sea after the latter had been severed from its saline intake across

1479-413: The lake/sea broke through Denmark creating the first Great Belt channels and the Dana River along the new outlet. The total opening was less than 1 km (0.62 mi) wide and included two channels at the northern end. This likely led to an initial lowering of the Ancylus Lake by about 5 m (16 ft). At about 9.8 ka BP, sea level became higher than the lake level, and saline water began to enter

1530-579: The last Catholic country to adopt the anno Domini system. The Era of Martyrs , which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the most severe persecution of Christians , was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still officially used by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches. Another system

1581-420: The last non-imperial consul, Basilius , was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I , later emperors through to Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first of January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign, along with their regnal years. Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of

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1632-711: The law code of Leo VI did so in 888. Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire , years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation , were exclusively used and are still used in Ethiopia . This accounts for

1683-442: The life of the sea and from location to location the salinity was a variable. Whether it is possible to speak of stages of salinity that would apply uniformly to the whole sea is debatable. The land uplift in south-central Sweden as the glaciers retreated, stopped the water inflow from the world sea by 10.7 ka BP. A rapid Ancylus Lake transgression started then about 10.7 ka BP, and reached its highstand about 10.3 ka BP. At 10.2 ka BP

1734-412: The memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians . The last year of the old table, Diocletian Anno Martyrium 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, anno Domini 532. When Dionysius devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year— Dionysius himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior ", which

1785-544: The outlet was lacking there were doubts on whether Lake Vänern had been part of the lake or not, and on the position of its outlet or whether an outlet actually existed considering the lake could have been at sea level. Lennart von Post discovered by accident a small canyon near Degerfors in 1923 which he thought could be the elusive outlet. This came with time to be known as Svea River. Von Post collaborated initially with Munthe to study Svea River but their collaboration fell apart by 1927 over personal issues. The idea that

1836-492: The postglacial progression of the Baltic basin – there are also transition periods which can be considered as substages. From earliest to most recent they run: The Baltic Ice Lake came to an end when it overflowed through central Sweden and drained. There is general agreement that the drainage process only lasted about a year but no agreement as to when salt water mixing was well established as this depended on factors such as world sea level raise. The straits through

1887-563: The present Stockholm region (via Lake Vänern and the Strait of Närke ) to the Atlantic were the only outlet at that time. When lake level reached sea level the difference in salinity caused a backflow from the North Sea , creating saline regions in which the marine bivalve Yoldia flourished. This was the Yoldia Sea. The Yoldia Sea existed from 11.7 ka BP, but it took about 400 years before

1938-504: The seven- or eight-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars . Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor , George Syncellus , and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the world. This era, called Anno Mundi , "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC,

1989-464: The sixtieth year before the time of the Lord's incarnation"), which is equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus Christ , but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch

2040-461: The southern shores of the sea. The sea as an ecologic system came to an end when Scandinavia rose sufficiently to block the flow through the Stockholm area and the saline balance shifted toward a lacustrine ecology once again. After formation, increased melting of ice provided additional fresh water and the sea became stratified ( meromictic ), with salt water on the bottom and fresh on top. Over

2091-517: The underlying date." Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or incarnation . Among the sources of confusion are: It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus's birth. One major theory is that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke , which states that Jesus

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2142-465: The year 1 BC . This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus but was not widely used until the 9th century. (Modern scholars believe that the actual date of birth of Jesus was about 5 BC.) Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before

2193-585: The year before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk. In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau (Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work De doctrina temporum , popularized the usage ante Christum (Latin for "Before Christ") to mark years prior to AD. When the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin

2244-600: The year: Christmas, Annunciation , or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology: With these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101. During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating , imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating . Although

2295-588: Was "about thirty years old" shortly after "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar", and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table. This method was probably the one used by ancient historians such as Tertullian , Eusebius or Epiphanius , all of whom agree that Jesus was born in 2 BC, probably following this statement of Jesus' age (i.e. subtracting thirty years from AD 29). Alternatively, Dionysius may have used an earlier unknown source. The Chronograph of 354 states that Jesus

2346-451: Was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ". Thus, Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad , year of the world , or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify

2397-403: Was born during the consulship of Caesar and Paullus (AD 1), but the logic behind this is also unknown. It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq that Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world . At the time, it was believed by some that the resurrection of

2448-554: Was identified with Christ's conception, i. e., the Annunciation on March 25" ("Annunciation style" dating). On the continent of Europe, anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout

2499-532: Was that a north-south land bridge formed between Lake Vänern and the Ancylus Lake effectively making Lake Vänern a separate basin. The Ancylus Lake existed from approximately 9500 to 8000 years B.C. calibrated, during the Boreal period . The lake became the Littorina Sea when rising sea levels broke through the Dana River forming the Great Belt. This transformation was gradual as salt-water had begun to enter

2550-447: Was the first geologist to draw the conclusion that the Baltic Sea must once have been a freshwater lake. Munthe did so after finding fossils of the freshwater snail Ancylus fluviatilis in sediments. While these fossils were also found slightly before him by other geologists they thought they belonged to rivers, small former lakes or brackish water, failing thus to realize the existence of the lake. Geologists had until then subscribed to

2601-511: Was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus , which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts. Alternative names for the anno Domini era include vulgaris aerae (found 1615 in Latin), "Vulgar Era" (in English, as early as 1635), "Christian Era" (in English, in 1652), " Common Era " (in English, 1708), and "Current Era". Since 1856,

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