The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing , personal name Yinzhen , was the fifth emperor of the Qing dynasty , and the third Qing emperor to rule over China proper .
153-754: The fourth son of the Kangxi Emperor , Yongzheng ascended the throne following prolonged disputes over succession. A hard-working ruler, he aimed to create a more effective government, cracked down on corruption and reformed the personnel and financial administration. His reign also saw the formation of the Grand Council , an institution that had a major impact on the future of the dynasty. Militarily, Yongzheng continued his father's efforts to consolidate Qing's position in Outer Mongolia and Tibet through force. The Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735 at
306-532: A "Kangqian Period of Harmony" ( Chinese : 康乾盛世 ; cf. Pax Romana ). In response to the tragedy of the succession struggle during his father's reign, the Yongzheng Emperor created a sophisticated procedure for choosing a successor. He was known for his trust in Mandarin officials. Li Wei and Tian Wenjing governed China's southern areas with the assistance of Ortai . In the early Qing period,
459-517: A "promotion" was Kangxi's way of protecting Yinzhen, Kangxi's secret chosen heir, by distracting the public's attention away from Yinzhen. The court officials, who believed that Yinti would be chosen as the heir, would also no longer pester Kangxi about the crown prince issue. Sending Yinti away to the northwestern border was also meant to separate him from Yinsi, his newly formed ally, and potential flatterers who wanted to curry favour with Yinti. Yinti would also be unable to use his commanded troops to make
612-474: A Confucian sovereign's benevolence: He ascribed Zeng's actions to the gullibility and naïveté of a youth taken in by Lü Liuliang's abusive and overdrawn rhetoric. In addition, the emperor suggested that Lü Liuliang's original attack on the Manchus was misplaced, since they had been transformed by their long-term exposure to the civilising force of Confucianism. The Yongzheng Emperor is also known for establishing
765-735: A Manchu—Han population integration, a descendant of the imperial family of the Ming dynasty . Zhu was also paid by the Qing government to perform rituals at the Ming tombs and induct the Chinese Plain White Banner into the Eight Banners . Later in 1750, during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor's successor, the Qianlong Emperor , Zhu Ming was posthumously honoured as " Marquis of Extended Grace ". The marquis title
918-555: A box in the Palace of Heavenly Purity , which would only be opened after his death. Seeing that Yinreng was completely disavowed, Yinsi and some other princes turned to support the 14th prince, Yinti, while the 13th prince supported Yinzhen. They formed the so-called "Eighth Lord Party" ( 八爺黨 ) and "Fourth Lord Party" ( 四爺黨 ). Following the deposition of the crown prince, the Kangxi Emperor implemented groundbreaking changes in
1071-825: A capable ruler, secret reports actually protected innocent magistrates from wrong accusations, as the reports provided alternative information sources beside the official charges. During the massive population growth in the Qing dynasty and increasing demand from peasant and military populations for grain, the Yongzheng emperor launched a grain campaign in which he incentivized officials in local and provincial governments to compete in buying land meant specifically for farming. The Yongzheng emperor offered officials 5-10 year tax holidays in which they were free from paying taxes. This campaign led to more than one million new acres of farmable land. While these campaigns led to more food and land for
1224-593: A confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now Xinjiang , continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took control of Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when
1377-429: A coup d'état, since Nian Gengyao , Yinzhen's close aide, controlled the food supply and the return route of Yinti's troops. Promoting Yinti was also a way for Kangxi to control Yinzhen: if Kangxi's "investment" to Yinzhen turned out to be a failure, he still had Yinti as alternative choice. With Yinti as a potential competitor, Yinzhen would not fall into self-complacency and turn against Kangxi. Yinsi's clique, clinging to
1530-590: A descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he
1683-447: A forged edict if he had truly been the legal heir. Yongzheng also changed his story several times. When he punished Longkodo (who was supposed to be the only person who was informed of Kangxi's succession plan and informed Yongzheng and others about it after Kangxi's death), Yongzheng himself said that Longkodo was not present by the emperor's side on that day. According to historian Dai Yi , a report by Longkodo to Yongzheng also shows that
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#17327657682471836-441: A functional court with "good government", immediately after he ascended the throne in 1723 CE, to stabilize Qing into a unified and harmonious empire. In 1733 CE, Yongzheng successfully institutionalized the Grand Council , which allows Qing to relay communication effectively and efficiently from region to region, thereby enabling the implementation of his domestic reform policy. With the establishment of his Grand Council, Yongzheng
1989-508: A larger organization by Yongzheng called Cohong in 1725. This group was responsible for policing all trade within the Canton system . Kangxi Emperor The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing , personal name Xuanye , was the fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty , and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper . His reign of 61 years makes him
2142-483: A low profile during the initial stages of the succession struggle. To appoint a new heir, the Kangxi Emperor decreed that officials in his imperial court would nominate a new crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor's eighth son, Yinsi , was the candidate preferred by the majority of the court as well as many of the Kangxi Emperor's other sons. The Kangxi Emperor, however, opted not to appoint Yinsi as his heir apparent largely due to apprehension that Yinsi's political clout at court
2295-580: A mad man. Dai Yi, Meng Shen, Wang Zhonghan, Lin Qian and Yang Zhen are the notable historians who maintain that the fourteenth prince Yinzheng (later renamed Yunti) was Kangxi's intended heir. They point out that the conflict against the Zhungar was of such an existential importance to the Qing dynasty (which threatened to rip half of their territories apart together with the Mongol-Manchu alliance) that it
2448-589: A monthly basis, known as month selection. This random appointment procedure stemmed from the late Ming dynasty. Sun Piyang, a minister of the Board of Personnel during the Wanli emperor's reign of Ming, was said to have invented the method of drawing lots with the intention of introducing fairness into personnel selection when the Ming court was mired in faction politics. It was apparent that this rule-based appointment procedure
2601-623: A painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send them back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the evangelization of Christianity in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of Sinology in Europe , which would later develop to become
2754-515: A perfect successor. Yinreng was tutored by the mandarin Wang Shan, who remained devoted to him, and spent the later years of his life trying to persuade the Kangxi Emperor to restore Yinreng as the crown prince. Yinreng proved to be unworthy of the succession despite his father showing favoritism towards him. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which
2907-634: A prolonged succession dispute. He died in 1722 at the age of 68 and was succeeded by his fourth son, who assumed the throne as the Yongzheng Emperor . The Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated the period known as the High Qing era (or the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong"), spanning the reigns of the Kangxi Emperor, his son Yongzheng, and his grandson Qianlong . His court also accomplished such literary feats as
3060-464: A result, Yinzhen's succession faced fierce opposition from former contenders such as Yinti, Yinzhi and Yinsi. Purging the dissidents and solidifying his own position occupied much of Yinzhen's initial reign as emperor. Researchers at Academia Sinica have disproved the theory, as official Qing documents, when mentioning sons of the Emperor, always list the son's title, as well as the son's rank amongst
3213-463: A specialized internal espionage bureau. The secret informants also had no privileges beside the secret reports and the reports had no legal authority, which prevented authority abuse from informants like the Ming internal espionage agents. Also, to avoid false accusation and incorrect reports from informants, Yongzheng collected information from various sources, and the accused person also had a chance to defend their actions and prove their innocence. Under
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#17327657682473366-452: A strict autocratic-style rule during his reign. He detested corruption, and punished officials severely when they were found guilty of an offense. In 1729, he issued an edict prohibiting the smoking of madak , a blend of tobacco and opium. The Yongzheng Emperor's reign saw the Qing dynasty further establish itself as a powerful empire in Asia. He was instrumental in extending what became known as
3519-459: A traditional trick in Chinese politics. The popular history writer Yi Zongtian think that there were signs that showed Yinzhen as Kangxi's secret choice. First, according to Yongzheng's edicts and official historical account, Kangxi mentioned that Yinzhen alone was raised by Kangxi and how he expressed filial piety to Kangxi. In another occasion though, Yongzheng said that he was not a prince who
3672-414: Is all in the ruler's wish. If civilians see a judicious court that is loyal and wholeheartedly for the country, and see that the court embraces its people; and civilians feel the virtue in their court marshalls, then the people would not perceive the court as a threat. Thus, there would be no reason to have seditionaries. In short, after several years of political chaos, Yongzheng earnestly strived to restore
3825-434: Is hard to imagine Kangxi would have sent anyone but his most trusted son to deal with the crisis. Due to this, the "Fuyuan General-in-chief" position (which was already bestowed on Kangxi on his trusted generals several times before and carried with it exceptional powers) was raised to an unprecedented level of power and prestige unseen since the beginning of the dynasty. The deposed crown prince, Yinreng, and Yinzhen fought for
3978-517: Is still preserved by Museum of the Institute of History & Philology, Academia Sinica There are debates about the authenticity of extant copies of the Manchu version, but not only the part that mentions the heir's name is destroyed, the important sentence that praises Yinzhen's virtues also does not appear at all. There is a widely circulated legend, persisting even to the present day, that Yinzhen
4131-648: The Beijing area, as well as one further south. He became the honorary leader of the Plain Red Banner during the Battle of Jao Modo between the Qing Empire and the Mongol Dzungar Khanate led by Galdan Khan . Yinzhen was made a beile in 1689 along with several brothers and promoted to junwang (second-rank prince) in 1698. In 1709, the Kangxi Emperor stripped his second son Yinreng of his position as crown prince. Yinreng had been
4284-708: The Civil Service Examinations based on ethnicity and locality. The Yongzheng emperor, in an attempt to allow as many people to take the Civil Service Examination as possible, set up special exams for people in rural China. These special exams were called Miao exams and were located in Yunnan . In the 1730s, landholding shed people such as the Hakka were still not allowed to take the exams, Yongzheng made it legal for these people to take
4437-611: The Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign " idolatry ". The Dominican position won the support of Pope Clement XI , who in 1705 sent Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon as his representative to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites. Through de Tournon, the Pope insisted on sending his own representative to Beijing to oversee Jesuit missionaries in China. Kangxi refused, wanting to keep missionary activities in China under his final oversight, managed by one of
4590-487: The Duke of Zhou 's offspring. The contents of the national treasury during the Kangxi Emperor's reign were: The reasons for the declining trend in the later years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign were a huge expenditure on military campaigns and an increase in corruption. To fix the problem, the Kangxi Emperor gave Prince Yong (the future Yongzheng Emperor ) advice on how to make the economy more efficient. During his reign,
4743-607: The Eight Banners as a member of the Han Plain Red Banner . His soldiers—including the rattan-shield troops ( 藤牌營 , tengpaiying )—were similarly entered into the Eight Banners, notably serving against Russian Cossacks at Albazin . A score of Ming princes had joined the Zheng dynasty on Taiwan, including Prince Zhu Shugui of Ningjing and Prince Honghuan ( 朱弘桓 ), the son of Zhu Yihai . The Qing sent most of
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4896-545: The Grand Matsu Temple the next year and, honoring the goddess Mazu for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" ( 天后 Tianhou ) from her previous status as a "heavenly consort" ( 天妃 Tianfei ). Belief in Mazu remains so widespread on Taiwan that her annual celebrations can gather hundreds of thousands of people; she is sometimes even syncretized with Guanyin and
5049-408: The Kangxi Emperor , and his achievements may not have been as glorious as his successor, the Qianlong Emperor ; however, the Yongzheng era did serve as a remediation to the people, and resentments began to gradually decrease. Hence the Yongzheng era was a peaceful and prosperous reign of Qing China. In 1712, the Kangxi Emperor deposed Yinreng again, and chose not to designate an heir apparent for
5202-807: The Revolt of the Three Feudatories , which he suppressed. He also forced the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan and Mongols in the north and northwest to submit to Qing rule, and launched an expedition that incorporated Tibet into the empire. Domestically, he initially welcomed the Jesuits and the propagation of Catholicism in China, but tolerance came to an end as a result of the Chinese Rites controversy . Later in his reign, Kangxi became embroiled in
5355-570: The Virgin Mary . The end of the rebel stronghold and capture of the Ming princes allowed the Kangxi Emperor to relax the Sea Ban and permit resettlement of the Fujian and Guangdong coasts. The financial and other incentives to new settlers particularly drew the Hakka , who would have continuous low-level conflict with the returning Punti people for the next few centuries. In the 1650s,
5508-449: The 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he memorialized the emperor to convert it into a Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as
5661-498: The 17th-century scholar Lü Liuliang . Zeng had been so affected by what he read that he attempted to incite the governor-general of Shaanxi-Sichuan, Yue Zhongqi (a descendant of anti-Jurchen General Yue Fei ), to rebel against the Qing government. Yue Zhongqi promptly turned him in, and in 1730 news of the case reached the Yongzheng Emperor. Highly concerned with the implications of the case, the emperor had Zeng Jing brought to Beijing for trial. The emperor's verdict seemed to demonstrate
5814-456: The Board of Finance as a regular accountant in 1719, then headed a department on the board. He then joined the staff of Prince Yong (the later Yongzheng Emperor). After Yongzheng ascended the throne, Li Wei was named the Governor of Zhejiang in 1727, where he carried out one of Yongzheng's signature policies of taxation reform: transitioning from an individual "head tax" to a land tax. The reform
5967-499: The Confucian principles. Yinzhen sought four distinctive qualities: loyalty— 忠 , fairness— 公 , sincerity— 誠 , and capability— 能 , from his subjects in order to run an effective court and to achieve stability. Li Wei ( 李衛 : February 2, 1687 – December 3, 1738) was a recruit among the Qing officials to possess the desired virtues, and was regarded highly by Yongzheng. A notable quote from Yinzhen captured during his reign as
6120-485: The Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami. The Kangxi Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi ( 五經博士 ; Wǔjīng Bóshì ) to the descendants of Shao Yong , Zhu Xi , Zhuansun Shi , Ran family ( Ran Qiu , Ran Geng , Ran Yong ), Bu Shang , Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius) , and
6273-518: The Fund's money also received other kinds of allowances, and officers on business trips were also provide an allowance to cover their essential expenses, which had to be reported to the government. The "transparency nurturing" allowances beside removing the corruption incentive, also helped to publicized the magistrate's incomes, enabled the state to monitor, evaluate and detect any potential signs of corruption. Furthermore, all kinds of gifts and "ritual fees"
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6426-697: The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin , using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of Kangxi emperor. The main army of the Qing Empire, the Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under Hong Taiji and in
6579-493: The Istituto Orientale and the present day Naples Eastern University . The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument. Thomas Pereira taught him how to play the harpsichord, and he employed Karel Slavíček as court musician. Slavíček was playing Spinet ; later the emperor would play on it himself. China's famed blue and white porcelain probably reached its zenith during
6732-521: The Jesuits who had been living in Beijing for years. On 19 March 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the papal bull Ex illa die , which officially condemned Chinese rites. In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were "causing trouble". A prolonged struggle between various princes emerged during the Kangxi Emperor's reign over who should inherit the throne –
6885-729: The Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars. The Kangxi Emperor incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of Qinghai (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader Galdan . Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as Turkic Muslims in Qinghai were plotting with Galdan , who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and
7038-550: The Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a dictionary of Chinese characters , which became known as the Kangxi Dictionary . This was seen as an attempt by the emperor to gain support from the Han Chinese scholar-bureaucrats , as many of them initially refused to serve him and remained loyal to the Ming dynasty . However, by persuading the scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve
7191-489: The Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of Kangding and other border towns in western Sichuan that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative tea-horse trade . The Tibetan desi (regent) Sangye Gyatso concealed the death of the 5th Dalai Lama in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of
7344-415: The Kangxi Emperor to abdicate when his father returned to Beijing . However, the emperor received news of the planned coup d'etat , and was so angry that he deposed Yinreng and placed him under house arrest again. After the incident, the emperor announced that he would not appoint any of his sons as crown prince for the remainder of his reign. He stated that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside
7497-485: The Kangxi Emperor to suspect that Yinreng might have been framed, so he restored Yinreng as crown prince in 1709, with the support of the 4th and 13th princes, and on the excuse that Yinreng had previously acted under the influence of mental illness. In 1712, during the Kangxi Emperor's last inspection tour of the south, Yinreng, who was put in charge of state affairs during his father's absence, tried to vie for power again with his supporters. He allowed an attempt at forcing
7650-495: The Kangxi Emperor's reign. In the early decades of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, Jesuits played a large role in the imperial court. With their knowledge of astronomy , they ran the imperial observatory. Jean-François Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira served as translators for the negotiations of the Treaty of Nerchinsk . The Kangxi Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions, the many languages they could interpret, and
7803-461: The Ming loyalists on Taiwan —organized under the Zheng dynasty as the Kingdom of Tungning —were defeated off Penghu by 300-odd ships under the Qing admiral Shi Lang . Koxinga 's grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered Tungning a few days later and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang moved to Beijing, joined the Qing nobility as the "Duke Haicheng" ( 海澄公 ), and was inducted into
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#17327657682477956-480: The Ministry of Revenue to fabricate financial reports. To prevent the magistrates from fabricating the corruption cases as merely "deificit spending", Yongzheng demanded that the case of deficit spending must be investigated first, and punishment, sanction and compensation should be performed first in the case of deficit spending. Equivocation between deficit spending and corruption was strictly prohibited. To prevent
8109-501: The Nine Lords' War ( 九子奪嫡 ). In 1674 the Kangxi Emperor's first spouse, Empress Xiaochengren , died while giving birth to his second surviving son Yinreng , who at the age of two was named crown prince – a Han Chinese custom, to ensure stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although the Kangxi Emperor left the education of several of his sons to others, he personally oversaw the upbringing of Yinreng, grooming him to be
8262-496: The Qianlong Emperor's reign, military commanders had become lax and the training of the army was deemed less important as compared to during the previous emperors' reigns. After the Qing takeover of China in 1644, large parts of the south and west were given as fiefs to three Ming generals who aided the Qing; in 1673 the three feudatories were controlled by Wu Sangui , Geng Jingzhong , and Shang Zhixin . Going against
8415-622: The Qing Empire engaged the Tsardom of Russia in a series of border conflicts along the Amur River region, which concluded with the Qing gaining control of the area after the Siege of Albazin . The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. A series of battles and negotiations culminated in the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, by which a border was agreed between Russia and China. The Inner Mongolian Chahar leader Ligdan Khan ,
8568-499: The Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the Battle of Ulan Butung in Inner Mongolia , in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor. In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War . The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died in
8721-639: The Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the Dzungars over the influence of Tibetan Buddhism . In 1688, the Dzungar chief, Galdan Boshugtu Khan , attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the Gobi Desert and sought help from
8874-598: The Qing imperial court, the Kangxi Emperor led them to gradually taking on greater responsibilities until they were assuming the duties of state officials. In 1700, on the Kangxi Emperor's order, the compilation of a vast encyclopedia known as the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China (completed during the reign of his successor Yongzheng ), and a compilation of Tang poetry , the Complete Tang Poems . The Kangxi Emperor also
9027-519: The Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the Khoshut ruler Lha-bzang Khan in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the Dalai Lama , the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lha-bzang Khan Regent of Tibet ( 翊法恭順汗 ; Yìfǎ Gōngshùn Hán ; 'Buddhism Respecting', 'Deferential Khan'). The Dzungar Khanate ,
9180-664: The Veneration of Ancestor ceremony at the time Kangxi was dying, and even eighth prince Yinsi (who had had many clashes with Kangxi) made the lists of candidates. The onky one among adult princes who was put aside was Yinxiang, Yongzheng's important ally. Lin Qian also suspects that Yongzheng organizing the Sacrifice of Heaven of the sixty first year was an event invented later to justify Prin Yong's strange behaviours at that time, since no other records mention it other than Shilu , which
9333-407: The Yongzheng Emperor held Yinsi under close watch and kept him busy with affairs of state, reducing the chance of him conducting behind-the-scenes political maneuvers. Yinsi's allies received notably different treatment. Yintang was sent to Qinghai under the pretext of military service, but in reality was watched over by the Yongzheng Emperor's trusted protégé, Nian Gengyao . Yin'e, the tenth prince,
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#17327657682479486-444: The Yongzheng Emperor in the 1720s expresses his imperial will: 小事小料理,不可因小而忽之·,大事大振作,不可因難處而隱諱。朕意若果能如此實心奉行,以忠正一一字感化,不數年,賊亦人也。見文武大臣實心忠勇為國,屬員清正愛民,營伍整齊,士卒曉勇,而百姓不懷如是德,不畏如是威,仍去成群為匪者,朕想必無此理也。 If it is a trivial matter, do not just simply neglect the issue because it seems insignificant. If it is a complex matter, do not just simply conceal away the issue because it could become a challenge. To have good governance and dissuade seditionists,
9639-418: The Yongzheng Emperor's reign began. The Yongzheng Emperor continued to perceive Yinsi and his party, consisting of the princes Yintang , Yin'e , Yinti , and their associates, as his greatest political challenge in the early years of his reign. To diffuse their political clout, the Yongzheng Emperor undertook a 'divide and conquer' strategy. Immediately after ascending the throne, the emperor bestowed on Yinsi
9792-520: The Yongzheng Emperor. Nonetheless, the increasingly sharp conflict between her two surviving sons caused their mother great sorrow. She died less than six months after the Kangxi Emperor. By forcibly dispatching Yinsi's party to separate locations geographically, the Yongzheng Emperor made it extremely inconvenient for his rivals to link up and conspire against him. While some of Yinsi's subordinates were appointed to high office, others were demoted or banished, making it difficult for Yinsi's party to maintain
9945-427: The Yongzheng emperor, helped implement his reforms, and held various regional governing positions. During Yongzheng's reign, Li Wei helped crush the Ming dynasty loyalists. Li also implemented a tax reform that was unpopular with the landowners. Li was a native of Tongshan , Jiangnan (present-day Feng County, Jiangsu ), and was orphaned at the age of 10. He was not literate, but practiced martial arts . He entered
10098-507: The advice of most of his advisors, Kangxi attempted to force the feudal princes to give up their lands and retire to Manchuria, sparking a rebellion that lasted eight years. For years afterwards Kangxi ruminated on his mistakes and blamed himself in part for the loss of life during the revolt. Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen . The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress
10251-403: The age of 56 and was succeeded by his fourth son, who assumed the throne as the Qianlong Emperor . Although his reign was much shorter than that of both his father and his son, the Yongzheng era was a period of peace and prosperity. Yinzhen was the eleventh recorded son of the Kangxi Emperor, and the fourth prince to survive into adulthood. His mother, historically known as Empress Xiaogongren ,
10404-425: The central government system inherited from the Ming with important modifications. Li Wei (Qing dynasty) Li Wei ( simplified Chinese : 李卫 ; traditional Chinese : 李衛 ; pinyin : Lǐ Wèi ; Styled Youjie ( 又玠 ), posthumous name Minda ( 敏達 ); February 2, 1687 – December 3, 1738) was a Qing dynasty mandarin who lived during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor (1722–1735). He served
10557-525: The commander of the northwestern expeditionary force. Yinti, who expected to be placed on the throne himself, was reluctant to recognise the Yongzheng Emperor's succession as legitimate. Yinti was accused of violating imperial decorum at the funeral proceedings of the late emperor, and placed under house arrest by the Yongzheng Emperor at the imperial tombs in western Beijing . Historians believe that their mother, Empress Dowager Renshou , favoured Yinti partly because she raised him herself, while she did not raise
10710-434: The compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary , the Complete Tang Poems poetry anthology, and the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China . Born on 4 May 1654 to the Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiaokangzhang in Jingren Palace, the Forbidden City , Beijing , the Kangxi Emperor was originally given the Chinese name Xuanye ( Chinese : 玄燁 ; pinyin : Xuanye ; Manchu transliteration : hiowan yei ). He
10863-441: The county education commissioner for counseling. This led to corruption among officials who were no longer bound by law. In an attempt to stop this the Yongzheng emperor made it illegal to offer privileges to officials going through the legal system. This did not last long as the Qianlong Emperor reinstated legal privileges for officials that had passed the Civil Service Examination shortly after becoming emperor after Yongzheng. In
11016-502: The crown prince for his whole life; his removal left the position of heir open to competition among the Emperor's remaining sons (the Kangxi Emperor had 24 sons who reached adulthood). In the same year, the Kangxi Emperor promoted Yinzhen from junwang to qinwang (first-rank prince) under the title " Prince Yong of the First Rank " ( 和硕雍亲王 ; 和碩雍親王 ; Héshuò Yōng Qīnwáng ; Manchu : hošoi hūwaliyasun cin wang ). Yinzhen maintained
11169-417: The deposed Yinreng in the future, which was proven to be relatively correct. As a result, Kangxi not only didn't expose Yinzhen, but also became the accomplice with Yinzhen's act. Although Kangxi's meticulous plan enabled Yinzhen later to be crowned as emperor, it also created many disputes about Yinzhen's succession as there was no direct, intuitive way to prove Yinzhen's legitimacy. Kangxi's choice as Yinzhen
11322-683: The early reign of the Shunzhi Emperor ; however, it was larger than in the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors' reigns. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong, Shi Lang , Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao. The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using
11475-409: The eighth prince, Yinsi, and requested his father to order Yinreng's execution. The Kangxi Emperor was enraged and stripped Yinzhi of his titles. The emperor then commanded his subjects to cease debating the succession issue, but despite this and attempts to reduce rumours and speculation as to who the new crown prince might be, the imperial court's daily activities were disrupted. Yinzhi's actions caused
11628-524: The emperor decided that he could no longer tolerate Yinreng's behavior, which he partially mentioned in the imperial edict as "never obeying ancestors' virtues, never obliged to my order, only doing inhumanity and devilry, only showing maliciousness and lust", and decided to strip Yinreng of his position as crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor placed his oldest surviving son, Yinzhi , in charge of overseeing Yinreng's house arrest . Yinzhi, an unfavored Shu son , knowing he had no chance of being selected, recommended
11781-414: The emperor's interests and stance. Suggestion and criticism with adequate "sincerity", even if they were flawed and incorrect, was usually praised by Yongzheng. On the other hand, suggestions which were considered to only serve the magistrate's selfish interests and fame, or to only curry favour from the emperor, even if the suggestions were accurate and reasonable, would be heavily criticized by Yongzheng and
11934-439: The emperor's own counter-measures against the magistrates. To counter the local magistrated well-built networks, Yongzheng organized a group of inspectors consisted of independent Imperial Commissioners and "clean" local chiefs, assisted with a group of regional officer-to-be. When a regional magistrate was found guilty, he would be replaced by a corresponding member amongst the inspector group who had no connection of interest with
12087-485: The emperor's sons and the son's name. In this case, the will mentions "Prince Yong, Emperor's Fourth Son, Yinzhen" ( Chinese : 雍親王皇四子胤禛 ), as well as Kangxi Emperor's high regards for Yinzhen, and his belief that Yinzhen can succeed on the throne. The problem with the will, or at least the Chinese version, as currently preserved, is that it was not Kangxi's creation. It was drafted three days after Kangxi's death by Longkodo under Yongzheng's instruction. Yongzheng's order
12240-444: The exams in an attempt to dispel anger at being excluded from the exams. A growing number of orphaned children or poor families came with the massive Qing population growth. The Yongzheng emperor sought to remedy this by mandating that orphanages (also called poor houses) be built in every county. These were funded not by local, provincial or high level government but privately funded and maintained. These orphanages existed less to help
12393-518: The final years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign. Unlike Yinsi's high-profile cultivation of a partisan base of support, Yinzhen did so largely away from the limelight. When the Kangxi Emperor died in December 1722, the field of contenders shrank to three princes after Yinsi pledged his support to the 14th prince, Yinti. At the time of the Kangxi Emperor's death, Yinti, who held the appointment of Border-Pacification General-in-Chief ( Chinese : 撫遠大將軍 ),
12546-610: The following year. In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibe were resettled in Guisui , modern Inner Mongolia , and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in Shenyang , Liaoning . The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out. In 1701,
12699-407: The given tasks as a subordinate of the Emperor. Compared to other siblings (Yinzhi, Yinsi, Yinti, Yinreng), Yinzhen had no clear advantage. Unlike Yinsi, Yinzhen had neither a close association nor a good relationship with the majority of court officers and magistrates, he was also shunned due to his cold appearance and the legalist-style harsh treatment for any kinds of moral sin and legal violation of
12852-461: The governability of each jurisdiction was decomposed into four elements, or four "characters": Chong, Fan, Pi, and Nan. "Chong" (thoroughfare) referred to places at busy highways and was designed to capture the characteristics of commercial potential or military significance. “Fan” (troublesome) stood for places with a great deal of onerous official business. “Pi” (wearisome) indicated areas having difficulty collecting taxes. “Nan” (difficult) referred to
13005-437: The guilty magistrates from further exploiting the people to compensate for their deficit spending, Yongzheng immediately dismissed the magistrate before compensation began. Dismissed magistrates no longer had authority over the people and had no choice but to use their own properties to compensate. As the punished magistrate might use other connections as an alternative for their lost authority, paying compensation on behalf of them
13158-561: The help of his grandmother Grand Empress Dowager Zhaosheng , who had raised him. and began taking personal control of the empire. He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the Yellow River ; repair of the Grand Canal ; the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688. Kangxi's relatives from
13311-490: The highest positions in the land. The nature of his succession remained a subject of controversy and overshadowed the Yongzheng Emperor's reign. As many of his surviving brothers did not see his succession as legitimate, the Yongzheng Emperor became increasingly paranoid that they would plot to overthrow him. The earlier players in the battle for succession, Yinzhi , the eldest, and Yinreng, the former crown prince, continued to live under house arrest. Yinreng died two years after
13464-401: The hope of Yinti's future prospect, would also not do anything reckless. As a result, Yinti's "General-in-chief Prince" title appeared grandiose, but was actually hollow and dubious; it was neither "general" nor "prince" and could be interpreted in various ways, which could be used in favour of either Yinti or Yinzhen should the situation arise. Such dubious words with multiple interpretations was
13617-515: The important positions and in turn promoted local governance. Yi Zhongtian commented that Yongzheng had a very flexible and pragmatic tastes of talent enrollment, based on the advice of Ortai : " Amongst affairs, there are both essential and trivial, easy and challenging. Amongst people, there are both soft and hard, long and short. " The emperor, therefore, did not use dogmatic and abstract criteria of "talents" and "morality", instead he acknowledged that every person has both strengths and defects and
13770-463: The innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturing and artillery , the latter of which enabled the Qing Empire to conquer the Kingdom of Tungning . The Kangxi Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke the Chinese language well, and wore the silk robes of the elite. In 1692, when Pereira requested tolerance for Christianity , the Kangxi Emperor
13923-514: The installation of the five-year-old Shunzhi Emperor on their throne. By 1661, when the Shunzhi Emperor died and was succeeded by the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing conquest of China proper was almost complete. Leading Manchus were already using Chinese institutions and mastering Confucian ideology, while maintaining Manchu culture among themselves. The Kangxi Emperor completed the conquest, suppressed all significant military threats and revived
14076-516: The local chiefs, the emperor did not think about their usefulness in the current campaign alone, as he told the prince that their dedication to the person of the prince "will be of use later", and that their service would be more valuable to that of the Han. Yinzhen's tactics during the struggle for crown prince's position were to do practically nothing and to stay out of the limelight. Instead, he focused on filial piety towards Kangxi and dutifully performed
14229-418: The local clique and therefore would naturally do his best to continue the purge. Furthermore, local people were forbidden to lend money to their magistrates, preventing them from temporarily transferring the borrowed money to the local treasure to mask the deficits. Yongzheng also created an independent Inquisition Association to examine all the spending and revenue documents to prevent local officers from bribing
14382-813: The local gentry as competition to the throne. Just like the legal privileges that passing the Civil Service Examination offered, soon after the end of the Yongzheng emperor's reign, the Qianlong Emperor quickly reinstated the privileged tax brackets. Growing distrust of Jesuit missionaries by the Kangxi emperor and later by Yongzheng in the early 1720s led to prohibition and action against the Christian presence in China. The Kangxi emperor had banned foreign missions (outside of Beijing and Guangzhou), and Yongzheng took this one step further by removing all foreign priests from China. All Christian churches were shut down and repurposed as local public offices. Chinese merchant houses belonging to Canton station were grouped together under
14535-428: The local population out of poverty and more to model how wealthy officials should act towards the impoverished populations. The Kangxi Emperor mandated that scholars that had passed the Civil Service Examination at any level were able to bypass punishments from the legal system depending on which level of the exams they had passed. Instead of legal repercussions for crimes, criminal officials were instead recommended to
14688-489: The longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history and one of the longest-reigning rulers in history . He is considered one of China's greatest emperors. The third son of the Shunzhi Emperor , Kangxi was enthroned at the age of seven while actual power was held for six more years by the Four Regents nominated by his father. After assuming personal rule, Kangxi's attempt to revoke the fiefdoms of feudal princes sparked
14841-425: The magistrate could be punished severely. That was the reason behind Yongzheng's apparently "erratic" and "unpredictable" behaviors in punishing and rewarding his subordinates. Emperor Kangxi's long reign left lasting achievements, but also many flaws and maladies, including budget deficit, inadequate tax revenues, and huge debts. Corruption was widespread, and magistrates and aristocrats frequently borrowed money from
14994-527: The magistrates. Acknowledging that fact, Yinzhen intentionally showed no ambition to be the heir in order to not attract any unnecessary attention and animosity; he watched as other contenders fought each other to the death, a policy more beneficial for him. Yinzhen even pleaded many times for Kangxi's mercy and pardon for other princes, including the deposed Yinreng, which gained him the praise and favour from Kangxi. As an experienced player in politics, Kangxi himself knew that Yinzhen's humbleness and filial piety
15147-461: The majority of middle-to-low government posts were subject to a mechanical appointment procedure managed by the Board of Personnel, which was a lottery rule. More specifically, candidates would first be classified into three categories, namely degree holders, office purchasers, and officials waiting for promotion, based on their sources of candidature. These candidates or so-called offices-in-waiting were then assigned to different posts by drawing lots on
15300-423: The mid-1720s Qing empire, complex levels of tax hierarchies put in place by the Kangxi emperor existed to separate the population into different tax brackets. Households with government officials were in privileged tax brackets that brought with it tax exemptions for not only the immediate family in the household but also for extended family members. The Yongzheng emperor removed these privileged tax brackets as he saw
15453-401: The national treasure without any sign of returning the money. Therefore, immediately after his enthronement, Yongzheng began a crackdown against corruption and financial issues. Utilizing his experience during the time as a prince, the emperor used an unconventional approach: first he anticipated the counter-measures that corrupt magistrates might employ to evade state punishment, and then devised
15606-616: The new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor . The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in Zunhua , Hebei . A legend concerning the Kangxi Emperor's will states that he chose Yinti as his heir, but Yinzhen forged the will in his own favour. It has, however, long been refuted by serious historians. Yinzhen, later the Yongzheng Emperor , has attracted many rumours, and some novel-like private books claim he did not die of illness but
15759-459: The nickname "Emperor of confiscation". Beside harsh punishment, Yongzheng also improved the state officer's income to remove their incentive for corruption. He created a "Fund for transparency nurturing" from government additional revenues, which was now regulated and controlled by the central government, to provide copious allowance for state magistrate, enabling their daily expenses to be covered without accepting bribes. Magistrates not eligible for
15912-413: The ninth and tenth princes, Yintang and Yin'e, pledged their support to Yinti. In the evening of 20 December 1722, just before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eighth, ninth, tenth, sixteenth and seventeenth princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died, Longkodo announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as
16065-699: The phrase to "pass the throne on to the Fourth Prince" Chinese : 傳位于四皇子 ). Another version states the character " 十 " was changed to " 第 " ( dì ), which means "sequence number" (四 = four, 第四 = the fourth / number four), thus changing the phrase to "transfer the throne to the Fourth Prince" ( Chinese : 傳位第四皇子 ). After ascending the throne in December 1722, Yinzhen adopted the era name "Yongzheng" ( Chinese : 雍正 lit. "Harmonious Justice") in 1723 from his peerage title "yong" ( Chinese : 雍 lit. "harmonious") and "zheng" ( Chinese : 正 lit. "just, correct, upright"). It has been suggested that
16218-424: The places with crime-prone subjects and recurring violent engagement. Moreover, posts of jurisdictions containing all four elements would be ranked as very important positions and posts of places with three elements would be rated as important posts, whereas posts of places having less than two elements would be tagged as middle-level positions (two elements) or easy posts (one-zero element) respectively. In this way,
16371-412: The political landscape. The 13th prince, Yinxiang , was placed under house arrest as well for cooperating with Yinreng . The eighth prince Yinsi was stripped of all his titles and only had them restored years later. The 14th prince Yinti , whom many considered to be the most likely candidate to succeed the Kangxi Emperor, was sent on a military campaign during the political conflict. Yinsi, along with
16524-512: The population to use for farming, it also led to officials lying about the amount of farmable land they were contributing in order to win the tax holidays. These tax holidays also pushed the burden of paying taxes elsewhere. Ethnicity in Qing China could vary depending on where one was from even locally in China . This ethnic separation along with the booming population led to reduced access to
16677-436: The position too, but failed to get it. Lin Qian writes that there are many signs that show Yongzheng did alter records to make the title "General-in-chief Prince" less impressive, and that the fourteenth prince's rank was actually Prince ( wang ). Kangxi even made the apparently longterm investment by sending several young members of the imperial family to the fourteenth prince so he could raise them as his apprentices. This intent
16830-440: The post designation (Chong, Fan, Pi, and Nan) was linked to the importance rating system hand in hand. The appointment power then was allocated based on the importance rating system; posts marked as very important and important were subject to the discretionary appointment by the emperor or provincial leaders, whereas other less important posts still were assigned by drawing lots. As a result, the high-quality officials were matched to
16983-475: The prince Yunli (who was cited by Yongzheng as one of the witnesses in his later version of the events; this prince did not participate in the fight for the throne but later became Yongzheng's ally during the latter's reign) was not present – when he was rushing to Kangxi's resident after being informed of his father's death, the prince met Longkodo who told him about Yongzheng's ascension and became so horrified that he returned to his house immediately, looking like
17136-468: The rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681. In 1683, the naval forces of
17289-474: The remaining years of his reign. This resulted in competition among his sons for the position of crown prince. Those considered 'frontrunners' were Yinzhi , Yinsi , and Yinti (the third, eighth and 14th princes, respectively). Of these, Yinsi received the most support from the Mandarins , but not from his father. Yinzhen had supported Yinreng as heir, and did not build a large political base for himself until
17442-406: The rest of the imperial court acquiesced to this arrangement. In the spring of 1662, the regents ordered a Great Clearance in southern China that evacuated the entire population from the seacoast to counter a resistance movement started by Ming loyalists under the leadership of Taiwan-based Ming general Zheng Chenggong , also titled Koxinga . In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with
17595-527: The ritual ceremonies for the royal family's ancestors in Three Great Mausoleums in Shenyang . Shortly after that, Yinzhen was also tasked to organize the Sacrifice to the Heaven (南郊禮), the most sacred ceremony in Confucian tradition, on the day of winter solstice . Others note that the third prince Yinzhi also had presided over these ceremonies before, the fifth prince Yinqi was presiding over
17748-476: The same set of partisan interests. The Yongzheng Emperor publicly reprimanded Yinsi in 1724 for mishandling an assignment, eventually removing him from office and then sending him into house arrest. Yinsi was forced to rename himself "Acina", a derogatory slur in the Manchu language. The emperor also confiscated the assets of Yintang and Yin'e. In 1725, the Yongzheng Emperor bestowed a hereditary marquis title on Zhu Ming in line with his father Kang Xi emperor wish of
17901-439: The second character of his era name was an attempt to cover up his illegal claim to the throne by calling himself "justified". Immediately after succeeding to the throne, the Yongzheng Emperor chose his new governing council. It consisted of the eighth prince Yinsi , 13th prince Yinxiang , Zhang Tingyu , Ma Qi, and Longkodo . Yinsi was given the title "Prince Lian" while Yinxiang was given the title "Prince Yi", and these two held
18054-480: The several tax reform policies Yongzheng introduced was to shift the head taxation to the property taxation on landowners, which greatly reduced the tax burden on civilians. Additionally, Yongzheng was indeed in full support with the construction of orphanages to shelter orphans, in building elementary schools to educate children, and poorhouses to house paupers. Perhaps the Yongzheng era (雍正: r. 1723–1735 CE) may have been overshadowed by his predecessor's accomplishments,
18207-406: The sons of the second and the fourteenth princes. Official court records state that on 20 December 1722 the ailing Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons and the general commandant of the Beijing gendarmerie , Longkodo , to his bedside. Longkodo read the will and declared that Yinzhen would be the Kangxi Emperor's successor. Some evidence has suggested that Yinzhen contacted Longkodo months before
18360-413: The tasks given to him should be tailored to suit his specific traits. For example, Li Wei had a very rude personality, but he was brave and clever, Yongzheng assigned him tasks related to law enforcement, criminal punishment and rebel liquidation. Zhu Shih, a scholar with upright and good personality, was appointed as teacher for the future Qianlong Emperor . Tian Wenjing had many personality defects and
18513-472: The time was volatile, and a strong general was needed in the area. After several military conquests, however, Nian's stature and power grew. Some said he began seeing himself as equal to the emperor. Seeing Nian as no longer within his control, the Yongzheng Emperor issued an imperial edict demoting Nian to the position of a general of the Hangzhou Command. As Nian continued to remain unrepentant, he
18666-528: The title "Prince Lian", nominally of the highest noble rank. Yinsi was also then appointed as the Minister of the Lifan Yuan (Feudatory Affairs Office) and the top-ranking member of the imperial council assisting the Yongzheng Emperor; some historians believe his position at the time was essentially that of a " Chancellor or Prime Minister". By ostensibly elevating Yinsi to a more prominent political role,
18819-411: The traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle. By
18972-448: The will was read in preparation for his succession through military means, although in their official capacities frequent encounters were expected. Historian Qin Hui writes that it is largely recognized that Yongzheng forged the succession edicts together with Nian Gengyao. Qin Hui criticizes Feng Erkang, who also recognizes the forgery, for failing to explain why Yongzheng would have needed
19125-479: Was enthroned at the age of seven (or eight by East Asian age reckoning ), on 7 February 1661. However, his era name "Kangxi", only started to be used on 18 February 1662, the first day of the following lunar year. Sinologist Herbert Giles , drawing on contemporary sources, described the Kangxi Emperor as "fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises, and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which
19278-467: Was a shock to many other princes (even Yinzhen also pretended to be shocked). Kangxi also did not make any mention about his choice for the crown prince position, his will was only known via the deceased emperor's testament provided by Longkodo , and there was no decisive evidence proved that the testament was not fabricated. For the contemporary public, there was also no evidence to directly infer, or to explain why, Kangxi thought of Yinzhen as his choice. As
19431-561: Was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy. The Outer Khalkha Mongols had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to
19584-502: Was also strictly prohibited. The properties of their families and relatives were also confisticated for the compensation payment if necessary. In the cases of magistrates committing suicide to avoid punishment, Yongzheng demanded that their family and descendants should shoulder the punishment and compensation for the deceased magistrate. The emperor himself admitted that he wanted to see the guilty magistrate's descendants " live in poverty and misery. " Yongzheng's drastic punishment earned him
19737-472: Was assassinated by a swordswoman, Lü Siniang ( 呂四娘 ), the granddaughter of Lü Liuliang , though this is never treated seriously by scholars. The Kangxi Emperor was a great consolidator of the Qing dynasty . The transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing was a cataclysm whose central event was the fall of the capital Beijing to the peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng , then to the Manchus in 1644, and
19890-456: Was beginning to overshadow that of himself. Thereafter, Yinzhen sensed that his father was in favour of re-instating Yinreng as heir apparent, thus he supported Yinreng and earned the trust of his father. Yinzhen ( 胤禛 : 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735) had the highest honor to orchestrate the imperial ceremonies and rituals during the reign of the Kangxi emperor , which illustrated that Yinzhen
20043-631: Was conducive to curtailing patronage-network building and rent-seeking, although at the cost of flexibility. Considering the limitation of monthly selection, the Yongzheng Emperor, inspired by a memorial of Jin Hong, the provincial administrative commissioner of Guangxi province, decided to launch a structural reform to the appointment system in 1731. In the new appointment system, local jurisdictions first were classified into two groups according to governance difficulties. More specifically, to prioritize local jurisdictions and allocate appointment power accordingly,
20196-530: Was crowned emperor after he modified Kangxi Emperor's final will that detailed who will succeed him. There are two versions of the legend, both of which involves the Chinese character " 十 " ( pinyin : shí ; lit. 'ten'), and by extension, Yunti, Prince Xun . One version involves changing the " 十 " in the phrase "transfer the throne to the Fourteenth Prince" ( Chinese : 傳位十四皇子 ) to " 于 " ( pinyin : yú ), which changed
20349-509: Was deemed incest and a capital offence. Yinreng also purchased young children from Jiangsu to satisfy his pedophiliac pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu , gradually formed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子黨), that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods. Over the years, the Kangxi Emperor kept constant watch over Yinreng and became aware of his son's many flaws, while their relationship gradually deteriorated. In 1707,
20502-530: Was eventually given an ultimatum and forced to commit suicide by consuming poison in 1726. Longkodo was the commander of the militias stationed at the capital at the time of the Yongzheng Emperor's succession. He fell into disgrace in 1728 and died while under house arrest. After taking the throne, the Yongzheng Emperor suppressed writings he deemed unfavorable to his court, particularly those with an anti-Manchu bias. Foremost among these were those of Zeng Jing, an unsuccessful degree candidate heavily influenced by
20655-563: Was heavily criticized by contemporaries, but was favoured by Yongzheng due to his hard-work, devotion and loyalty. Chang Sanle, Wuqiao district chief, had upright and transparent moral conduct, but lacked fervor in work, hence he was re-assigned to an educational post and removed from administrative work. However, the most critical criterion for the government magistrate was "sincerity" towards the emperor. The magistrate's works, reports, criticisms, suggestion, even flattery and blandishment, should be performed with sincere devotion to and sympathy with
20808-610: Was interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. This was done through Jesuit missionaries , such as Ferdinand Verbiest , whom the Kangxi Emperor frequently summoned for meetings, or Karel Slavíček , who made the first precise map of Beijing on the emperor's order. From 1711 to 1723, Matteo Ripa , an Italian priest sent to China by the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples , worked as
20961-411: Was just 9 years old. After she gave birth to more children, Yinzhen's mother was promoted to a pin and then to a fei , and became known as defei or "Virtuous Consort". The Kangxi Emperor did not raise his children only inside the palace. He also exposed his sons (including Yinzhen) to the outside world and gave them a rigorous education. Yinzhen accompanied his father on several inspection trips around
21114-458: Was leading a military campaign in northwestern China . He was also awarded an apparently grandiose title of "Fuyuan General-in-chief Prince" (撫遠大将軍王) and his departure ceremony was solemnly held. Some other princes, such as Yinsi and his clique, interpreted that Yinti might be chosen as heir and, therefore, pledged their support to Yinti and encouraged him to make military achievements to prove his "worthiness". However, Yi Zhongtian argued that such
21267-467: Was not only able to discourage corruption, but he was in a position to launch several domestic reforms beneficial to the empire and its people. Canals and irrigation systems were reconstructed to support agriculture and maintain farmlands. During famines, he provided relief to the affected regions by distributing resources. In reparation to the people, who were the backbone of the country, he issued an imperial decree to emancipate slaves under his reign. One of
21420-440: Was not really sincere and more of a cover to protect himself, nonetheless Kangxi still made lavish praise to Yinzhen and enjoyed the apparently good relationship with his son. In the situation when his offspring openly trampled on family relationships, Yinzhen's "false" filial piety and kindness was already a haven for Kangxi. Kangxi also hoped that Yinzhen, despite being pretentious, might not actually mistreat his deceased father and
21573-523: Was now strictly prohibited. To effectively grasp the situation of his subordinates, Yongzheng utilized the "secret report" system which originated from the Shunzhi Era , which also suited his own tastes of having personal connection separately with each subordinate. The emperor recruited secret informants from the trusted subordinates who had the privilege to privately report to the Emperor whatever they felt suspicious. The components of secret informants
21726-472: Was originally a court attendant from the Manchu Uya clan. Around the time when Yinzhen was born, his mother was of low status and did not have the right to raise her own children. For most of his childhood, Yinzhen was raised by Noble Consort Tong , the daughter of Tong Guowei, the Kangxi Emperor's maternal uncle and an eminent official in the early part of the Kangxi Emperor's reign. She died when Yinzhen
21879-530: Was passed on to Zhu's descendants for 12 generations until the end of the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century. Nian Gengyao was a supporter of the Yongzheng Emperor long before the latter ascended the throne. In 1722, when he was recalling his brother Yinti from the northwest border in Xinjiang , the Yongzheng Emperor appointed Nian as the commander of the Qing army in Xinjiang. The situation in Xinjiang at
22032-468: Was pitted with smallpox ." Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, Grand Empress Dowager Zhaosheng (in the name of Shunzhi Emperor ) had appointed the powerful men Sonin , Suksaha , Ebilun , and Oboi as regents . Sonin died after his granddaughter became Empress Xiaochengren , leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death and seized absolute power as sole regent. The Kangxi Emperor and
22185-456: Was placed under house arrest in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories , with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title
22338-443: Was quite varied, including even some low-ranked officers, and was widely distributed all over the empire. To encourage the sincerity and eagerness of informants, their identity and reports' content was kept strictly confidential; even informants did not know each other, and the procedures and writing style requirements were greatly simplified. Such "secret reporters" enabled the emperor to maintain an extensive information network without
22491-416: Was raised in the palace. Professor Lin Qian on the other hand notes that the fourteenth prince was the only son Kangxi always kept with him, until his death, despite the fact he already married (the fourteenth prince's wife lived inside his father's palace too) and had a princely mansion outside. Second, according to Yi, at Kangxi's 60th regnal year (1721) memorial event, Yinzhen was given the task of holding
22644-468: Was shown, when the fourteenth prince requested them to be sent back to the capital, Kangxi refused and told him that they needed to be trained (obviously to serve the fourteenth later). Yin Qian notes that with sixteen people holding titles ranging from beizi to wang and other important officials sent to follow the fourteenth prince, Kangxi had already organized a mini imperial court for him. Yang Zhen opines that when Kangxi encouraged his son to engage with
22797-485: Was told to leave the capital to send off a departing Mongol prince, but since he refused to complete this trip as the emperor commanded, the Yongzheng Emperor stripped him of all his titles in May 1724 and sent him north to Shunyi to languish in solitude. The 14th prince, Yinti, born to the same mother as the Yongzheng Emperor, was recalled to Beijing from his military post. The emperor selected Nian Gengyao to replace Yinti as
22950-507: Was unpopular with local landowners because it increased their share of taxation owed to the state compared to those owed by landless peasants. In 1729, in a swift act, Li Wei helped crush Ming Dynasty -loyalists present in the Nanjing area. In 1732, he was appointed the Viceroy of Zhili , overseeing the area immediately outside of Beijing (somewhat analogous to present-day Hebei ). Li was
23103-475: Was well acquainted with the Confucianism traditions and customs. In the imperial court, Yinzhen was also deeply immersed in the state's affairs and heavily engaged in the political debates where he acquired diplomatic skills. As the Yongzheng Emperor ( 雍正 : r. 1723–1735 CE) of Qing China, Yinzhen was indubitably a very diplomatically inclined ruler who created an institution of a "moral government" based on
23256-453: Was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration, which recognized Catholicism , barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by the Chinese people . However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship , with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and
23409-427: Was written under the supervision of Yongzheng and Zhang Tingyu . Yi also says that Kangxi highly favoured Yinzhen's son Hongli (future Qianlong Emperor ) and that might also contribute to Kangxi's support for Yinzhen as his heir, similar to how Yongle Emperor chose his heir due to his favour to the crown prince's son. Historian Yang Zhen though notes that Kangxi was kind to his grandchildren in general but especially to
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