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49-534: Yata no Kagami ( 八 咫 鏡 ) is a sacred bronze mirror that is part of the Imperial Regalia of Japan . The Yata no Kagami represents "wisdom" or "honesty," depending on the source. Its name literally means "The Eight Ata Mirror," a reference to its size. Mirrors in ancient Japan represented truth because they merely reflected what was shown, and were objects of mystique and reverence (being uncommon items). According to Shinsuke Takenaka at

98-663: A relative dating system, obsidian hydration dating , to calculate the age of obsidian artifacts . Obsidian artifacts first appeared in the European continent in Central Europe in the Middle Paleolithic and had become common by the Upper Paleolithic , although there are exceptions to this. Obsidian played an important role in the transmission of Neolithic knowledge and experiences . The material

147-443: A volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth . It is an igneous rock . Produced from felsic lava, obsidian is rich in the lighter elements such as silicon , oxygen , aluminum, sodium , and potassium . It is commonly found within the margins of rhyolitic lava flows known as obsidian flows. These flows have a high content of silica , giving them a high viscosity . The high viscosity inhibits diffusion of atoms through

196-556: A culture or place can be of considerable use to reconstruct commerce, production, and distribution, and thereby understand economic, social and political aspects of a civilization. This is the case in Yaxchilán , a Maya city where even warfare implications have been studied linked with obsidian use and its debris. Another example is the archeological recovery at coastal Chumash sites in California, indicating considerable trade with

245-455: A distinguishable type of obsidian allowing archaeologists to use methods such as non-destructive energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence to select minor element compositions from both the artifact and geological sample to trace the origins of a particular artifact. Similar tracing techniques have also allowed obsidian in Greece to be identified as coming from Milos , Nisyros or Gyali , islands in

294-501: A high level of sophistication by the late Neolithic, and was traded as far as Sicily, the southern Po river valley, and Croatia. Obsidian bladelets were used in ritual circumcisions and cutting of umbilical cords of newborns. Anatolian sources of obsidian are known to have been the material used in the Levant and modern-day Iraqi Kurdistan from a time beginning sometime about 12,500 BC. Obsidian artifacts are common at Tell Brak , one of

343-481: A knob or loop in the center of the back so that they could be easily held in the hand, and sometimes attached to clothing. In the Tang and Song dynasties some examples were larger and more variable in shape. Other examples are so small, about 5 cm across, that they may have been mainly intended for ritual use, as "charms to ward off evil spirits". Some of the earliest examples of Chinese bronze mirrors belonged to

392-686: A long time, as well as easy to break, and initially hardly any more reflective, so that bronze mirrors remained common in many parts of the world until the 19th century. Speculum metal is a very hard high-tin bronze-type alloy, with about 30% tin rather than the typical 12–15%. It polishes well to give very good reflectivity, and was important in Early Modern telescopes and other uses. Its use in mirrors may date back more than 2000 years in China although it could also be an invention of western civilizations. There seem to be references to it by Pliny

441-666: A replica is enshrined in Three Palace Sanctuaries of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo. In Shinto , the mirror was forged by the deity Ishikoridome ; both it and the Yasakani no magatama were hung from a tree to lure out Amaterasu from a cave. They were given to Amaterasu's grandson, Ninigi-no-Mikoto , when he went to pacify Japan along with the sword Kusanagi . From there, the treasures passed into

490-653: A site in the western Negev in Israel. Eight obsidian artifacts dating to the Chalcolithic Age found at this site were traced to obsidian sources in Anatolia . Neutron activation analysis (NAA) on the obsidian found at this site helped to reveal trade routes and exchange networks previously unknown. Lithic analysis helps to understand pre-Hispanic groups in Mesoamerica . A careful analysis of obsidian in

539-413: A standing female figure, often with putti . These are called " caryatid mirrors". Folding mirrors, also called "box mirrors", from about 400 BCE, typically had relief designs on the outside of the lid, and engraved decoration on the inside. Most were still round, and lacked handles, presumably as they were meant to be held by a maid. Eros/Cupid is often shown holding up a mirror for Aphrodite/Venus. In

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588-459: A type of glass knife made using naturally occurring obsidian instead of manufactured glass. Obsidian is used by some surgeons for scalpel blades, although this is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use on humans. Well-crafted obsidian blades, like any glass knife, can have a cutting edge many times sharper than high-quality steel surgical scalpels: the cutting edge of

637-601: Is metastable at the Earth's surface (over time the glass devitrifies , becoming fine-grained mineral crystals), obsidian older than Miocene in age is rare. Exceptionally old obsidians include a Cretaceous welded tuff and a partially devitrified Ordovician perlite . This transformation of obsidian is accelerated by the presence of water. Although newly formed obsidian has a low water content, typically less than 1% water by weight, it becomes progressively hydrated when exposed to groundwater , forming perlite . Pure obsidian

686-451: Is a National Treasure of Japan , largely for the linguistic importance of its cast characters. According to its relief inscription it was made for a prince. Yata no Kagami ( 八咫鏡 ) is a sacred mirror that is part of the Imperial Regalia of Japan . Obsidian Obsidian ( / ə b ˈ s ɪ d i . ən , ɒ b -/ əb- SID -ee-ən ob- ) is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extruded from

735-679: Is caused by inclusions of magnetite nanoparticles creating thin-film interference . Colorful, striped obsidian ( rainbow obsidian ) from Mexico contains oriented nanorods of hedenbergite , which cause the rainbow striping effects by thin-film interference . Obsidian is found near volcanoes in locations which have undergone rhyolitic eruptions. It can be found in Argentina, Armenia , Azerbaijan , Australia, Canada, Chile, Georgia , Ecuador , El Salvador , Greece, Guatemala , Hungary , Iceland, Indonesia , Italy, Japan, Kenya , Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea , Peru, Russia , Scotland,

784-406: Is usually dark in appearance, though the color varies depending on the impurities present. Iron and other transition elements may give the obsidian a dark brown to black color. Most black obsidians contain nanoinclusions of magnetite , an iron oxide . Very few samples of obsidian are nearly colorless. In some stones, the inclusion of small, white, radially clustered crystals ( spherulites ) of

833-428: Is usually dark in color, similar to mafic rocks such as basalt , the composition of obsidian is extremely felsic. Obsidian consists mainly of SiO 2 ( silicon dioxide ), usually 70% by weight or more; the remainder consists of variable amounts of other oxides, mostly oxides of aluminum, iron, potassium, sodium and calcium. Crystalline rocks with a similar composition include granite and rhyolite . Because obsidian

882-651: The Aegean Sea . Obsidian cores and blades were traded great distances inland from the coast. In Chile obsidian tools from Chaitén Volcano have been found as far away as in Chan-Chan 400 km (250 mi) north of the volcano, and also in sites 400 km south of it. The Lapita culture , active across a large area of the Pacific Ocean around 1000 BC, made widespread use of obsidian tools and engaged in long distance obsidian trading. The complexity of

931-701: The Canary Islands , Turkey and the United States. Obsidian flows which are so large that they can be hiked on are found within the calderas of Newberry Volcano (Big Obsidian Flow, 700 acres) and Medicine Lake Volcano in the Cascade Range of western North America, and at Inyo Craters east of the Sierra Nevada in California. Yellowstone National Park has a mountainside containing obsidian located between Mammoth Hot Springs and

980-634: The Egyptians from 2900 BCE onwards. These Egyptian mirrors are spoken of in biblical Book of Exodus (1500 BCE), and used by Moses in the construction of the Tabernacle. Bronze mirrors were produced in China from Neolithic times until Western glass mirrors were brought to China. Bronze mirrors were usually circular, with one side polished bright, to give a reflection, and the reverse side normally decorated in cast relief in early examples, later on sometimes inlaid in precious metal. They generally had

1029-702: The Göllü Dağ volcano were the most important sources in central Anatolia , one of the more important source areas in the prehistoric Near East . The first known archaeological evidence of usage was in Kariandusi (Kenya) and other sites of the Acheulian age (beginning 1.5 million years BP) dated 700,000 BC, although only very few objects have been found at these sites relative to the Neolithic. Manufacture of obsidian bladelets at Lipari had reached

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1078-535: The Norris Geyser Basin , and deposits can be found in many other western U.S. states including Arizona , Colorado , New Mexico , Texas , Utah , and Washington , Oregon and Idaho . There are only four major deposit areas in the central Mediterranean: Lipari , Pantelleria , Palmarola and Monte Arci ( Sardinia ). Ancient sources in the Aegean were Milos and Gyali . Acıgöl town and

1127-625: The TLV mirror . Both Han and Tang mirrors are considered to be the most technically advanced. Both the quantity and quality of finds in graves declined after the Tang dynasty, but bronze mirrors continued to remain popular up through the Song dynasty , but then gradually lost their popularity and ceased to be produced after the arrival of Western mirrors during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Specific types include

1176-716: The inscribed mirror , Flower Mirror and Large Flower Mirror . The Bronze Age Minoan civilization produced hand-mirrors in the 2nd millennium BCE, followed by the Myceneans . They were no doubt following the Egyptian or Near Eastern precedents. After disappearing in the Greek Dark Ages , they returned in Archaic Greece , including some mirrors on elaborate stands (already an Egyptian type), as well as hand-mirrors with handles. The stands most often featured

1225-664: The 1st century CE Seneca mentioned large wall mirrors; it may have been in front of one of these that Demosthenes used to practise his speeches in the 4th century BCE. The rich had silver or silver-plated mirrors. Celtic mirrors in Britain were produced up until the Roman conquest. Two notable examples include the Birdlip and Langton Herring mirrors. In the Indus valley civilization , manufacture of bronze mirrors goes back to

1274-661: The Chinese believed they stored sunlight, and so could "guide the deceased through the underworld", making them essential grave-goods . The back is often highly decorated in various techniques and styles, and may be significant for art history . Chinese styles include the Flower Mirror , TLV mirror and Inscribed mirror , while the Large Flower Mirror and Shinju-kyo are Japanese. Most ancient images show them being used by women, and figurative imagery on

1323-546: The Elder . It was certainly in use by the European Middle Ages , giving better reflectivity than the usual bronze, and tarnishing more slowly. However, tin was expensive, and the composition of the alloy had to be controlled precisely. Confusingly, mirrors made of speculum metal were known at the time, and often later, as "steel mirrors", although they had no steel in them. Polished bronze mirrors were made by

1372-711: The Institute of Moralogy, Yata no Kagami is considered the most precious of the three sacred treasures. In the year 1040 ( Chōkyū 1, 9th month), the compartment which contained the Sacred Mirror was burned in a fire. The mirror was not damaged and managed to survive the incident. It is considered to be housed today in Ise Grand Shrine , in Mie Prefecture , Japan , although a lack of public access makes this difficult to verify. Concurrently,

1421-629: The Roman writer Pliny the Elder includes a few sentences about a volcanic glass called obsidian ( lapis obsidianus ), discovered in Ethiopia by Obsidius, a Roman explorer. Obsidian is formed from quickly cooled lava , which is the parent material . Extrusive formation of obsidian may occur when felsic lava cools rapidly at the edges of a felsic lava flow or volcanic dome, or when lava cools during sudden contact with water or air. Intrusive formation of obsidian may occur when felsic lava cools along

1470-549: The age of such items to be before 1500 BC. Aranmula kannadi are still made on a small scale in Kerala , South India, using a type of speculum metal , an extra reflective alloy of copper and tin. Japanese bronze mirrors were adopted from China, and are similar in form and, initially, style. Many had red silk tassels through the knob on the back. Mirrors in Shinto have ritual uses. The c. 5th-century Suda Hachiman Shrine Mirror

1519-603: The back, as in Roman mirrors, often reflects female interests. Bronze mirrors were themselves preceded by mirrors made of obsidian (volcanic glass), found across the Middle East . These remained the standard in the Americas until the arrival of Europeans. Iron pyrite was also used. Glass mirrors with superior reflectivity began to be made in the Roman Empire in the 1st century CE, but remained very expensive for

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1568-514: The blade is only about three nanometers thick. All metal knives have a jagged, irregular blade when viewed under a strong enough microscope ; however, obsidian blades are still smooth, even when examined under an electron microscope . One study found that obsidian incisions produced fewer inflammatory cells and less granulation tissue in a group of rats after seven days but the differences disappeared after twenty-one days. Don Crabtree has produced surgical obsidian blades and written articles on

1617-502: The distant site of Casa Diablo Hot Springs in the Sierra Nevada . Pre-Columbian Mesoamericans' use of obsidian was extensive and sophisticated; including carved and worked obsidian for tools and decorative objects. Mesoamericans also made a type of sword with obsidian blades mounted in a wooden body. Called a macuahuitl , the weapon could inflict terrible injuries, combining the sharp cutting edge of an obsidian blade with

1666-501: The earliest Mesopotamian urban centers, dating to the late fifth millennium BC. Obsidian was valued in Stone Age cultures because, like flint , it could be fractured to produce sharp blades or arrowheads in a process called knapping . Like all glass and some other naturally occurring rocks, obsidian breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture . It was also polished to create early mirrors . Modern archaeologists have developed

1715-512: The early periods, designs were typically engraved on the back, but luxury Greco-Roman mirrors often had figurative designs in relief. Mirrors from the Iron Age have been discovered across most of Europe, generally as grave-goods. The Greeks were the earliest makers; the Etruscans imported Greek mirrors, and then began making their own, passing the practice on to their Roman conquerors. In

1764-632: The eastern Mediterranean and southern Red Sea regions. Obsidian scalpels older than 2100 BC have been found in a Bronze Age settlement in Turkey. In the eastern Mediterranean area the material was used to make tools, mirrors and decorative objects. The use of obsidian tools was present in Japan near areas of volcanic activity. Obsidian was mined during the Jōmon period . Obsidian has also been found in Gilat ,

1813-411: The edges of a dike . Tektites were once thought by many to be obsidian produced by lunar volcanic eruptions, though few scientists now adhere to this hypothesis . Obsidian is mineral-like, but not a true mineral because, as a glass, it is not crystalline ; in addition, its composition is too variable to be classified as a mineral. It is sometimes classified as a mineraloid . Though obsidian

1862-607: The hands of the Imperial House of Japan . The researcher Shinsuke Takenaka said according to the legends, Amaterasu told Ninigi : "Serve this mirror as my soul, just as you would serve me, with clean mind and body." Replicas of the Imperial regalia of Japan including Yata no Kagami are included in Masakaki at Shinto shrines. Masakaki come in sets of two, with the left one containing a replica of Kusanagi no Tsurugi and

1911-607: The island outcrops of the central Mediterranean . Through trade, these artifacts ended up in lands thousands of kilometers away from the original source; this indicates that they were a highly valued commodity. John Dee had a mirror, made of obsidian, which was brought from Mexico to Europe between 1527 and 1530 after Hernando Cortés's conquest of the region. In the Ubaid in the 5th millennium BC , blades were manufactured from obsidian extracted from outcrops located in modern-day Turkey . Ancient Egyptians used obsidian imported from

1960-643: The late Neolithic Qijia culture from around 2000 BCE (some use of bronze is found before the Bronze Age , when it became general for some types of objects). However, until Warring States times, bronze mirrors were not common with approximately only twenty having been discovered. During the Warring States period, mirrors became particularly popular. During the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) mirrors started to be mass-produced in standardised designs, including

2009-434: The lava, which inhibits the first step ( nucleation ) in the formation of mineral crystals . Together with rapid cooling, this results in a natural glass forming from the lava. Obsidian is hard, brittle , and amorphous ; it therefore fractures with sharp edges. In the past, it was used to manufacture cutting and piercing tools, and it has been used experimentally as surgical scalpel blades. The Natural History by

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2058-409: The mineral cristobalite in the black glass produce a blotchy or snowflake pattern ( snowflake obsidian ). Obsidian may contain patterns of gas bubbles remaining from the lava flow, aligned along layers created as the molten rock was flowing before being cooled. These bubbles can produce interesting effects such as a golden sheen ( sheen obsidian ). An iridescent , rainbow -like sheen ( fire obsidian )

2107-554: The production technique for these tools, and the care taken in their storage, may indicate that beyond their practical use they were associated with prestige or high status. Obsidian was also used on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) for edged tools such as Mataia and the pupils of the eyes of their Moai (statues), which were encircled by rings of bird bone. Obsidian was used to inscribe the Rongorongo glyphs . Obsidian can be used to make extremely sharp knives, and obsidian blades are

2156-523: The ragged cut of a serrated weapon. The polearm version of this weapon was called tepoztopilli . Obsidian mirrors were used by some Aztec priests to conjure visions and make prophecies. They were connected with Tezcatlipoca , god of obsidian and sorcery, whose name can be translated from the Nahuatl language as 'Smoking Mirror'. Indigenous people traded obsidian throughout the Americas. Each volcano and in some cases each volcanic eruption produces

2205-543: The reflection comes from a backing applied to the glass. They are significantly inferior to modern mirrors in terms of the quality of the reflection, but in older societies were sufficiently impressive to have religious significance in some societies. Examples include the melong in Tibetan Buddhism and the toli in Asian Shamanism . The ancient Greeks and others used mirrors for divining , and

2254-505: The right one containing a replica of Yata no Kagami and Yasakani-no-Magatama . Mirrors in Shinto are highly significant with Yata no Kagami being seen as prototypical to them. This article relating to Japanese mythology is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bronze mirror They are first-surface mirrors , where the immediate bronze surface is flat, plain and highly polished to be reflective, rather than second-surface mirrors, like modern glass mirrors, where

2303-436: The subject. Obsidian scalpels may be purchased for surgical use on research animals . The major disadvantage of obsidian blades is their brittleness compared to those made of metal, thus limiting the surgical applications for obsidian blades to a variety of specialized uses where this is not a concern. Obsidian is also used for ornamental purposes and as a gemstone . It presents a different appearance depending on how it

2352-842: The time between 2800 and 2500 BCE. Bronze mirrors are usually circular. With excavations in Adichanallur and Keeladi in Tamil Nadu , India, it is confirmed that communities lived around the Vaigai river valley in the Bronze Age . The excavations done in Adichanallur in 1899 by Alexander Rea, the then Superintendent of the Archeological Survey of India, Southern circle brought out two bronze circular items. They are bronze mirrors similar to ones found in other civilisations. Carbon dating of samples tested resulted in

2401-609: Was mainly used for production of chipped tools which were very sharp due to its nature. Artifacts made of obsidian can be found in many Neolithic cultures across Europe. The source of obsidian for cultures inhabiting the territory of and around Greece was the island of Milos ; the Starčevo–Körös–Criș culture obtained obsidian from sources in Hungary and Slovakia, while the Cardium -Impresso cultural complex acquired obsidian from

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