67-645: The yangban ( Korean : 양반 ; Hanja : 兩班 ) were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon period. The yangban were mainly composed of highly educated civil officials and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats who individually exemplified the Korean Confucian form of a " scholarly official ". They were largely government administrators and bureaucrats who oversaw medieval and early modern Korea's traditional agrarian bureaucracy until
134-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with
201-480: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this
268-567: A diminutive connotation. Unlike noble titles in the European and Japanese aristocracies, which were conferred on a hereditary basis, the bureaucratic position of yangban was granted by law to yangban who meritoriously passed state-sponsored civil service exams called gwageo ( 과거 ; 科擧 ). This exam was modeled on the imperial examinations first started during the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. Upon passing these exams—which tested knowledge of
335-545: A later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations ,
402-440: A member of any social class except nobi , baekjeong (Korean untouchables), and children of concubines could take the government exams and become a yangban . In reality, only the upper classes—i.e., the children of yangban —possessed the financial resources and the wherewithal to pass the exams, for which years of studying were required. These barriers and financial constraints effectively excluded most non- yangban families and
469-574: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding
536-619: Is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from
603-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to
670-704: Is based mostly on military and party alliances. Yangban were the Joseon period equivalent of the former Goryeo nobles who had been educated in Buddhist and Confucian studies. With the succession of the Yi generals in the Joseon dynasty, prior feuds and factions were quelled through a decisive attempt to instill administrative organization throughout Korea and create a new class of agrarian bureaucrats. The individual yangban included members of this new class of bureaucrats and former Goryeo nobility. While ostensibly open to all,
737-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean
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#1732765566178804-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be
871-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with
938-544: Is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by
1005-747: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on
1072-521: The Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which
1139-527: The yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By
1206-464: The Confucian classics and history with poetry—several times, yangban was usually assigned to a government post. It was superficially decided that a yangban family that did not produce a government official for more than three generations could lose its status and become commoners. This superficial rule was never actually applied, but was a motivation rule for yangban to study harder. In theory,
1273-437: The Joseon period. However, from the sixteenth century onward yangban increasingly came to denote local wealthy families who were mostly believed to be the descendants of once high-ranking officials. As more of the population aspired to become yangban and gradually succeeded in doing so in the late Joseon period by purchasing the yangban status, the privileges and splendor the term had inspired slowly vanished. It even gained
1340-589: The Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and
1407-568: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,
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#17327655661781474-424: The hyangan ( 향안 ; 鄕案 ), a document that listed the names and lineages of local yangban families. The hyangan was maintained on blood basis, and one could be cut off from it if members of the family married social inferiors, such as tradesmen. Although the hyangan was not legally supported by government acts or statutes, the families listed in it were socially respected as yangban . Their householders had
1541-579: The yangban have been replaced by the Korean ruling class, i.e., an elite class of business and government elites, who dominate the country through their wealth, power and influence channeled through their familial and social networks. (This applies to North and South Korea, though the North's elite class is largely military-based.) The word is also used, at least in South Korea, as a common reference (sometimes with distinctly negative connotations, reflecting
1608-406: The yangban legacy of patronage based on common educational experiences, teachers, family backgrounds, and hometowns continues in some forms, officially and unofficially. In South Korea, the practice exists among the upper class and power elite, where patronage among the conglomerates tends to predictably follow blood, school, and hometown ties. In North Korea, a de facto yangban class exists that
1675-644: The "civil service exams" ( 과거 ) catered to the lifestyle and habits of the yangban , which created a semi-hereditary meritocracy, as yangban families overwhelmingly possessed the minimum education, uninterrupted study time and immense financial resources to pass such exams. The yangban, like the Mandarins before them, dominated the Royal Court and military of pre-Modern Korea and often were exempt from laws including those relating to taxes. There were at most 100 positions open with thousands of candidates taking
1742-776: The 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea
1809-408: The 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language )
1876-539: The Joseon Dynasty, men's clothing varied in form depending on their social status, occupation, and circumstances. Generally, men wore jeogori (jackets), baji (pants), and po (outer garments) as basic attire. Commoners and lower-class individuals typically wore simple garments made of plain-colored cotton or hemp, while the upper class, such as the Yangban, utilized luxurious materials and colors. The attire of
1943-524: The Joseon Dynasty. To dye a single set of deep red clothing required the cultivation of madder plants ( 홍람 ; 紅藍 ), and it took as much farmland to grow these plants as would yield enough grain to feed a family of four for a month. Furthermore, fabric dyed in a rich red hue costs more than four times the value of white cloth. Consequently, commoners dared not even contemplate using deep red colors. Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ )
2010-571: The Korean War on June 25, the influence of the Yangban class and discrimination against the common people persisted. In modern-day Korea, the yangban as a social class with legal status and landed wealth no longer exists either in the north or the south. Nevertheless, those who are well-connected in Korean society are sometimes said to have " yangban " connections. Though these claims may have some merit, such references are not usually intended to suggest any real yangban lineage or ancestry. Today,
2077-579: The Southern Expansion Policy, and sometimes even benefited from them, allowing them to accumulate wealth more than other social strata. However, they did not receive the same treatment as the Japanese aristocracy under Japanese rule. There were limitations as both social classes and businesses remained dependent on Japan, and the profits flowed back to the Japanese upper class. Unlike popular narratives in Korean minjung scholarship, after
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2144-399: The Yangban class featured intricate details, materials, and accompanying accessories which reflected the wearer's societal status. Each attire differed based on their jobs and titles, their attire was also a reflection of the respect to be given to them and their family lineage. The Hanbok of Yangban is beyond the general hanbok style and is known as po ( 포 ). Po has multiple variations but
2211-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,
2278-428: The court — after purging their rival factions and other rival clans in their own political faction the Joseon bureaucracy degenerated into corruption. At this level the exceptionally powerful families could be more properly referred to as sedoga ( 세도가 ; 勢道家 ) instead of mere yangban , which by then came to include shades of classes other than the grandees. From the sixteenth century and increasingly during
2345-639: The customary right to participate in the hyangso ( 향소 ; 鄕所 ), a local council from which they could exercise influence on local politics and administration. By reserving and demanding socio-political power through local instruments such as hyangan and hyangso , yangban automatically passed down their status to posterity in local magnate families, with or without holding central offices. These provincial families of gentility were often termed jaejisajok ( 재지사족 ; 在地士族 ), which means "the country families". while legally, yangban meant high-ranking officials, in reality it included almost all descendants of
2412-482: The disasters caused by the Little Ice Age, issued a tool called Gongmyeongcheop, a means of purchasing and selling government positions, and the existing caste system collapsed. As a result, genealogy, rather than official position, became a means of proving one's status as a nobleman, and the status of Yangban changed to a hereditary form. It was customary to include all descendants of the office holders in
2479-575: The end of the dynasty in 1897. In a broader sense, an office holder's family and descendants, as well as country families who claimed such descent, were socially accepted as yangban . In contemporary Korean language, the term yangban can be used either as a compliment or insult. Yangban literally means "two branches" of administration: munban ( 문반 ; 文班 ) which comprises civil administrators and muban ( 무반 ; 武班 ) which comprises martial office holders. The term yangban first appeared sometime during late Goryeo but gained wider usage during
2546-603: The exams. Competition that was originally supposed to bring out the best in each candidate gave way to the importance of familial relationships. Because the Joseon Court was constantly divided among the Northern, Southern, Eastern, and Western faction members (the eccentric geographical naming derived from the location of each leader's house in Seoul which were divided into subsections), a divided system resulted where corruption
2613-550: The fashion of the Yangban class during the Joseon Dynasty, it reveals that their attire was more than just a question of personal preference, but a reflection of complex society systems and beliefs profoundly rooted in Confucian ideas. As highlighted by Lee Youngjae, the portrayal of Hanbok in Shin Yun-Bok's paintings offers invaluable insights into the attire of the ruling-class during this period. These garments, detailed in vivid colors and luxurious fabrics, symbolized not only
2680-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in
2747-516: The former and increasingly lost its legal exactitude. Throughout Joseon history, the monarchy and the yangban existed on the slave labor of the lower classes, particularly the sangmin , whose bondage to the land as indentured servants enabled the upper classes to enjoy a perpetual life of leisure—i.e., the life of "scholarly" gentlemen. These practices effectively ended in 1894 during the Korean Empire of Gwangmu Reform . In today's Korea,
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2814-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains
2881-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it
2948-525: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or
3015-472: The language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until
3082-455: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to
3149-463: The lower classes from competing for yangban status, just like scholar-officials in China . Yangban status on a provincial level was de facto hereditary. In the early Joseon Dynasty, if no one from a noble family had held a government position for four generations, they were deprived of that position. However, the government, which was short of budget due to the wars of the 16th century and
3216-403: The middle that covered the bun to symbolize uniformity. The top bun was in egg shape and used a hairpin known as 빈녀 ( binyeo ) to maintain its structure. The tightness with which 망건 ( mang-geon ) is tied was associated with the level of fashion a Yangban was knowledgeable in. 망건 Mang-geon is tied to a button-like stone on the either sides near the ears known as 관자 ( kwan–ja ). These kwan–ja played
3283-521: The modern day watch, an accessory of Yangban that was always seen in their hands was a hand fan known as 부채 ( bu-chae ), of which many different types and designs symbolized rank and various other elements of social hierarchy. Hats were also a huge part of Yangban fashion. Hats known as 갓 ( gat ), shaped in a round and big cylindrical top that covered their hair, featured a brooch on the top known as 정자 ( jung-ja ). The hat also featured some fashionable elements such as string with beads and elements depended on
3350-408: The most popular is known as dopo ( 도포 ), a long gown with an additional section that covers the lower back and features a slit that gives wavy design. Layering was also a feature of Yangban Hanbok based on the weather or season and was often colorful. Their hair was tied into an up-top bun and the temple was daunted with a band known as 망건 ( mang-geon ), which had a stone known as 풍잠 ( pung-jam ) in
3417-423: The negative impression the class system and its abuses left on Koreans as a whole) to an older, sometimes cantankerous/stubborn man. Over the course of many years, Yangban has waned compared to previous eras; however, akin to nobles in other regions, they still maintain a formidable presence thanks to the remnants of their superiority and vestiges of privilege, standing significantly above the common populace. During
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#17327655661783484-515: The population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by
3551-486: The privileged yangban class, comprising largely those who did not actively resist Japan because of the pro-Japanese policies, gained advantages. They ventured into various industries such as printing, textiles, rubber, clothing, and brewing. Accumulating wealth, they expanded their ventures into sectors requiring technological expertise, including machinery, chemicals, automobiles, and shipbuilding. These individuals were less affected by Japanese policies such as land surveys and
3618-411: The role of assessing a Yangban's rank based on the material and size of it. For example, a big golden kwan–ja meant the person belonged to higher class. Another feature are the accessories. Earrings were worn by Yangban from the early Joseon dynasty and by people of all ages up until the 14th Joseon King, San-Jo, banned wearing earrings due to the discrimination by other countries during war. Similar to
3685-613: The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, high-ranking offices were monopolized by a few grandee families based in Seoul or the Han River Valley, therefore blocking any chance of gaining high-ranking posts by many provincial families of pedigree. However, provincial magnates began to refer themselves as yangban whether they held government offices or not. As more families claimed to be yangban and exercised provincial influences through local institutions, such as local council, pedigree acknowledgment and Confucius school ( seowon ),
3752-669: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting
3819-524: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Sangmin Sangmin ( Korean : 상민 ; Hanja : 常民 ), short for p'yŏngsangjimin ( 평상지민 ; 平常之民 ), is a Korean-language term for commoners of the Joseon period (1392–1897). Synonyms for the term include sŏin ( 서인 ; 庶人 ), sangin ( 상인 ; 常人 ), yangmin ( 양민 ; 良民 ), p'yŏngmin ( 평민 ; 平民 ), and p'yŏngin ( 평인 ; 平人 ). Sangmin
3886-410: The taking of the gwageo (civil service examinations), the nobility used their influence to place restrictions on such access. There was a range in economic conditions for sangmin ; it was reportedly sometimes difficult to distinguish between a well-off sangmin and a nobleperson. Money allowed for the purchase of clothing that signaled high social status. This Korean history -related article
3953-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at
4020-584: The term lost its original meaning and became a sort of social status that had a confusing legal standing. Its economic and cultural domain was clear, though. A landlord who studied classics at seowon ( 서원 ; 書院 ) could be easily looked upon as yangban by the local populace. People could now purchase yangban status by paying to procure lower government posts or jokbo ( 족보 ), the noble pedigree. Nearly all yangban of upper-high ranking grandee to lower-ranking provincial landlord status suddenly lost their ancient political, social and economic power during
4087-413: The twentieth century. The legality of yangban was abolished in 1894. Subsequently, their political and administrative role was replaced by Japanese colonial government and its administrators, although some yangban maintained their wealth and power by cooperating with the Japanese. However, the erosion of an idea of complete and exclusive power was irreversible. During the period of Japanese colonial rule,
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#17327655661784154-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ
4221-568: The wearer's personal preference and hierarchical rank. In the royal family, the number of strings on a hat adorned by the king or prince determined their ranks. Shoes worn by Yangban were of two kinds low-ankle shoes known as 혜 ( hye ) and high-cut shoes known as 화 ( hwa ). These two were strictly worn by the elite class. Footwear was also divided based on the material. For example, Commoners wore wooden clogs or straw shoes daily whereas Yangban and royal families wore leather shoes known as 갓신 ( gatsin ) with beautiful patterns and colors. While exploring
4288-416: The wearer's social standing but also adherence to Confucian ideals. Yi et al. (2007) further emphasizes the significance of traditional Korean outfit, demonstrating how apparel acted as a visible depiction of one's social status, with minor distinctions designating rank and connection. The colorful garments were exclusive to the Yangban class. From an economic standpoint, red was a highly luxurious item during
4355-576: Was also sometimes used to describe innocent people, in contrast to criminals. The term sangmin was used as an informal or legal designation depending on the time period. It refers to everyone who is not of noble background. In the latter half of the 17th century, a two-class system called yangch'ŏnje ( 양천제 ; 良賤制 ) was enacted, and sangmin made the lower class. However, sangmin were still de facto divided into various subgroups. Sangmin were systemically disadvantaged. While they were technically supposed to receive equal access to education and
4422-487: Was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of
4489-484: Was very difficult. With each faction constantly probing for an excuse to kill off the other, if one faction was proven to be corrupt then the other factions would immediately jump on the chance to purge them. The attempt to receive or give bribes on a massive scale was suicide. It wasn't until the reign of King Sunjo that the Kim clan of Andong in cooperation with few other blood related grandee clans obtained full control over
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