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76-508: Yudnamutana ( / j ə d n ə ˌ m uː ˈ t ɑː n ə / yəd-nə-moo- TAH -nə ) is a historic mining valley in the Northern Flinders Ranges , located at Mount Freeling, North West of Arkaroola on the edge of the wilderness sanctuary. It is accessible by four-wheel drive from the south. Ancient mining sites give the opportunity for ecologically responsible bush camping, but no supplies are available. Walks across

152-580: A distance of about 300 kilometres (190 miles). This limiting factor affected the company's profitability. A drought in 1869 forced the closure of the mine because not enough water was available for animals that worked at the mine. Another attempt was made at mining the site at the start of the 20th century. Transport was less costly this time – by dray for only 100 kilometres (62 miles) to the Central Australia Railway at Farina , then by train. The mine's proprietors tried to further reduce

228-511: A large number of bird species including parrots , galahs , emus , the wedge-tailed eagle and small numbers of water birds. Reptiles include goannas , snakes , dragon lizards , skinks and geckos . The streambank froglet is an endemic amphibian . The Ranges are part of the Tirari–Sturt stony desert ecoregion . A team acting on behalf of the Government of South Australia and

304-763: A manner similar to the state's capital city, Adelaide. Governor Jervois reputedly bestowed the name 'Quorn' because his private secretary at the time had come from the parish of Quorn, Leicestershire in England. In the 1920s Aroona became an outstation of Oraparinna Station , and spring water was used to irrigate large gardens there. The Flinders Ranges are the largest mountain range in South Australia. It starts about 200 km (125 mi) north of Adelaide city centre . The discontinuous ranges stretch for over 430 km (265 mi) from Port Pirie to Lake Callabonna . Its most characteristic landmark

380-440: A mountain community some distance from where they work. Forestry and traditional agriculture is declining in the mountain areas of Japan, Europe and the eastern United States as government subsidies are withdrawn. Outside Europe and Japan the human population in mountains is rising as they are used as refuges, sources of minerals, for tourism, and for commercial forestry, farming and animal husbandry. Colonization and immigration in

456-524: Is Wilpena Pound / Ikara , a formation that creates a natural amphitheatre covering 80 km (31 sq mi) and containing the range's highest peak, St Mary Peak (1,171 m (3,842 ft)). The ranges include several national parks , the largest being the Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park , as well as other protected areas . It is an area of great geological and palaeontological significance, and includes

532-537: Is Wilpena Pound / Ikara , a large, sickle -shaped, natural amphitheatre that covers 80 km (31 sq mi), and contains the range's highest peak, St Mary Peak (1,171 m (3,842 ft), ) which adjoins the Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park . The southern ranges are notable for the Pichi Richi heritage steam and diesel railway and Mount Remarkable National Park . The Heysen Trail and Mawson Trail run for several hundred kilometres along

608-580: Is a long open valley that lies around 25 km (16 mi) north of Wilpena Pound, between the Heysen Range and ABC Ranges. The lease was taken up first by the Brownes, and then by Johnson Frederick Hayward in the 1850s. Hayward had arrived in 1847 from Somerset , and was initially overseer of Pekina Station . Hayward Bluff, False Mount Hayward, South Mount Hayward, and Mount Hayward, in the Heysen Range, are all named after him. The Aroona head station

684-609: Is classified as mountain, including plateaus. This accounts for 20% of the total. Mountain regions in a 2003 study by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations follow the WCMC classification. Mountain environments vary depending on their latitude and their proximity to the edge of a landmass. The windward side will have greater rainfall than the leeward. The mountain environment can be harsh, particularly in

760-945: Is difficult to predict how well the mountain populations will adapt to changes in the resources on which they rely for subsistence, although it seems clear that there will be increased competition for use of the land for different purposes. People have lived in mountain regions for thousands of years. Some may have sought refuge from persecution or from changing climate, while others may have migrated in search of food. New arrivals sometimes settled and developed prosperous farming communities. Streams, rivers and lakes that provide water for agriculture and domestic use are often found in valleys with flat ground suitable for cultivation of crops. These are prime locations for settlements. The streams could also be harnessed by mills to process grain. More recently they are used for hydroelectric plants, which provide overall social benefits but can be very disruptive locally. The difficulty of movement between valleys in

836-575: Is no strong evidence that people who live at high elevations have become genetically adapted to the low levels of oxygen. They are not genetically isolated from the people of the lowlands, and typically move through a much wider range of elevations than other mountain species. However, studies have shown that some positive selected genes or gene regions do contribute to adaptation to high altitude in Andeans and Tibetans. Studies in Peru of aerobic capacity ,

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912-829: Is not yet evidence that inheritance is a strong factor in high-altitude adaptation in humans . The people of the tropical high mountains experience more exposure to solar irradiance than lowlanders, and must adapt to wider temperature extremes between day and night. Seasonal weather imposes periods of low and high activity, and of scarce and plentiful food. Unpredictable droughts, periods of intense cold, plant and animal disease, and so on make food availability uncertain. An estimated 245 million mountain people are thought to be at risk of food shortages. 87% of these live below 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). Water boils at lower temperatures at higher altitudes, so it takes longer to cook food and requires more water and fuel. Gathering fuel in turn requires energy. Compared to non-mountain populations,

988-460: Is practical to grow cash crops such as carrots , cabbage , beans , garlic and apples for sale in distant markets. In Africa there is strong pressure on the mid-elevation environment from commercial and subsistence farming. Rapid population growth in East Africa is mainly concentrated in the fertile farmlands of the mountain regions. Although the public has come to value the presence in

1064-495: Is the rock engravings that are understood to be the oldest artwork in the world, some dating back 40,000 years. Elder Vince Coulthard has been involved in the application process, and says that the creation stories also need to be included. Seven properties in the Flinders have been identified as possessing the technical and scientific evidence necessary to support the bid: Hill people People have used or lived in

1140-598: The Appalachians and mining for metal ores in the western mountains resulted in growth of settlements between 1850 and 1930. Many of these were abandoned during the Great Depression , but mining is still an important part of the mountain economy of the Americas. Although mining in the mountains has a very long history, the local communities often resent the exploitation of common lands by mining companies and

1216-757: The Mount Brown Conservation Park south of Quorn. The Flinders Ranges are composed largely of folded and faulted sediments of the Adelaide Geosyncline . This very thick sequence was deposited in a large basin during the Neoproterozoic on the passive margin of the ancient continent of Rodinia . During the Cambrian (about 540 million years ago) the area underwent the Delamerian orogeny , when this sequence of rocks

1292-655: The Peruvian Andes and the Central Nepal Himalaya shows strong similarities. At low elevations crops in all three regions include fruits, and at mid elevations they all include cereals such as barley and wheat, and maize and rice in the Andes and Himalaya. Higher up the production gives way to tubers such as potatoes, then to forest, and then at high elevations to pasture for sheep , cattle , goats , and in Peru for camelids . The people of

1368-494: The alpine regions above the tree line at higher elevations and in the drier climates outside the tropics. No more than 3% of world's land that is highly suitable for agriculture lies in the mountain regions. Temperatures tend to always be high on the lower slopes near the equator, and there is often heavy rainfall year-round. Higher up and outside the tropics, temperatures can soar in the daytime and plummet at night. Usually there are strong winds, frequent freezing and thawing at

1444-616: The traditional owners , the Adnyamathanha people , which includes internationally renowned American palaeontologist Mary L. Droser , lodged a nomination for a tentative listing as a World Heritage Site , which was accepted by UNESCO in April 2021. The application was made on the basis of its unique geological and palaeontological values. It is a lengthy process, and the site needs to fulfil very specific criteria as well as showing strong evidence that its values are absolutely unique in

1520-529: The 1850s. Prospectors followed shortly after, hoping for another Burra style deposit. A copper deposit was found, in 1859, by A. Frost and H. Gleeson. Yudnamutana was the site of an early South Australia copper mine . First mined in 1862, it reached fame in Adelaide shortly afterwards when a block of ore weighing 4 tonnes (3.9 long tons) was paraded through the streets. Copper concentrates were hauled to Port Augusta in drays by animals along rough tracks –

1596-462: The Alps. The rugged mountains of the island of Papua New Guinea contain fertile valleys with temperate climates that are densely farmed using traditional techniques. The 7.6 million people of the island speak almost 1,300 languages, many of which are spoken by only a few hundred people. The cultural groups that live in the mountains are often minorities within their countries, although they may be in

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1672-414: The Andes maintain what John Victor Murra calls "vertical control", in which groups of people use kinship and other arrangements to access the resources of a range of ecological zones at different elevations, and thus to access a variety of crops and animals. This gives more security than dependence on a single resource. The volcanic mountain region of Java supports dense populations who take advantage of

1748-562: The Flinders, including the plateau of the Gammon Ranges and the Heysen Range. Cuesta forms are also very common. The Ranges are renowned for the Ediacara Hills , south-west of Leigh Creek , where in 1946 some of the oldest fossil evidence of animal life was discovered. Similar fossils have subsequently been found in the ranges, including at Nilpena , with an application being made for World Heritage listing to help protect

1824-739: The Quorn township). During the late 1870s the push to open agricultural land for wheat north of the Goyder's Line had met with unusual success, with good rainfall and crops in the Flinders Ranges. This, along with the copper mining lobby (copper was mined in the Hawker-Flinders Ranges area in the late 1850s and transported overland by bullock dray), induced the government to build a narrow gauge railway line north of Port Augusta through Pichi Richi Pass, Quorn , Hawker and along

1900-466: The Ranges are largely species adapted to a semi-arid environment, including sugar gum , cypress-pine , mallee and black oak . Moister areas near Wilpena Pound support grevilleas , Guinea flowers , Liliaceae and ferns . Reeds and sedges grow near permanent water sources such as springs and waterholes . Since the eradication of dingos and the establishment of permanent waterholes for stock,

1976-638: The South Asian mountains work in other countries such as the Gulf States and send part of their earnings home. Men in the Andes often find seasonal work in the lowland farms and oilfields, or work in developed countries such as Spain. This creates a fragile economy where the old people, women and children who remain behind depend on remittances from the men. The situation in Europe and North America used to be similar, but with improved transportation today

2052-413: The abundant timber for fire and shelter. The Dayaks of Kalimantan still follow a traditional hunting and gathering lifestyle, although they are under growing pressure from the outside world. Later human settlers in the mountains practiced a combination of hunting and gathering, raising crops and tending livestock, with most families involved in all these activities. As specialist workers have emerged,

2128-850: The area, and the Ngadjuri (Ndajurri) people, They inhabited the range for tens of thousands of years before being dispersed by European settlement after colonisation . Cave paintings , rock engravings and other cultural artefacts indicate that the Adnyamathana and Ndajurri lived in the Flinders Ranges for tens of thousands of years. Occupation of the Warratyi rock shelter dates back approximately 49,000 years. The first European explorers were an exploration party from Matthew Flinders ' seagoing visit to upper Spencer Gulf aboard HMS Investigator . They climbed Mount Brown in March 1802. In

2204-574: The associated environmental damage. So far, there has been relatively little mining in the Hindu Kush , Karakoram and Himalayas , although this seems likely to change. Many of the mountain people in developing countries are poor and depend on scarce or diminishing food resources from agriculture or livestock. They may be partially employed in forestry, mining and service jobs. In the past Gurkhas , Swiss and Scottish highlanders served as mercenaries in foreign countries. Today many people from

2280-438: The body's ability to obtain oxygen, show that there is little difference between natives born at high elevations and lowlanders who move to high elevations when they were young children, although the lowlanders had more European ancestry than the high elevation natives. Aerobic capacity was lower with migrants who moved up in their adolescence, and lower again in those who moved as adults. Genetics are obviously important, but there

2356-547: The cemetery. Flinders Ranges The Flinders Ranges are the largest mountain ranges in South Australia , which starts about 200 km (125 mi) north of Adelaide . The ranges stretch for over 430 km (265 mi) from Port Pirie to Lake Callabonna . The Adnyamathanha people are the Aboriginal group who have inhabited the range for tens of thousands of years. Its most well-known landmark

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2432-428: The cost of transport by instigating a road train to Farina railway station in 1909. However, the rough terrain and mechanical breakdowns soon ended the scheme. A small smelter was constructed at Farina in 1909 or 1910, but it closed after only a few experiments and was demolished in 1938. The mine itself closed again by 1912. All that remains of this settlement are two large boilers, some mine shafts, some dugouts and

2508-427: The crests of the mountains deliver splendid views over the Flinders Ranges into the plains of the outback . The northern pass hosts black rocks of magnetite . This area was inhabited by the Adnyamathanha tribe of Indigenous Australians for millennia before the arrival of Europeans. They were Stone Age hunter-gatherers and inhabited much of the area to the south. This area was first settled by pastoralists in

2584-496: The critical density of 25 people per km . The growing mountain population in developing and transition countries is creating serious environmental problems in forest and grazing lands. Some of the forest or grazing land could be converted to crops for subsistence or cash, but 78% is unsuitable for this purpose, or only marginally suitable. Paleolithic hunters and gatherers followed the mountain fauna as they moved from summer to winter pastures, fished, gathered edible plants and used

2660-399: The developed world the mountain people are generally prosperous, and the mountains may be used for tourism and outdoor recreation. Mining is also widespread and dates back to the pre-Christian era. In parts of the developing world the mountain communities depend on remittances from young men who have gone to work in the lowlands or overseas. Although 70% of mountain people live in rural areas,

2736-437: The early 1860s Hayward returned to England, and purchased an estate near Bath , which he called Aroona. In 1852 Kanyaka Station was established by Hugh Proby. William Pinkerton is credited as being the first European to find a route through the Flinders Ranges via Pichi Richi Pass. In 1853 he drove 7,000 sheep along the eastern plains of the range, to where Quorn would be built 25 years later (Pinkerton Creek runs through

2812-500: The first three pastoral leases in the central Flinders Ranges were only marked out in 1851. These were Wilpena , Arkaba , and Aroona , which were developed as sheep stations . The leases were initially granted for 14 years by the government of the Colony of South Australia , over land dubbed "unoccupied waste lands". The name Aroona is derived from an Adnyamathanha word meaning "running water", or "place of frogs". Aroona Valley

2888-487: The formal definition. 22% of the world's land, or 29,000,000 square kilometres (11,000,000 sq mi) is classified as a mountain region, of which about half is below 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Rugged land is considered a mountain region if it is at least 300 metres (980 ft) above sea level, but plateaus and broad valleys running through the mountains below 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) are not considered mountain regions. All land above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)

2964-645: The fragile soil. Often human activity has degraded the mountain environments. Humans have reduced biodiversity in many of the world's mountain regions. Areas with high biodiversity where the environment is under intense stress include California 's montane ecoregions ( California montane chaparral and woodlands ), the mixed forest ecoregion in the Caucasus , and in northwest South America the Magdalena Valley montane forests , Magdalena–Urabá moist forests and Western Ecuador moist forests . Almost 28% of

3040-627: The higher levels, snow, sleet and heavy rainfall in some areas, causing steady erosion. The thin soils on the slopes do not retain water, and only support drought-resistant plants . Often these plants are low and store energy in spreading roots, with relatively little vegetation above ground. This vegetation may be cleared for cultivation or road building, or may be overgrazed, resulting in rapid soil loss through erosion. People have both adapted to mountain conditions and modified those conditions. For example, farmers in many areas use terracing to retain soil and water. Contour ploughing also helps stabilize

3116-515: The highest percentages of mountain people are Bhutan (89%), Rwanda (75%), Lesotho (73%), Armenia (70%), Guatemala (64%), Costa Rica (63%) and Yemen (61%). About 70% of the mountain population is rural and relies on farming, fishing and extraction from local forests. The permanent mountain population also includes itinerant mineral prospectors, miners, loggers, construction workers and others who move from place to place. Better roads and vehicles may allow these people to live permanently in

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3192-420: The lack of roads may be seen as evidence of discrimination. Today, new transport and communications technologies are bringing goods, services, infrastructure and information to even the most remote parts of the mountains. The mountain communities are being forced to integrate with the larger global society. The Food and Agriculture Organization estimated in their 2003 report that around 720 million, or 12% of

3268-804: The last 400 years have been causing steady population growth in formerly less populated mountain areas in Africa, Australia, New Zealand, South America, Canada and the Western United States, also in some places such as Talysh people lands in Iran there are people who still live on mountains . Many of the high-elevation people grow slowly and have small bodies. This may reduce their energy requirements without affecting their ability to handle hypoxia , cold and work demands. Long term high-elevation residents have expanded lungs and hearts, higher levels of hemoglobin in their blood and shorter limbs. There

3344-880: The majority in their region. This is true of the Tibetans , Naxi , Miao , Yi and Uyghurs in China, the Kurds in the north of Iraq and the east of Turkey , the Amhars in Ethiopia and the Quechua and Aymara in the Andes. Often the mountain people are marginalized both politically and economically. The isolated mountain regions of the Atlas, Peru and Cuba have served as bases for guerrilla rebels. While mountain areas are more isolated than lower or flatter lands, when measured by

3420-413: The members of each household perform fewer activities, but there are more occupations within the community as a whole. This trend has accelerated in the last 400 years, driven by the industrial revolution and colonialism, the transition to commercial produce such as furs and minerals, and the recent growth of tourism. During this period large numbers of Han Chinese settlers migrated to the mountain areas in

3496-500: The mountain forests so as to reduce flooding and erosion. The impact of climate change on mountain environments is not well understood, but they seem to be more sensitive than the lowlands. The higher-level ecosystems will be forced up the mountains as temperatures rise, shrinking in size and at some point disappearing. Threats include environmental stress during adaptation to higher mean annual temperatures, changes to precipitation patterns and more frequent extreme weather events. It

3572-476: The mountain people are quite prosperous. The mountains are visited seasonally by nomadic pastoralists such as the Gaddis and Gurjars in the western Himalayas. A similar seasonal pattern was followed by North American hunters and gatherers in the past. Other semi-permanent residents in the developed countries include young people who find jobs in the ski resorts or as tree planters and people with second homes in

3648-414: The mountain people suffer more from malnutrition due to food shortage and deficiencies in micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and suffer from respiratory diseases caused by the severe climate and smoke in their shelters during the cold periods. These problems are compounded by poor access to primary health care. Based on a detailed GIS survey, in mountain regions of developing and transitional countries

3724-544: The mountains for thousands of years, first as hunter-gatherers and later as farmers and pastoralists . The isolated communities are often culturally and linguistically diverse. Today about 720 million people, or 12% of the world's population, live in mountain regions, many of them economically and politically marginalized. The mountain residents have adapted to the conditions, but in the developing world they often suffer from food insecurity and poor health. They depend on crops, livestock and forest products, and tend to be poor. In

3800-764: The mountains in Latin America include Mexico City at 2,250 metres (7,380 ft), with about 21 million people, Bogotá at 2,650 metres (8,690 ft), Quito at 2,850 metres (9,350 ft), La Paz at 3,500 to 3,800 metres (11,500 to 12,500 ft), Caracas and Santiago . In North America they include Denver , Vancouver and Calgary . Geneva and Zürich are among European mountain cities, and Addis Ababa and Nairobi among African mountain cities. The list in Asia includes Tehran , Bandung , Chandigarh , Dehradun , Siliguri , Kathmandu , Chengdu and Kunming . The large cities are more or less influenced by

3876-479: The mountains of large predators such as bears , wolves and snow leopards , the local people tend not share that view, since the wildlife preys upon their livestock and crops. Mining has been an important part of mountain economies throughout history, with prospectors seeking precious stones, ores, coal and salt in the mountains of Europe and the Americas. In many places rock, gravel and sand quarries are also economically important. In North America, coal mining in

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3952-519: The mountains they use for recreation. In South and East Asia, much of the labor for construction, road building and road maintenance is supplied by poor laborers from the lowlands. The Sherpas in the region near Mount Everest can often afford to employ Rai workers for most manual tasks. Almost 30% of mountain people live in towns or cities. The largest cities are on the margins of the mountains, or are on high plateaus, sometimes very high. Examples of large (over 1 million people) cities in or beside

4028-471: The mountains, including the low-lying Vancouver and Chandigarh, but to a lesser degree than the smaller cities and towns within the mountains. The smaller cities, typically in mountain valleys, are more closely linked to the mountain culture, although they have often diversified into tourism and recreation services, mineral processing, manufacturing, administration and services. The mountain cities, particularly in developing countries, are magnets to migrants from

4104-468: The north during the summer. The area gets around 250 mm (9.8 in) of rain annually, with the highest at Wilpena Pound , at 350 mm (14 in). Frost is common on winter mornings and temperatures have dropped as low as −8 °C (18 °F). Snow has even been recorded in the Wilpena Pound and at Blinman . As of 2013, the last significant snowfall was in 1995. The flora of

4180-401: The number of red kangaroos , western grey kangaroos and wallaroos in the Flinders Ranges has increased. The yellow-footed rock-wallaby , which neared extinction after the arrival of Europeans due to hunting and predation by foxes , has now stabilised. Other endemic marsupials include dunnarts and planigales . Insectivorous bats make up a significant proportion of the mammals. There are

4256-423: The oldest fossil evidence of animal life was discovered. The Ediacaran Period and Ediacaran biota take their name from the Ediacara Hills within the ranges. In August 2022, a nomination for the Flinders Ranges to be named a World Heritage Site was lodged. The first humans to inhabit the Flinders Ranges were the Adnyamathanha people (meaning " hill people " or "rock people") whose descendants still reside in

4332-507: The past has isolated mountain communities and contributed to high levels of cultural diversity. Nearby communities may have different languages and dialects, traditions, costumes, cuisine and economic systems. This is seen in the Andes and the western mountains of Canada. In the central Karakoram there are speakers of Shina , Urdu , Waki and Burushaski . Many distinct dialects of French , German , Italian and Romansch are spoken in

4408-749: The percentage of the population that lives more than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from a road the difference is not great as might be expected. Thus in Ethiopia 50% of mountain people and 40% of non-mountain people live more than 5 kilometres from a road. In Afghanistan and China 30% of mountain people live more than 5 kilometres from a road, compared to 20% of non-mountain people. In Peru the respective ratios are 20% and 13%. Population densities in inaccessible places are usually similar to accessible places. In Ethiopia and Afghanistan they are higher. The mountain people want land that can be farmed using traditional methods more than ease of travel to distant places. However,

4484-666: The ranges, providing scenic long distance routes for walkers, cyclists and horse-riders. Several small areas in the ranges have the protected area status. These include the Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park near Wilpena Pound/Ikara, the Mount Remarkable National Park in the south near Melrose , the Arkaroola Protection Area in the north, The Dutchmans Stern Conservation Park west of Quorn , and

4560-534: The rest live in cities, including large cities such as Mexico City, with a population of around 21 million. The cities attract temporary or permanent migrants from the rural areas. The smaller cities are more connected to the mountain culture and economy than the larger ones. Under the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) classification, mountain regions include both hills and mountains. See " Classes of mountain region " for

4636-524: The rich soils and diverse altitude-based ecological zones. They accept a trade-off against the high potential for disastrous eruptions. Near the equator the sun is almost overhead all year, so the orientation of slopes is unimportant. Further away, the amount of sunlight varies considerably. In the Alps the south-facing slopes are preferred for settlements and farming, while the north-facing slopes are used for forestry and ski resorts. In mountain regions with seasonal climates, including Europe, North America,

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4712-415: The route to Alice Springs . Hawker townsite was surveyed at a bend in the railway line where the train line left the main road to Blinman , and named in 1880 after South Australian politician and pastoralist George Charles Hawker . Quorn was surveyed by Godfrey Walsh and proclaimed a town on 16 May 1878. The township covered an area of 1.72 km (0.66 sq mi) and was laid out in squares in

4788-527: The rural areas of the mountains seeking work, security and other benefits. Many are ringed by densely-populated squatter communities. Mountain regions are classified by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) based on absolute elevation, slope and Local Elevation Range (LER), which is the range of elevations within a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) radius, and indicates how hilly the land is. The 2003 FAO report gives

4864-568: The sites. In 2004 a new geological period, the Ediacaran Period, was created to mark the appearance of Ediacaran biota . The region has a semi-arid climate with hot dry summers and cool winters. Summer temperatures usually exceed 38 °C (100 °F), while winters have highs around 13–16 °C (55–61 °F), depending on the elevation. Although rainfall is erratic, most of the precipitation falls in winter. There are also some monsoonal showers and storms that move in from

4940-572: The southern Andes and most of the Himalayas, high pastures can only be used in the summer and the people work in the lower forest zones during the winter. Nearer the equator in the central Andes, East Africa and Southeast Asia there may be less seasonal variation, and permanent settlements as high as 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) are practical, with economies based on herding and cold-resistant grains and tubers. Where crops were previously grown only for local consumption, with improved transportation it

5016-488: The southwest and west of China, while European settlers moved into South and North America. The indigenous people were often forced to work in commercial agricultural and mining enterprises. This transition was not entirely negative, but devastated many of the traditional mountain communities. Maize , millet , potatoes , tomatoes and wheat have their origins in mountain regions, as do tea , coffee and quinoa . A comparison of crops grown in southern Switzerland ,

5092-432: The types of land cover and actual land use are: 17% of the mountain population grows crops or combines crop, livestock and tree farming. 19% subsist from sparsely vegetated barren land, protected areas and closed forests. 44% of mountain land is used for grazing and is home to 64% of rural mountain people. At a global level, the average population density on grazing land below 3,500 metres (11,500 ft) meets or exceeds

5168-471: The west of the ranges to Marree , to service the agricultural and pastoral industries. However, rainfall returned to a normal pattern for the region, causing many agricultural farms to collapse. Remnants of abandoned homes can still be seen dotted around the arid landscape. Wilpena station, due to its unusual geography, along with areas around Quorn and Carrieton, are now the only places north of Goyder's Line to sustain any crops. Wilpena has now been left to

5244-474: The wild and is only a tourist location. As of 2009, kukri, unpopular with most Australian farmers as it yields 10–15% less grain than other varieties of wheat, is being grown for export to India. Mining exploration continued in the region, but coal mining at Leigh Creek and barytes at Oraparinna were the only long-term successes. Pastoral industries flourished, and the rail line became of major importance in opening up and servicing sheep and cattle stations along

5320-526: The winter of 1839 Edward John Eyre , with five men, two drays and ten horses, further explored the region, setting out from Adelaide on 1 May. The party set up a depot near Mount Arden, and then explored the surrounding region and upper Spencer Gulf, before heading east to the Murray River and returning to Adelaide . There are records of squatters in the Quorn district as early as 1845; however,

5396-528: The world population, live in the mountains. Of these, no more than 10% are in developed countries. About half of all mountain people are in Asia, and there are large and rapidly growing populations in South and Central America. 70% live below 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), and less than 10% above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). A very small number of people in the Himalayas and the Andes live permanently at elevations over 4,500 metres (14,800 ft). The countries with

5472-596: The world's forests grow on mountains. Forests are important in regulating water flows and providing fuel and construction material. Before humans arrived, most mountains in tropical and temperate climates would have been forested up to the tree line. Deforestation is not new, and began 3,000 years ago in China. Mountain forests around the Mediterranean and in Britain had been cleared 1,500 years ago. More recently, in China and Europe there have been efforts to restore

5548-490: The world. The involvement of the Adnyamathanha people, particularly their caring for country and sharing knowledge of their cultural heritage, is an important part of the future management of a World Heritage site. In November 2022, the state government announced an allocation of A$ 500,000 over four years towards enabling the Adnyamathanha people to identify priorities for cultural heritage protection. One example

5624-513: Was built next to a waterhole used by local Adnyamathanha people for its permanent supply of fresh water, but the Aboriginal people were not welcome on the station during Hayward's time there. He was implicated in a massacre of Aboriginal people near Brachina Gorge . At least 15 men, women, and children were killed in a dawn attack on 17 March 1852, in retaliation for the murder of stockman Robert Richardson on 14 March. Hayward said that he

5700-402: Was folded and faulted into a large mountain range. The area has undergone subsequent erosion resulting in the relatively low ranges today. Most of the high ground and ridgetops are sequences of quartzites that outcrop along strike . The high walls of Wilpena Pound are formed by the outcropping beds of the eponymous Pound Quartzite in a synclinal structure. Synclines form other high parts of

5776-491: Was obliged to defend his men, due to the absence of police, and that he was attempting to "capture the murderers", firing at them in "self-defence". Sergeant Major Rose, who was in the district at the time with the Protector of Aborigines , Matthew Moorhouse , arrested two Aboriginal men called Bill and Jemmy, but they were released after being held for some time owing to lack of evidence and problems finding an interpreter. In

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