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79-665: The name "Zagwe" is thought to derive from the ancient Ge'ez phrase Ze- Agaw , meaning "of the Agaw", in reference to the Mara Tekle Haymanot, the founder of the dynasty. This term does not appear in contemporary sources, neither in indigenous documents nor in accounts of foreign observers. David Buxton has stated that the areas under the direct rule of the Zagwe kings apart from the centre of power in Lasta "probably embraced

158-469: A counter-revolutionary and was stripped of all his posts, expelled from the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), arrested and executed. His photos were removed from official media and his image digitally removed from photos with other North Korean leaders. The term is used in modern scholarship to cover a wide array of official and unofficial sanctions through which the physical remnants and memories of

237-402: A Proto-Semitic voiceless lateral fricative [ɬ] . Like Arabic, Geʽez merged Proto-Semitic š and s in ሰ (also called se-isat : the se letter used for spelling the word isāt "fire"). Apart from this, Geʽez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be the interdental fricatives and ghayn . There is no evidence within

316-478: A basic correspondence with Proto-Semitic short *i and *u , /æ ~ ɐ/ with short *a , the vowels /i, u, a/ with Proto-Semitic long *ī, *ū, *ā respectively, and /e, o/ with the Proto-Semitic diphthongs *ay and *aw . In Geʽez there still exist many alternations between /o/ and /aw/ , less so between /e/ and /aj/ , e.g. ተሎኩ taloku ~ ተለውኩ talawku ("I followed"). In

395-534: A cover-up could be vast—in the case of Emperor Geta , for example, coins bearing his effigy proved difficult to entirely remove from circulation for several years, even though the mere mention of his name was punishable by death. Difficulties in implementation also arose if there was not full and enduring agreement with the punishment, such as when the Senate's condemnation of Nero was implemented—leading to attacks on many of his statues —but subsequently evaded with

474-624: A deceased individual are destroyed. Looking at cases of damnatio memoriae in modern Irish history, Guy Beiner has argued that iconoclastic vandalism only makes martyrs of the "dishonored", thus ensuring that they will be remembered for all time. Nonetheless, Beiner goes on to argue that the purpose of damnatio memoriae —rather than being to erase people from history—was to guarantee only negative memories of those who were so dishonored. Pointing out that damnatio memoriae did not erase people from history but in effect kept their memory alive, Beiner concluded that those who partake in

553-518: A form of visible denigration. That is: the power of an act of damnatio relies, at least in part, on the viewer of a monument being able to supplement the gaps in an inscription with their own knowledge of what those gaps had once contained, and the reasons why the text had been removed These emperors are known to have been erased from monuments: In the Middle Ages, heresiarchs could have their memory condemned. The Council of Constance decreed

632-600: A general were deleted from the previous year's naval catalogue. The most complete example is their systematic removal of all references to the Antigonids from inscriptions in their city, in 200 BC when they were besieged by the Antigonid king Philip V of Macedon during the Second Macedonian War . One decree praising Demetrius Poliorcetes (Philip V's great-grandfather) was smashed and thrown down

711-438: A party from Paʼ Chan—which included his son and "heir to the throne" of Paʼ Chan ( chʼok paʼchan ajaw ), Sihyaj Ahkteʼ—, possibly indicate that he ruled as a vassal of Itzam Kʼan Ahk, or that he used the celebration as an opportunity to ask for Itzam Kʼan Ahk's support against Yaxun Bʼalam IV, his political rival. This has led to the conclusion that if this man truly ruled Paʼ Chan, any records of his existence were destroyed during

790-517: A portrait of himself and of his military and political advisor Tlacaelel at Chapultepec , a historically and naturally important site which nowadays is within Mexico City . This became a tradition among subsequent Mexica rulers, and portraits of Axayacatl and Ahuizotl , two of Moctezuma's successors, were also made throughout the rest of the century ( Tizoc 's absence may be explained by his sudden death from poisoning). Moctezuma II would create

869-531: A possible value for ḫ ( ኀ ). These values are tentative, but based on the reconstructed Proto-Semitic consonants that they are descended from. The following table presents the consonants of the Geʽ;ez language. The reconstructed phonetic value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, followed by its representation in the Geʽez script and scholarly transliteration. Geʽez consonants have

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948-521: A prominent female figure of the 16th century Renaissance Medici court. Several apparent damnatio mamoriae incidents occurred within the Maya civilization during the Classic period (AD 250–900) as a result of political conflicts between leaders of the local kingdoms. One notable incident occurred in the kingdom of Paʼ Chan (modern-day Yaxchilan , Mexico ) in the middle of the 8th century. In June 742,

1027-574: A son who eventually ascended to the throne after his death, there was a mysterious decade-long interregnum period in which Pa' Chan did not record the existence of any king. Itzamnaaj Bahlam's son, Yaxun Bʼalam IV , also known as Bird Jaguar IV, ascended to the throne in April 752, nearly ten years after his father's death. This interregnum period may be explained by a text from the nearby northern kingdom of Yokib (modern-day Piedras Negras , Guatemala ). Panel 3 of this city, largely regarded as one of

1106-556: A strong interest in Soviet art and design, and amassed a collection of over 250,000 images. His most striking examples of before-and-after alterations were published as The Commissar Vanishes . 19th century Polish writers often omitted mentioning two kings from the list of Polish monarchs, Bezprym and Wenceslaus III of Bohemia , which has resulted in their being omitted from many later works as well. The treatment of Chinese politician Zhao Ziyang following his fall from grace inside

1185-485: A triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and ejective (or emphatic ) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Geʽez has been generalized to include emphatic p̣ /pʼ/ . Geʽez has phonologized labiovelars , descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Geʽez ś ሠ Sawt (in Amharic, also called śe-nigūś , i.e. the se letter used for spelling the word nigūś "king") is reconstructed as descended from

1264-463: A well. At Delphi , an honorific inscription erected between 337 and 327 BC for Aristotle and his nephew Callisthenes , two philosophers who were closely associated with the Macedonians , were smashed and thrown in a well after the death of Alexander of Macedon in 323 BC. In ancient Rome, the practice of damnatio memoriae was the condemnation of emperors after their deaths. If

1343-523: A word (regardless of gender, but often ኣን -ān if it is a male human noun), or by using an internal plural . Nouns also have two cases: the nominative, which is not marked, and the accusative, which is marked with final -a . As in other Semitic languages, there are at least two "states", absolute (unmarked) and construct (marked with -a as well). As in Classical/Standard Arabic , singular and plural nouns often take

1422-456: Is Latin , the phrase was not used by the ancient Romans, and first appeared in a thesis written in Germany in 1689. Today's best known examples of damnatio memoriae from antiquity concern chiselling stone inscriptions or deliberately omitting certain information from them. According to Stefan Zawadzki , the oldest known examples of such practices come from around 3000–2000 BC. He cites

1501-455: Is ሊቅየ liqə́ya (i.e. the accusative is not * ሊቀየ *liqáya ), but with ከ -ka ("your", masculine singular) there's a distinction between nominative ሊቅከ liqə́ka and accusative ሊቀከ liqáka , and similarly with -hu ("his") between nominative ሊቁ liqú (< *liq-ə-hu ) and accusative ሊቆ liqó (< *liqa-hu ). Internal plurals follow certain patterns. Triconsonantal nouns follow one of

1580-530: Is a modern Latin phrase meaning "condemnation of memory" or "damnation of memory", indicating that a person is to be excluded from official accounts. Depending on the extent, it can be a case of historical negationism . There are and have been many routes to damnatio memoriae , including the destruction of depictions, the removal of names from inscriptions and documents, and even large-scale rewritings of history. The term can be applied to other instances of official scrubbing. The practice has been seen as early as

1659-757: Is an ancient South Semitic language . The language originates from what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea . Today, Geʽez is used as the main liturgical language of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church , the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , Ethiopian Catholic Church , Eritrean Catholic Church , and the Beta Israel Jewish community. Hawulti Obelisk is an ancient pre-Aksumite Obelisk located in Matara , Eritrea. The monument dates to

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1738-514: Is known for the ancient Hittite empire . Mursili III was a king of the Hittites for about seven years in 1282–1275 BC who was then overthrown by his uncle Hattusili III , who assumed the throne. There is a well known relief of Mursili's father Muwatalli II near the village of Sirkeli Höyük in Turkey , as well as a second, very similar relief that is believed to be that of his son Mursili. It

1817-486: Is lost when a plural noun with a consonant-final stem has a pronoun suffix attached (generally replaced by the added -i- , as in -i-hu , "his"), thereby losing the case/state distinction, but the distinction may be retained in the case of consonant-final singular nouns. Furthermore, suffix pronouns may or may not attract stress to themselves. In the following table, pronouns without a stress mark (an acute) are not stressed, and vowel-initial suffixes have also been given

1896-455: Is the fact that a completely successful damnatio memoriae results—by definition—in the full and total erasure of the subject from the historical record. In the case of figures such as emperors or consuls it is unlikely that complete success was possible, as even comprehensive obliteration of the person's existence and actions in records and the like would continue to be historically visible without extensive reworking. The impracticality of such

1975-422: The damnatio memoriae of John Wycliffe . The practice of replacing pagan beliefs and motifs with Christian, and purposefully not recording the pagan history, has been compared to damnatio memoriae as well. In her book Medici Women - Portraits of Power, Love and Betrayal , Gabrielle Langdon also presents compelling evidence concerning a probable damnatio memoriae issued against Isabella de' Medici ,

2054-652: The Great Soviet Encyclopedia . Following the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, many communist statues, particularly of Lenin and Stalin, were removed from former Soviet satellite states. Following a 2015 decision, a process of decommunization in Ukraine successfully dismantled all 1,320 statues of Lenin after its independence, as well as renaming roads and structures named under Soviet authority. The graphic designer David King had

2133-480: The Battle of Ansata . In his land grants of 1204 and 1225, Lalibela called himself negus ("king"), which was the traditional title for Ethiopian kings. Besides negus he also called himself hasani , which means as much as "tutor", "nurse" or "counselor". This title first appeared in a 10th-century account by Ibn Hawqal describing an anonymous Ethiopian king, but also features in two undated Ge'ez inscriptions and

2212-611: The Chinese Communist Party is regarded as another modern case of damnatio memoriae . The destruction of all copies of The Victory of Faith in order to erase Ernst Röhm is considered an act of Nazi damnatio memoriae . In the end, two copies survived: one preserved in London and one preserved by the Communist government of East Germany. In December 2013, Jang Song-thaek was abruptly accused of being

2291-662: The Egyptian New Kingdom period, where the Pharaohs Hatshepsut and Akhenaten were subject to it. After Herostratus set fire to the Temple of Artemis , one of the Seven Wonders of antiquity , the people of Ephesus banned the mention of his name. His name has since become an eponym for people who commit crimes for the purpose of gaining notoriety. Although the term damnatio memoriae

2370-495: The Soviet Union , retouching photos to remove individuals such as Leon Trotsky , Nikolay Yezhov , and even Stalin . After Stalin ordered the murder of Grigory Kulik 's wife Kira Kulik-Simonich, all photographic records of her were destroyed; although she was described as very pretty, no photographs or other images of her survive. Following their fall from favour, Lavrentiy Beria and others were removed from articles in

2449-491: The abuna replaced because he would not endorse the new dynasty. The mystery of the Zagwe dynasty is perhaps darkest around its replacement by the Solomonic dynasty under Yekuno Amlak. The name of the last Zagwe king is lost—the surviving chronicles and oral traditions give his name as Za-Ilmaknun , which is clearly a pseudonym (Taddesse Tamrat translates it as "The Unknown, the hidden one"), employed soon after his reign by

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2528-592: The companions of the Prophet briefly lived in Ethiopia in 622 after being exiled from Mecca in the First Hijra . However, there is no archaeological evidence for this. There is, however, evidence for a Muslim community in eastern Tigray during the Zagwe period, possibly being Shiites depending on Fatimid patronage. Arabic funerary steles discovered near Qwiha confirm the presence of a Musli settlement between

2607-438: The k'uhul ajaw (Holy Lord, i.e. king) of Pa' Chan, Itzamnaaj Bahlam III , died after a 60-year-long rule, during which he turned his kingdom into one of great riches after a large number of military campaigns which were recorded and illustrated on multiple high-quality stelae , lintels and hieroglyphic steps of temples which he dedicated to his military success (e.g. Temple 44) and his family (e.g. Temple 23). Though he had

2686-479: The 10th and 12th century, although its whereabouts are still unclear. Recent excavations at nearby Bilet found a Muslim cemetery in use from the late 10th to the mid-13th century, although most tombstones date to the 11th century. The nisbas of the deceased suggest links with Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula , and even Iran. Another Islamic cemetery was found at Arra 30 km southwards and was used between

2765-660: The Americas. For instance, Moctezuma I (not to be confused with his more famous great-grandson Moctezuma II ), 15th-century huei tlahtoani (Great Speaker, i.e. emperor) of the Excan Tlahtoloyan ( lit. Triple Capital), known by historians as the Mexica or Aztec Empire (also known as the Aztec Triple Alliance, whose inhabitants referred to themselves as Culhua-Mexica), ordered the creation of

2844-578: The Hill of Texcotzingo "in a manner such that they would no longer be remembered," a clear example of damnatio memoriae . During the Mexican War of Independence , which started in 1810, one of the earliest revolutionary leaders, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , nowadays remembered as a national Hero , was executed by the Spanish authorities in 1811. After his execution, according to contemporary accounts,

2923-435: The Senate or a later emperor did not like the acts of an emperor, they could have his property seized, his name erased and his statues reworked (normally defaced). Because there was an economic incentive to seize property and rework statues, historians and archaeologists have had difficulty determining when official damnatio memoriae actually took place, although it seems to have been quite rare. Compounding this difficulty

3002-532: The Zagwe dynasty and E.A. Wallis Budge believed they may have even founded the Zagwe line. The Zagwe period is still shrouded in mystery; even the number of kings in this dynasty is disputed. Some sources (such as the Paris Chronicle, and manuscripts Bruce 88, 91, and 93) give the names of eleven kings who ruled for 354 years; others (among them the book Pedro Páez and Manuel de Almeida saw at Axum ) list only five who ruled 143. Paul B. Henze reports

3081-435: The Zagwe dynasty was recorded on the 1922 regnal list . Approximate dates: c. 916–1270 (354 years). This list contains 16 names. Approximate dates: c. 937–1270 (333 years). Ge%27ez language Geʽez ( / ˈ ɡ iː ɛ z / or / ɡ iː ˈ ɛ z / ; ግዕዝ Gəʽ(ə)z IPA: [ˈɡɨʕ(ɨ)z] , and sometimes referred to in scholarly literature as Classical Ethiopic )

3160-412: The authorities declared a damnatio memoriae . According to one of Hidalgo's soldiers, Pedro García (1790–1873), "the fierce war against Hidalgo's memory and his ideas" was done through strict censorship. It became illegal to speak about Hidalgo anywhere, it became a great crime that was severely punished. This is the reason why no portrait which resembles him at all is found anywhere in the country, since

3239-549: The base በ /b/ in the script. Noun phrases have the following overall order: በዛ ba-zā in-this: F ሀገር hagar city በዛ ሀገር ba-zā hagar in-this:F city in this city ንጉሥ nəguś king ክቡር kəbur glorious ንጉሥ ክቡር nəguś kəbur king glorious a/the glorious king Adjectives and determiners agree with the noun in gender and number: ዛቲ zāti this: FEM ንግሥት Damnatio memoriae Damnatio memoriae ( Latin pronunciation: [damˈnaː.ti.oː meˈmo.ri.ae̯] )

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3318-587: The city in January 747, also within the interregnum . Notorious incidents of damnatio memoriae occurred during the existence of the Viceroyalty of New Spain , the Spanish colony that emerged after the Spanish conquest of Mexico in 1521. Various viceroys ordered the destruction of monuments and documents depicting certain episodes of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican history and rebels to Spanish rule over

3397-503: The consonant transliterated ḫ . Gragg notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it is pronounced exactly the same as ḥ in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain. The chart below lists /ɬ/ and /t͡ɬʼ/ as possible values for ś ( ሠ ) and ḍ ( ፀ ) respectively. It also lists /χ/ as

3476-589: The contemporary powers of the Mediterranean. The only regular relations seem to have been maintained with Egypt and Jerusalem. Although their presence is often claimed to have been of considerable antiquity, it is only in the 11th and 12th centuries when Ethiopians are firmly attested to have lived in Egypt. A rare testament for their presence during the reign of the Zagwe is a fragmentary manuscript written in Ge'ez that

3555-471: The country of the Maya and took 10,000 sheep and 3,000 cattle. The third inscription tells of how Dan'el went to Axum after his campaigns to be acknowledged as king and imprisoned the old king. It is difficult to date the reigns of these kings, but it likely occurred in the early 10th century when the power of the Solomonic line was in decline. Enno Littmann theorized that these kings were forerunners of

3634-400: The damaged parts show that apparently its destruction was executed with the dropping of a boulder, and that deep holes were drilled "perhaps in order to pry the stone apart or blow it up." In another notorious instance, Spanish bishop Juan de Zumárraga ordered the destruction of a portrait depicting Nezahualcoyotl , king of Texcoco , on July 7, 1539, along with various other sculptures at

3713-462: The destruction of a monument should be considered agents of memory. Author Charles Hedrick proposes that a distinction be made between damnatio memoriae (the condemnation of a deceased person) and abolitio memoriae (the actual erasure of another from historical texts). In case of removal of Soviet monuments in Eastern Europe , the primary reason was that they were established as

3792-488: The early Aksumite period and bears an example of the ancient Geʽez script. In one study, Tigre was found to have a 71% lexical similarity to Ge'ez, while Tigrinya had a 68% lexical similarity to Geʽez, followed by Amharic at 62%. Most linguists believe that Geʽez does not constitute a common ancestor of modern Ethio-Semitic languages but became a separate language early on from another hypothetical unattested common language. Historically, /ɨ/ has

3871-451: The enormous funeral he was given by Vitellius . Similarly, it was often difficult to prevent later historians from "resurrecting" the memory of the sanctioned person. The impossibility of actually erasing memory of an emperor have led scholars to conclude that this was not actually the goal of damnatio . Instead, they understand damnatio : not so much as an attempt to obliterate memory entirely as to transform honorific commemoration into

3950-464: The example of Lagash (an ancient city-state founded by the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia ), where preserved inscriptions concerning a conflict with another city-state, Umma , do not mention the ruler of Umma, but describe him as "the man of Umma", which Zawadzki sees as an example of deliberate degradation of the ruler of Umma to the role of an unworthy person whose name and position in history

4029-542: The existence of at least one list containing 16 names. According to Carlo Conti Rossini , the shorter mooted length of this dynasty is the more likely one. He argues that a letter received by the Patriarch of Alexandria John V shortly before 1150 from an unnamed Ethiopian monarch, in which the Patriarch is asked for a new abuna because the current office holder was too old, was from Mara Takla Haymanot, who wanted

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4108-442: The following patterns. Quadriconsonantal and some triconsonantal nouns follow the following pattern. Triconsonantal nouns that take this pattern must have at least one "long" vowel (namely /i e o u/ ). In the independent pronouns, gender is not distinguished in the 1st person, and case is only distinguished in the 3rd person singular. Suffix pronouns attach at the end of a noun, preposition or verb. The accusative/construct -a

4187-472: The graphemes ś (Geʽez ሠ ) and ḍ (Geʽez ፀ ) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in the phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Geʽez." A similar problem is found for

4266-408: The highlands of modern Eritrea , Tigray , Wag and Bete Amhara and thence westwards towards Lake Tana ( Begemder )." Unlike the practice of later rulers of Ethiopia, Taddesse Tamrat argues that under the Zagwe dynasty the order of succession was that of brother succeeding brother as king, based on the Agaw laws of inheritance . According to one tradition, around 960, Queen Gudit destroyed

4345-454: The historical record, not even in his supposed homeland. Moreoever, his respectful presence at a celebration in Yokib, Paʼ Chan's centuries-old and bitter rival (which had, in fact, scored a victory in battle against Itzamnaaj Bahlam III in 726), as well as the depiction of Itzam Kʼan Ahk apparently addressing a speech (now hardly readable, but probably involving an event of Paʼ Chan's past) toward

4424-517: The land grant by king Tantawedem is to be believed, its dispossession by the Zagwe. Surviving chronicles and manuscripts show variation in the number of kings and their individual length of reign. There are three main versions of the Zagwe line that are recorded, known as the 'short', 'long' and 'longer' lists. Example list recorded by Pedro Páez contains 5 names. Approximate dates: c. 1179–1270 (141 years). Example list below recorded by Carlo Conti Rossini contains 11 names. This version of

4503-429: The land grant of king Tantawedem in c. 1030. Lalibela's land grants are the last time hasani is associated with the king. By the reign of Amda Seyon in the first half of the 14th century it was used to denote a provincial governor. Like the kings of Aksum who preceded them, the Zagwe kings bore three names: a baptismal name, a regnal name and finally the surname. Unlike Aksum, the Zagwe were virtually unknown to

4582-427: The last portrait of this kind in 1519 (which Hajovsky (2015 , p. 118) believes might be "the last Aztec monument"), at the eve of the Spanish conquest. Antonio de León y Gama , a distinguished Mexican intellectual, wrote in the late 18th century that these portraits were well preserved up until that century. León y Gama claimed that the only portrait he got to see himself was Moctezuma II's, before its destruction

4661-548: The latter of which is sometimes marked with the suffix ት -t , e.g. እኅት ʼəxt ("sister"). These are less strongly distinguished than in other Semitic languages, as many nouns not denoting humans can be used in either gender: in translated Christian texts there is even a tendency for nouns to follow the gender of the noun with a corresponding meaning in Greek. There are two numbers, singular and plural. The plural can be constructed either by suffixing ኣት -āt to

4740-601: The mid-12th and mid-14th century, with most tombstones dating to the 13th century. A now broken frieze with a Kufic inscription stored in the Wukro Chirkos church probably dates to the second half of the 11th century and may have originally been from a mosque, perhaps sponsored by the Fatimid Caliphate . Tigray's Muslim community declined from the 12th century because of the collapse of the Fatimids and, if

4819-454: The most beautiful pieces of Mayan art , was carved approximately in 782 and illustrates an episode of the reign of Itzam Kʼan Ahk II (also known as Pawaaj Kʼan Ahk II), in which he celebrated his first kʼatun (period of 7200 days) as king, on July 27, 749. Panel 3 claims that the celebration "was witnessed by Sak Jukub Yopaat Bahlam, Holy Lord of Paʼ Chan." Also known as Yopaat Bahlam II, this mysterious ruler does not appear anywhere else in

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4898-507: The names of two kings, Dabra Ferem and his son Hasani Dan'el, who were Christian but are not recorded on Ethiopian regnal lists . The first inscription tells how Hasani Dan'el attacked rebel tribes in Kassala and claims that he conquered thirty peoples. The second inscription tells how the people of Welkait rebelled and laid waste to Axum , and in response he carried off large numbers of cattle and other animals from them. Dan'el then went to

4977-405: The prohibition lasted nearly ten years. Nobody felt safe speaking inside their homes. The Spanish efforts to erase his memory, however, were in vain. The War of Independence continued, and the leaders who continued to revolution after Hidalgo's death made great efforts to commemorate his legacy. José María Morelos , for example, declared in 1813 that September 16, the anniversary of the beginning of

5056-466: The records of the king (or kings) of the interregnum . It is possible Yopaat Bahlam and his son lived the rest of their lives in exile at Yokib, and that the "heir to the throne" never rose to power. Yopaat Bahlam may have been buried in Burial 13 of the city, judging from a text carved on four Spondylus limbatus shells found within it which bears his name and mentions that he had previously visited

5135-473: The reign of Yaxun Bʼalam IV, who notoriously led a massive propaganda campaign throughout his rule to claim legitimacy over the throne, which involved the rewriting of his kingdom's dynastic history and restoration of several historical records of previous kings. The immense texts writing Yaxun Bʼalam's own version of his kingdom's dynastic history may have been carved over existing records which would have been intentionally erased with plaster , possibly destroying

5214-534: The remnants of the Kingdom of Aksum , causing a shift in its temporal power centre that later regrouped more to the south. For 40 years she ruled over what remained of the kingdom, eventually passing on the throne to her descendants, with Mara marrying the daughter of the last king of Aksum, Dil Na'od . According to other Ethiopian traditional accounts, the last of her dynasty was overthrown by Mara Takla Haymanot in 1137. Still more, according to another tradition, Mara

5293-428: The rulers of Lagash did not want to record for posterity. Egyptians also practiced this, as seen in relics from pharaoh Akhenaten 's tomb and elsewhere. Akhenaten's sole worship of the god Aten , instead of the traditional pantheon , was considered heretical. During his reign, Akhenaten endeavoured to have all references to the god Amun chipped away and removed. After his reign, temples to Aten were dismantled and

5372-402: The same final inflectional affixes for case and state, as number morphology is achieved via attaching a suffix to the stem and/or an internal change in the stem. There is some morphological interaction between consonant-final nouns and a pronoun suffix (see the table of suffix pronouns below). For example, when followed by የ -ya ("my"), in both nominative and accusative the resulting form

5451-463: The script of stress rules in the ancient period, but stress patterns exist within the liturgical tradition(s). Accounts of these patterns are, however, contradictory. One early 20th-century account may be broadly summarized as follows: As one example of a discrepancy, a different late 19th-century account says the masculine singular imperative is stressed on the ultima (e.g. ንግር nəgə́r , "speak!"), and that, in some patterns, words can be stressed on

5530-490: The stones reused to create other temples. Images of Akhenaten had their faces chipped away, and images and references to Amun reappeared. The people blamed their misfortunes on Akhenaten's shift of worship to Atenism , away from the gods they served before him. Other Egyptian victims of this practice include the pharaohs that immediately succeeded Akhenaten, including Smenkhkare , Neferneferuaten , and Ay . The campaign of damnatio memoriae against Akhenaten and his successors

5609-454: The third-, fourth- or even fifth-to-last syllable (e.g. በረከተ bárakata ). Due to the high predictability of stress location in most words, textbooks, dictionaries and grammars generally do not mark it. Minimal pairs do exist, however, such as yənaggərā́ ("he speaks to her", with the pronoun suffix -(h)ā́ "her") vs. yənaggə́rā ("they speak", feminine plural), both written ይነግራ . Geʽez distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine,

5688-548: The transcription employed by the Encyclopaedia Aethiopica , which is widely employed in academia, the contrast here represented as a/ā is represented as ä/a. Geʽez is transliterated according to the following system (see the phoneme table below for IPA values): Because Geʽez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg writes that "[t]he consonants corresponding to

5767-399: The victorious Solomonic rulers in an act of damnatio memoriae . Taddesse Tamrat believes that this last ruler was actually Yetbarak . The end of the Zagwe came when Yekuno Amlak , who never personally claimed to be descendant of Dil Na'od or King Solomon, and acting under the guidance of either Saint Tekle Haymanot or Saint Iyasus Mo'a , pursued the last king of the Zagwe and killed him at

5846-423: The war, would be celebrated every year "remembering always the merit of the great Hero Don Miguel Hidalgo and his partner Don Ignacio Allende ." While complete damnatio memoriae has not been attempted in modern times—naming or writing about a person fallen from favour has never been made subject to formal punishment—less total instances of damnatio memoriae in modern times include numerous examples from

5925-543: Was born in the province of Lasta , which was his power base. Originally a general of Dil Na'od, whose daughter Masoba Warq became his wife, Mara overthrew his father-in-law to found the new dynasty. James Bruce , on the other hand, presents another tradition that Dil Na'od was overthrown by Gudit , and that Mara Takla Haymanot (whom Bruce calls "Takla Haymanot") was a cousin of Gudit who succeeded her after several of her own family. Three inscriptions discovered in Axum mention

6004-476: Was initiated by Ay's successor, Horemheb , who decided to erase from history all pharaohs associated with the unpopular Amarna Period ; this process was continued by Horemheb's successors. Tutankhamun was also erased from history in this way, even though he had restored Egypt to the Amun god, because he was one the kings who succeeded Akhenaten; he may also have been Akhenaten's son. One case of damnatio memoriae

6083-479: Was largely destroyed in antiquity, most likely by his spiteful uncle. The relief of the father was left untouched. The practice was known in Ancient Greece. The Athenians frequently destroyed inscriptions which referred to individuals or events that they no longer wished to commemorate. After Timotheus was convicted of treason and removed from his post as general in 373 BC, all references to him as

6162-428: Was ordered by the authorities in 1753 or 1754. He mentioned that Axayacatl's portrait still existed earlier in that century before it was "broken up and removed." Indeed, the remains of Moctezuma's portrait, approximately 2 meters (over 6 feet) high, reveal that its damage was not accidental or natural. It was carved on pink-to-gray andesite , which is "slightly harder than marble ," according to Hajovsky. The markings in

6241-623: Was recently discovered in the Monastery of Saint Anthony , dating to the mid-12th to mid-13th centuries. The earliest sources confirming an Ethiopian community in Jerusalem date to the second half of the 13th century. Yet it is still probable that Ethiopians had lived there before. In the late 12th century, King Lalibela's knowledge of the town was sufficient to have inspired him during the expansion of his capital, adopting Jerusalem's form, attributions and toponyms. According to Muslim tradition,

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