The Badarian culture provides the earliest direct evidence of agriculture in Upper Egypt during the Predynastic Era . It flourished between 4400 and 4000 BC, and might have already emerged by 5000 BC.
122-439: Burial , also known as interment or inhumation , is a method of final disposition whereby a dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, and covering it over. A funeral is a ceremony that accompanies the final disposition. Evidence suggests that some archaic and early modern humans buried their dead. Burial
244-480: A biodegradable capsule that will not harm the surrounding earth. The biodegradable capsule doubles as a seed which can be customized to grow into either a birch , maple , or eucalyptus tree. The goal of this method is to create parks full of trees that loved ones can walk through and mourn, as opposed to a graveyard full of tombstones. This method aims to return the body to the earth in the most environmentally friendly way possible. The tree pod method originated in
366-553: A life insurance policy to collect on the policy. Criminal methods encountered in fiction and actual cases include: Cremation is the traditional manner of Hindu final deposition which takes place during Antyesti rites, however, some circumstances do not allow for cremation so instead "Jal Pravah" is practiced – the release of the body into a river. Situations that call for Jal Pravah are unwed girls, death from infectious disease, death from snakebite, children under age 5, holy men, pregnant women, people who have committed suicide, and
488-423: A 'bad death'. This gradually changed as the upper and middle class started holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. This posed an issue for hospitals because of the rapid increase in funerals being held and maxing occupancy. This resolved when a law was passed to allow the civilian population to hold funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. The lower class then followed suit, copying the newly set traditions of
610-583: A 3-year-old child at Panga ya Saidi cave in Kenya dating to 78,000 years ago also show signs suggestive of a burial, such as the digging of a pit, laying of the body in a fetal position and intentional rapid covering of the corpse. In ancient Egypt , burial customs developed during the Predynastic period . Round graves with one pot were used in the Badarian Period (4400–3800 B.C.E.), continuing
732-583: A Sulawesi province in Eastern Indonesia, experiences death as a process, rather than an event. The culture of Tana Toraja views funerals as the most important event in a person's life. Because of this importance placed on death, Tana Toraja landscape is covered in the rituals and events transpired after death. The hierarchy of an individual's life is based on the sacrifices of animals made after their death. Funerals tend to be celebrated by Tana Toraja people, typically lasting days to even weeks long. Death
854-494: A body is disposed of in such a way as to prevent, hinder, or delay discovery of the body, to prevent identification of the body, or to prevent autopsy . In such cases, the deceased is considered a missing person as long as a body is not identified, unless death is so likely that the person is declared legally dead . This often occurs as part of a murder or voluntary manslaughter . In other cases, an individual who did not intend to cause death may fear repercussions regarding
976-524: A common adaptation to similar environments. Godde further specified that the Badarians, Naqadans and Kerma Nubian samples clustered closely in spite of the timescale differences. She also cited previous anthropological studies and archaeological evidence which indicated close affinities between the Badarians and other southernly, African populations. In 2020, Godde analysed a series of crania which included two Egyptian (predynastic Badarian and Naqada series),
1098-435: A death (e.g. by involuntary manslaughter or an accident ) and may attempt to prevent discovery of the body. This can exacerbate any legal consequences associated with the death. Other motives for concealing death or the cause of death include insurance fraud or the desire to collect the pension of the deceased. An individual may commit suicide in such a way as to obscure the cause of death, allowing beneficiaries of
1220-607: A different part of the cemetery. Black-topped pottery has been discovered in these cemeteries. These works with their distinctive rippled pattern are considered the most characteristic element of the Badarian culture. Basalt vases found at Badari sites were most likely traded up the river from the Delta region or from the northwest. Shells came in quantities from the Red Sea . Turquoise possibly came from Sinai . A Syrian connection
1342-447: A financial burden causing some to turn to green burials as a cheaper alternative. Some people view green burials as more meaningful, especially for those who have a connection to a piece of land, such as current residence or other places that hold meaning for them. Conservation burial is a type of burial where burial fees fund the acquisition and management of new land to benefit native habitat, ecosystems and species. This usually involves
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#17327657922861464-408: A foundation in truth. South Korea 's funeral arrangements have drastically changed in the course of only two decades according to Chang-Won Park. Park states that around the 1980s at home funeral ceremonies were the general norm, straying away from anywhere that was not a family home. Dying close to home, with friends and family, was considered a 'good death', while dying away from home was considered
1586-500: A further coffin or coffins on top of the first one. In such cases, more than six feet may be dug, to provide the required depth of soil above the top coffin. In the United States, there is no nationwide regulation of burial depth. Each local authority is free to determine its own rules. Requirements for depth can vary according to soil type and by method of burial. California , for instance, requires only 19 inches of soil above
1708-426: A hut or shelter of unknown construction. The deceased were wrapped in reed matting or animal skins and buried in pits with their heads usually laid to the south, looking west. This seems contiguous with the later dynastic traditions regarding the west as the land of the dead. They were sometimes accompanied by female mortuary figures carved from ivory , or with personal items such as shells, flint tools, amulets in
1830-455: A legal document such as a conservation easement . Such burials go beyond other forms of natural burial, which aim to prevent environmental damage caused by conventional burial techniques, by actually increasing benefits for the environment. The idea is for the burial process to be a net positive for the earth rather than just neutral. Scientists have argued that such burials could potentially generate enough funds to save every endangered species on
1952-443: A more cost effective and environmentally friendly way to memorialize loved ones, this method also offers emotional support. The memories of loved ones will be immortalized through the concept of a deceased person having a medium (trees) that will continue to live and grow. Embalming is the practice of preserving a body against decay and is used in many cultures. Mummification is a more extensive method of embalming, further delaying
2074-452: A result, burial grounds are found throughout the world. Through time, mounds of earth , temples , and caverns were used to store the dead bodies of ancestors . In modern times, the custom of burying dead people below ground, with a stone marker to indicate the burial place, is used in most cultures ; although other means such as cremation are becoming more popular in the West (cremation is
2196-707: A series of A-Group Nubians, and a Bronze Age series from Lachish , Palestine. The two pre-dynastic series had strongest affinities, followed by closeness between the Naqada and the Nubian series. Further, the Nubian A-Group plotted nearer to the Egyptians and the Lachish sample placed more closely to Naqada than Badari. According to Godde the spatial-temporal model applied to the pattern of biological distances explains
2318-412: A sign of respect even when burial is impossible. In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial , the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space. Most often, a burial will be oriented to a specific direction for religious purposes, as are the case for persons of
2440-412: A single grave either by choice (as in the case of married couples), due to space concerns, or in the case of mass graves as a way to deal with many bodies at once. Alternatives to burial include cremation (and subsequent interment), burial at sea and cryopreservation . Some human cultures may bury the remains of beloved animals . Intentional burial, particularly with grave goods , may be one of
2562-608: A type of tomb , or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. One of the most famous immurements sites is the Taj Mahal located in Agra, India. The Taj Mahal was built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, Empress Mumtaz Mahal. Both of their bodies were buried in this building. Sky burial allows dead bodies to be eaten by vultures on open grounds or on top of specially built tall towers away from human sight. Sky burials can be followed by optional automatic cremations of
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#17327657922862684-425: Is allowed, in some cases expressly limiting burials to property controlled by specific, licensed institutions. Furthermore, in many places, failure to properly dispose of a body is a crime. In some places, it is also a crime to fail to report a death, and to fail to report the disposal of the body. Certain conditions such as necrosis can cause parts of the body such as limbs or internal organs to die without causing
2806-455: Is generally stored at a morgue . Where this is not possible, such as on a battlefield, body bags are used. In the Western world , embalming of the body is a standard part of preparation. This is intended to temporarily preserve the corpse throughout the funeral process. Mummification is the drying bodies and removing of organs. The most famous practitioners were ancient Egyptians . In
2928-525: Is highly unusual and generally symbolic. Occasionally suicides and assassins were buried upside down, as a post-mortem punishment and (as with burial at cross-roads ) to inhibit the activities of the resulting undead . In Gulliver's Travels , the Lilliputians buried their dead upside down: They bury their dead with their heads directly downward, because they hold an opinion, that in eleven thousand moons they are all to rise again; in which period
3050-489: Is often seen as indicating respect for the dead. It has been used to prevent the odor of decay, to give family members closure and prevent them from witnessing the decomposition of their loved ones, and in many cultures it has been seen as a necessary step for the deceased to enter the afterlife or to give back to the cycle of life. Methods of burial may be heavily ritualized and can include natural burial (sometimes called "green burial"); embalming or mummification ; and
3172-520: Is ongoing debate regarding the reliability of the dating method, some scholars believe the earliest human burial dates back 100,000 years. Archeological expeditions have discovered human skeletal remains stained with red ochre in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh in Israel. A variety of grave goods were present at the site, including the mandible of a wild boar in the arms of one of the skeletons. The remains of
3294-451: Is practiced in permitted oceans in the U.S., specifically in locations around Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, Texas and Virginia. Alkaline hydrolysis , also referred to as resomation, is another approach to natural burial. It uses high temperature water mixed with potassium hydroxide to dissolve human remains. During this process, the body is put into an enclosed, stainless steel chamber. The chamber fills with
3416-475: Is regulated by the NAGPRA Act of 1990 . Different religions and cultures have various funeral rites that accompany the disposal of a body. Some require that all parts of the body are buried together. If an autopsy has occurred, removed parts of the body are sewn back into the body so that they may be buried with the rest of the corpse. When it is not possible for a body to be disposed of promptly, it
3538-548: Is seen as a transformation, rather than a private loss. A Torajan is not considered 'dead' until their family members are able to collect the resources necessary to hold a funeral that expresses the status of the deceased. Until these funerals are upheld the deceased are held in Tongkonan , built to house corpses that are not considered 'dead'. The deceased can be held in Tongkonan for years, waiting for their families to collect
3660-586: Is suggested for a four-handled pot of hard pink ware. The black pottery, with white incised designs, may have come directly from the West, or from the South. The porphyry slabs are like the later ones in Nubia, but the material could have come from the Red Sea Mountains . The glazed steatite beads were not made locally. These all suggest that the Badarians were not an isolated tribe, but were in contact with
3782-710: Is the center of this practice where massive religious sites along the Ganges, like Manikarnika Ghat , are dedicated to this purpose. Badari culture Badari culture is so named because of its discovery at El-Badari ( Arabic : البداري ), an area in the Asyut Governorate in Upper Egypt . It is located between Matmar and Qau, approximately 200 km (120 mi) northwest of present-day Luxor (ancient Thebes ). El-Badari includes numerous Predynastic cemeteries (notably Mostagedda , Deir Tasa and
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3904-405: Is the practice and process of dealing with the remains of a deceased human being . Disposal methods may need to account for the fact that soft tissue will decompose relatively rapidly, while the skeleton will remain intact for thousands of years under certain conditions. Several methods for disposal are practiced. A funeral is a ceremony that may accompany the final disposition. Regardless,
4026-672: Is unrecognizable as human remains. It is performed by placing the body in a mix of wood chips, allowing thermophile microbes to decompose the body. In the United States , human composting has been legalized in six states: Washington , Colorado , Vermont (from 1 January 2023), Oregon , California (in 2027), and New York . The first such composting facility, based Kent, Washington , accepted bodies in December 2020. It developed from an earlier composting idea, formulated by architect Katrina Spade of Seattle, Washington, as
4148-471: The Abrahamic faiths . Standard Jewish burials are made supine east–west, with the head at the western end of the grave, in order to face Jerusalem . In other cases, the body may be buried on a north–south axis, or, simply facing towards the exit of the cemetery or burial grounds. This is done in order to facilitate the return to Israel foretold of all those who are resurrected at the end of time following
4270-596: The Book of Common Prayer to cover it. In today's parlance, "burial at sea" may also refer to the scattering of ashes in the ocean, while "whole body burial at sea" refers to the entire uncremated body being placed in the ocean at great depths. Laws vary by jurisdictions. The concept may also include ship burial , a form of burial at sea in which the corpse is set adrift on a boat. The process of composting human corpses, also called natural organic reduction (NOR) or terramation, turns organic matter into soil conditioner that
4392-621: The Chinese , Japanese , Bali , Jews , Christians , and Muslims , as well as some Mayans; mummification , a type of embalming , practiced by the Ancient Egyptians ; and the sky burial and a similar method of disposal called Tower of Silence practiced by Tibetan Buddhists , some Mongolians , and Zoroastrians . A modern method of quasi-final disposition, though still rare, is cryonics ; this being putatively near-final, though nowhere close to demonstrated. Some cultures place
4514-913: The Kellis population in the Dakhla Oasis . Among the recent groups, the Badari markers were morphologically closest to the Shawia and Kabyle Berber populations of Algeria as well as Bedouin groups in Morocco, Libya and Tunisia, followed by other Afroasiatic-speaking populations in the Horn of Africa . The Late Roman era Badarian skeletons from Kellis were also phenotypically distinct from those belonging to other populations in Sub-Saharan Africa . Sonia Zakrzewski (2003), found that samples from
4636-590: The Levant ". Ehret specified that these studies revealed cranial and dental affinities with "closest parallels" to other longtime populations in the surrounding areas of Northeastern Africa "such as Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa". He further commented that "members of this population did not come from somewhere else but were descendants of the long-term inhabitants of these portions of Africa going back many millennia”. Ehret also cited existing, archaeological , linguistic and genetic data which he argued supported
4758-846: The Maghreb . Among the ancient populations, the Badarians were nearest to other ancient Egyptians ( Naqada , Hierakonpolis, Abydos and Kharga in Upper Egypt ; Hawara in Lower Egypt ), and C-Group and Pharaonic era skeletons excavated in Lower Nubia, followed by the A-Group culture bearers of Lower Nubia, the Kerma and Kush populations in Upper Nubia, the Meroitic , X-Group and Christian period inhabitants of Lower Nubia, and
4880-590: The Pacific Islands show the Badarian series to be most similar to a series from the northeast quadrant of Africa and then to other Africans". Moreover, Keita criticised the methodology of the 1993 Brace study for excluding "the Maghreb, Sudan, and the Horn of Africa" from the designated Sub-Saharan group samples which he argued was nearly categorised and "(incorrectly)" as monolithic". Keita further commented on
5002-561: The Urban Death Project . The New York State Catholic Conference opposes this procedure and laws that legalize it. Dissolution involves the breaking down of the body by solvation , e.g. in acid or a solution of lye , followed by disposal as liquid . A specific method is alkaline hydrolysis (also called Resomation). Advocates claim the process is more environmentally friendly than both cremation and burial, due to CO 2 emissions and embalming fluids respectively. On
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5124-478: The " Europoid " to " Negroid " range. Of the total 117 skulls, the majority of 94 skulls showed mixed Europoid-Negroid features. The share of both components was nearly the same, with some overweight to the Europoid side. Even though the share of 'pure' Negroes is small (6-8%), being half that of the Europoid forms (12.9%), the high majority of mixed forms (80.3%) suggests a long-lasting dispersion of African genes in
5246-556: The Badarian to the Middle Kingdom in Upper Egypt had "tropical body plans", but that their proportions were actually "super-negroid" (i.e. the limb indices are relatively longer than in many "African" populations). She proposed that the apparent development of an increasingly African body plan over time may also be due to Nubian mercenaries being included in the Middle Kingdom sample. Although, she noted that in spite of
5368-529: The Badarians and other Northeast African populations. S.O.Y. Keita, a biological anthropologist, in 1990 conducted a craniometric analysis, which included early pre-dynastic Badarian and Naqada I skulls. Both series were found to "cluster with tropical Africans", and with the latter overlapping with Kerma . In 2005, S.O.Y. Keita examined Badarian crania from predynastic upper Egypt in comparison to European (Norway and Hungary) and various tropical African crania (Southern Africa, Mali and Kenya). He found that
5490-510: The Egyptian practices, bodies are embalmed using resins and organs are removed and placed in jars. Bodies are then wrapped in bandages and placed in tombs, along with the jars of organs. Many nobles and highly ranked bureaucrats had their corpses embalmed and stored in luxurious sarcophagi inside their funeral mausoleums. Pharaohs stored their embalmed corpses in pyramids or the Valley of
5612-792: The General Resurrection they may rise facing, and ready to minister to, their people. In an Islamic funeral , the grave should be aligned perpendicular to the Qibla (the direction to the Kaaba in Mecca ) with the face turned to the right along the Qibla. For humans, maintaining an upside-down position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above)
5734-554: The Greeks), as well as to the east in the Wadi Hammamat . Older and modern scholarship have characterised the Badarians as an indigenous, Northeast African population that was rooted in a localised, context. Egyptologist Frank Yurco considered the Badarians as exhibiting a "mix of North African and Sub-Saharan physical traits", and referenced older analysis of skeletal remains which "showed tropical African elements in
5856-652: The Kings . However, the Chinchorro mummies of Chile are to date the oldest mummies on Earth. The Chinchorro mummification process included the Black Mummy technique, as well as the Red Mummy technique. Many jurisdictions have enacted regulations relating to the disposal of human bodies. Although it may be entirely legal to bury a deceased family member, the law may restrict the locations in which this activity
5978-597: The Late Dynastic of Lower Egypt are more closely related to each other than to any other population. As a whole, they show ties with the European Neolithic, North Africa, modern Europe, and, more remotely, India, but not at all with sub-Saharan Africa, eastern Asia, Oceania, or the New World." However, various biological anthropological studies have demonstrated strong biological affinities between
6100-528: The U.S. Green burials are developing in Canada (Victoria, BC, and Cobourg, Ontario), as well as in Australia and Ireland. The increase in popularity of alternative burials can be seen as a direct choice of the individual's want to distance themselves from religious practices and spiritual locations as well as an opportunity to exercise their act of choice. The desire to live through nature as well as concern for
6222-469: The UK but is now becoming a more popular method of burial. The definition of natural burial grounds suggests that people are being buried without any kind of formaldehyde-based embalming fluid or synthetic ingredients, and that the bodies that are being returned to the earth will also be returning nutrients to the environment, in a way that is less expensive than other available burial methods. Not only are tree pods
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#17327657922866344-453: The birds". The Zoroastrians in Mumbai and Karachi placed bodies on " Towers of Silence ", where birds then could decompose the bodies. Sky burials can provide benefits to the environment, since it does not produce air pollution and the decomposition of the body occurs fairly quickly, when compared to other forms of disposal practices. Exposures, which can be a form of sky burial, are where
6466-400: The body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an upright position. In Islam , the body is placed in supine position , hands along the sides and the head is turned to its right with the face towards the Qibla . Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be
6588-463: The body was borne to the grave, sprinkled with holy water and buried in consecrated ground . It must be laid head up with its feet to the east, for it was from this direction that Christ would return, from New Jerusalem, at the Apocalypse, when the worthy dead would be resurrected. [...] If burial rituals went awry, one's immortal soul was jeopardised. [...] Personal salvation – breaking free from
6710-421: The bones are removed; after their removal they can be placed in an ossuary . A ground burial is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, and covering it over. Humans have been burying their dead for over 100,000 years. Burial practices and rites varied from culture to culture in the past and still vary to this day. Burial is often seen as indicating respect for
6832-551: The call of Gabriel 's trumpet. Gabriel's trumpet would be blown near the Eastern sunrise. In the Baháʼí Faith , burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing
6954-488: The cemetery of el-Badari itself), as well as at least one early Predynastic settlement at Hammamia . The area stretches for 30 km (19 mi) along the east bank of the Nile . Some Badarian sites also show evidence of later predynastic use. It was first excavated by Guy Brunton and Gertrude Caton-Thompson between 1922 and 1931. About forty settlements and six hundred graves have been located. The Badarian economy
7076-608: The changes in limb proportions and body sizes in ancient Egyptians in a worldwide and regional comparative thesis study. The study featured 92 males and 528 female samples which included skeletal remains from the Badarian period. The Egyptian body sizes were compared with Nubian samples, as well as to modern Egyptian samples and other higher and lower latitude populations. Overall, the study found that "Ancient Egyptians have more tropically adapted limbs in comparison to body breadths, which tend to be intermediate when plotted against higher and lower latitude populations. These results may reflect
7198-413: The chemical and water solution and is then lightly circulated. After a couple of hours, the body is worn down and bone is the only thing that remains. The bones are then pressed down into a powder and returned to the associated family. The outcome is comparable to cremation, but results in an environmentally friendly process that does not release chemical emissions and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, as
7320-414: The church has allowed it, as long as it is not done to express disbelief in bodily resurrection . The church specifies that cremated remains be either buried or entombed; they do not allow cremated remains to be scattered or kept at home. Many Catholic cemeteries now have columbarium niches for cremated remains, or specific sections for those remains. Some denominations of Protestantism allow cremation;
7442-500: The coming of the Messiah . Historically, Christian burials followed similar principles, where the body was placed east–west, to mirror the layout of Christian churches , which were themselves oriented as such for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgment day ( Eschaton ). In many Christian traditions, ordained clergy are traditionally buried in the opposite orientation, and their coffins carried likewise, so that at
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#17327657922867564-550: The contemporary Predynastic Upper Egyptians of the Badarian and Naqadian cultures", based in reference to previous anthropological studies from 1975 and 1985. According to Strouhal, the Predynastic Egyptians seemed to be similar to the Capsian culture of North Africa and to Berbers. A 1993 craniofacial study performed by the anthropologist C. Loring Brace reached the view that: "The Predynastic of Upper Egypt and
7686-525: The corporeal prison and ascending to a spiritual sphere unencumbered by materiality – is the logical culmination of the myth of humanity's supposed dominion over nature. [...]. After death, a body will decay. Burial is not necessarily a public health requirement. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the World Health Organization advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial. Human burial practices are
7808-477: The corpse is stripped of its flesh, leaving only the bones. The bones can then either be cremated or buried whole, as stated above. " Burial at sea " in past generations has meant the deliberate disposal of a corpse into the ocean, wrapped and tied with weights to make sure it sinks. It has been a common practice in navies and seafaring nations; in the Church of England , special forms of funeral service were added to
7930-430: The corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a flood or some other natural process then the corpse will still not be exposed to open air. The body may be dressed in fancy and/or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects of the deceased, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, may be included with the body. This practice, also known as
8052-546: The cultures on all sides of them. Nor were they nomadic, having pots of such size and fragility that would have been unsuitable for use by wanderers. The Badarian culture seems to have had multiple sources, of which the Western Desert was probably the most influential. The Badari culture was likely not solely restricted to the Badari region, since related finds have been made farther to the south at Mahgar Dendera , Armant , Elkab and Nekhen (named Hierakonpolis by
8174-532: The dead body while others feed the body to vultures and birds or burned the bodies. Body parts cut during the procedure are sometimes buried separately. In the African-American slave community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when
8296-518: The dead close to provide guidance to the living, while others "banish" them by locating burial grounds at a distance from inhabited areas. Some religions consecrate special ground to bury the dead, and some families build private family cemeteries . Most modern cultures document the location of graves with headstones , which may be inscribed with information and tributes to the deceased. However, some people are buried in anonymous or secret graves for various reasons. Sometimes multiple bodies are buried in
8418-462: The dead in tombs of various sorts, either individually, or in specially designated tracts of land that house tombs. Burial in a graveyard is one common form of tomb. In some places, burials are impractical because the groundwater is too high; therefore tombs are placed above ground, as is the case in New Orleans, Louisiana , US. Elsewhere, a separate building for a tomb is usually reserved for
8540-636: The dead. It has been used to prevent the odor of decay, to give family members closure, and prevent them from witnessing the decomposition of their loved ones. Cremation is also an old custom; it was the usual mode of disposing of a corpse in ancient Rome (along with graves covered with heaped mounds, also found in Greece, particularly at the Karameikos graveyard in Monastiraki ). Vikings were occasionally cremated in their longships , and afterwards
8662-442: The death of the individual. In such cases the body parts are usually not given a funeral. Surgical removal of dead tissue is usually necessary to prevent gangrenous infection . Surgically removed body parts are typically disposed of as medical waste , unless they need to be preserved for cultural reasons, as described above. Conversely, donated organs or tissue may live on long after the death of an individual. In some cases,
8784-501: The decay process. Bodies are often buried wrapped in a shroud or placed in a coffin (or in some cases, a casket ). A larger container may be used, such as a ship . In the U.S., coffins are usually covered by a grave liner or a burial vault , which prevents the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood. These containers slow the decomposition process by (partially) physically blocking decomposing bacteria and other organisms from accessing
8906-499: The demographic history. Joel D. Irish and Lyle Konigsberg (2007) re-examined the findings of a 1955 study in light of recent archaeological and dental morphological data. They stated that re-inspection of the craniometric samples "indicate a Badarian affiliation to North Africans, not sub-Saharan samples". Dental trait analysis of Badarian fossils conducted in a thesis study found that they were closely related to other Afroasiatic -speaking populations inhabiting Northeast Africa and
9028-420: The differences in tibae lengths among the Badarian and Early Dynastic samples, that "all samples lie relatively clustered together as compared to the other populations." Zakrzewski concluded that the "results must remain provisional due to the relatively small sample sizes and the lack of skeletal material that cross-cuts all social and economic groups within each time period". In 2011, Michelle Raxter examined
9150-461: The dynasty. The burial of bodies in the extended position, i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the eyes and mouth closed. Extended burials may be supine (lying on the back) or prone (lying on the front). However, in some cultures, being buried face down shows marked disrespect like in the case of the Sioux. Other ritual practices place
9272-759: The earliest detectable forms of religious practice since, as Philip Lieberman suggests, it may signify a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life ". Evidence points to the Neanderthals as the first human species known to practice burial behavior and to intentionally bury their dead; they did so using shallow graves furnished with stone tools and animal bones. Exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however, argue that such "buried" bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons. Though there
9394-406: The earth (which they conceive to be flat) will turn upside down, and by this means they shall, at their resurrection, be found ready standing on their feet. The learnèd among them confess the absurdity of this doctrine; but the practice still continues, in compliance to the vulgar. Swift's notion of inverted burial might seem the highest flight of fancy, but it appears that among English millenarians
9516-493: The earth to decompose naturally in soil, and in some cases even protect native and endangered wildlife. Natural burial became popularized in the UK in the early 1990s by Ken West, a professional cremator operator for the city of Carlisle , responding to the U.K's call for changes in government that aligned with the United Nations' Environmental Program Local Agenda 21 . In addition, there are multiple green burial sites in
9638-433: The eco-friendly reefs are placed into the ocean among other coral reefs where they help to repair damage to the reefs while also providing new habitats for fish and other sea communities. It has become a new way to memorialize the passing person while also protecting the marine environment. The high cost of the memorial reefs has caused this alternative form of burial to remain minimal and uncommon. This kind of natural burial
9760-445: The environment have been the backbone of the green burial movement. The use of coffins made from alternative materials such as wicker and biodegradable materials as well as trees and other flora are being used in place of headstones . Both practices provide sustainable alternatives to traditional burial practices. Natural burials have been attracting people for reasons outside of environmental and sustainability factors as well. With
9882-462: The expansion of urban centres, ecological corridors gradually disappear. Cemeteries for burial plots preclude alternative uses of the land for a long time. By combining these two aspects (need for connectivity and land take imposed by cemeteries), two positive results can be achieved: protecting memories of the past and connecting ecosystems with multiple-use corridors. Green burials appeal to people for economic reasons. Traditional burial practices can be
10004-408: The family, still being cared for by family members. Northern Territory Australian Aboriginals have unique traditions associated with a loved one's death. The death of a loved one sparks a series of events such as smoking out the spirit, a feast, and leaving out the body to decompose. Immediately after death, a smoking ceremony is held in the deceased's home. The smoking ceremonies purpose is to expel
10126-551: The findings of Boyce that whilst the "post-Badarian southern predynastic and a late dynastic northern series (called "E" or Gizeh) cluster together, and secondarily with Europeans", in the primary cluster with Egyptian groups there were also remains representing populations from ancient Sudan and recent Somalia . In 2008, Keita found that the early predynastic groups in Southern Egypt which included Badarian skeletal samples, were similar to Nile-Valley material from areas to
10248-505: The greater plasticity of limb lengths compared to body breadth. The results might also suggest early Mediterranean and/or Near Eastern influence in Northeast Africa". Raxter also acknowledged that a larger sample collection from the early and late predynastic groups would have enabled "closer examination of biological changes in the transition to agriculture". Keita and Boyce (1996) noted that DNA studies had not been conducted on
10370-548: The highest point of the coffin, unless the burial authority consider the soil to be suitable for a depth of only two feet. The earliest known reference to a requirement for a six-foot burial occurred in 1665 during the Great Plague of London . John Lawrence , the Lord Mayor of London , ordered that the bodies of plague victims "...shall be at least six foot deep." The city officials apparently believed this would inhibit
10492-404: The idea that the world would be "turned upside down" at the Apocalypse enjoyed some currency. There is at least one attested case of a person being buried upside down by instruction; a Major Peter Labilliere of Dorking (d. 4 June 1800) lies thus upon the summit of Box Hill . Similar stories have attached themselves to other noted eccentrics, particularly in southern England, but not always with
10614-472: The impact traditional burial approaches have on the environment. It is an eco-friendly process which consists of dressing the cadaver in a bodysuit with mushroom spores woven into it, nicknamed the Infinity Burial Suit. Rhim developed her own mushrooms by feeding them her hair, skin, and nails to create a mushroom variety that will best decompose human remains. As the mushrooms grow, they consume
10736-594: The inclusion of grave goods , serves several purposes: Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. Bodies with the arms crossed date back to ancient cultures such as Chaldea in the 10th century BC, where the "X" symbolized their sky god. Later ancient Egyptian gods and royalty, from approximately 3500 B.C. are shown with crossed arms, such as the god Osiris, the Lord of the Dead , or mummified royalty with crossed arms in high and low body positions, depending upon
10858-702: The inscription "I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate". The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead is ordained. The body should be placed with the feet facing the Qiblih . The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached 15 years of age. Disposal of human corpses Disposal of human corpses , also called final disposition ,
10980-399: The location of the site was marked with standing stones . Since the latter part of the twentieth century, despite the objections of some religious groups, cremation has become increasingly popular. Jewish law ( Halakha ) forbids cremation, believing that the soul of a cremated person will be unable to find its final repose. The Roman Catholic Church forbade it for many years, but since 1963
11102-526: The manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead". Cultures vary in their mode of respect. Some reasons follow: In many cultures , human corpses were usually buried in soil. The roots of burial as a practice reach back into the Middle Palaeolithic and coincide with the appearance of Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens , in Europe and Africa respectively. As
11224-488: The manner of disposal is often dominated by spirituality with a desire to hold vigil for the dead and may be highly ritualized. In cases of mass death, such as war and natural disaster, or in which the means of disposal are limited, practical concerns may be of greater priority. Ancient methods of disposing of dead bodies include cremation practiced by the Romans , Greeks , Hindus , and some Mayans ; burial practiced by
11346-498: The more conservative denominations generally do not. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Islam also forbid cremation. Among Hindus, Jains, Sikhs and some sects of Buddhists such as those found in Japan, cremation is common. Immurement of corpses is the permanent storage in an above-ground tomb or mausoleum . A tomb is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. A mausoleum may be considered
11468-499: The more distant relationship of Badari to Lachish than Naqada to Lachish as gene flow will cause populations to become more similar over time. Overall, both Egyptian samples were more similar to the Nubian series than to the Lachish series. In 2023, Christopher Ehret wrote that the physical anthropological findings from the "major burial sites of those founding locales of ancient Egypt in the fourth millennium BCE, notably El-Badari as well as Naqada , show no demographic indebtedness to
11590-400: The necessary resources to hold a funeral. The Tongkonan represents both the identity of the family and the process of birth and death. The process of birth and death is shown by having the houses that individuals are born in be the same structure as the Tongkonan, houses that individuals die in. Up until the funeral the deceased being housed in the Tongkonan are symbolically treated as members of
11712-451: The norm in India and mandatory in big metropolitan areas of Japan). Some burial practices are heavily ritualized ; others are simply practical. It is a common misconception that graves must be dug to a depth of six feet (1.8 metres). This is reflected in the common euphemism for death of six feet under . In fact, graves are rarely dug to this depth except when it is intended to later bury
11834-440: The other hand, many find the idea of being "poured down the drain" to be undignified. In some cases an attempt is made to preserve some or all of a body. These methods include: Human remains of archaeological or medical interest are often kept in museums and private collections. This practice is controversial (See NAGPRA ). In the cases of Native Americans in the United States , possession of remains and related objects
11956-439: The planet. The Green Burial Council certifies natural and conservation burial grounds in the U.S. and Canada. The memorial reef is a natural, alternative approach to burial. The cremated remains of a person are mixed in with concrete and then placed into a mold to make the memorial reef or eternal reef. After the concrete sets, family members are allowed to customize the reef with writing, hand prints and chalk drawings. After this,
12078-454: The population of the earliest Badarian culture". Recent archaeological evidence has suggested that the Tasian and Badarian Nile Valley sites were a peripheral network of earlier Northeast African cultures that featured the movement of Badarian, Saharan, Nubian and Nilotic populations. In 1971, Eugene Strouhal came to the conclusion that the distribution of the Badarian skulls extends from
12200-423: The population. Additionally, in some of the Badarian crania hair was preserved, in the first series they were curly in 6 cases, wavy in 33 cases and straight in 10 cases. They were black in 16 samples, dark brown in 11, brown in 12, light brown in 1, and grey in 11 cases. In 2007, Strouhal would characterize the physical features of ancient A-Group Nubians as being " Caucasoid " which were "not distinguishable from
12322-461: The predynastic Badarian series clustered much closer with the tropical African series. Although, no West Asian or other North African samples were included in the original study as the comparative series were selected based on "Brace et al.'s (1993) comments on the affinities of an upper Egyptian/Nubian epipalaeolithic series". Keita further noted that "additional analysis using material from Sudan, late dynastic northern Egypt (Gizeh), Somalia, Asia and
12444-619: The regions of Romania , Hungary , the Czech Republic , Slovakia , Switzerland , Austria , Germany , the Low Countries , France , and South-eastern England . Medieval European Christianity sometimes developed complex burial rituals and attached great importance to their correct performance: the fate of the soul of the deceased might depend on observing the proper ceremonial. For example: If you were to make it to heaven [...] you had to be interred correctly, for burial
12566-410: The remains within the suit as well as the toxins that are being released by the body. Rhim and her colleagues created this suit as a symbol of a new way for people to think about the relationship between their body after death and the environment. Another method of natural burial is being developed to plant the human body in fetal position inside an egg shaped pod. The pod containing the body will form
12688-418: The reopening of graves and manipulation of the corpses or artifacts contained within them was a widespread phenomenon and a common part of the life course of early medieval cemeteries across Western and Central Europe . The reopening of furnished or recent burials occurred especially from the 5th to the 8th centuries CE over the broad zone of European row-grave-style furnished inhumation burial, which comprised
12810-405: The shape of animals like the antelope and hippopotamus , and jewelry made of ivory , quartz or copper . Green malachite ore has also been detected on stone palettes, perhaps for personal decoration. Tools included end-scrapers , axes , bifacial sickles and concave-base arrowheads . Social stratification has been inferred from the burying of more prosperous members of the community in
12932-455: The skeletons left behind, or the bones can then be stored or buried, as practiced by some groups of Native Americans in protohistoric times. Sky burials were practiced by the ancient Persians, Tibetans and some Native Americans in protohistoric times. Specifically, the conditions of a shallow active layer as well as the lack of firewood led the Tibetans to practice jhator or "giving alms to
13054-429: The socially prominent and wealthy; grand, above-ground tombs are called mausoleums . The socially prominent sometimes had the privilege of having their corpses stored in church crypts. In more recent times, however, this has often been forbidden by hygiene laws. Burial was not always permanent. In some areas, burial grounds needed to be reused due to limited space. In these areas, once the dead have decomposed to skeletons,
13176-422: The south and north of Upper Egypt. Overall, based on the 9 variables, the dynastic Egyptians (includes both Upper and Lower Egyptians) showed much closer affinities with the included Northeast African populations than Europeans, who were more similar to the set of Late Dynastic Egyptians. In his comparison to the various Egyptian series, Greeks, Somali/Horn, and Italians were used. He also concluded that more material
13298-606: The southern predynastic Egyptian skeletons. Several scholars have highlighted a number of methodological limitations with the application of DNA studies to Egyptian mummified remains. According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on Egyptian mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins. Although no remains of pre-dynastic material has been sequenced, various DNA studies have found Christian-era and modern Nubians, along with modern Afro-Asiatic speaking populations in
13420-494: The spirit of the deceased from their living quarters. A feast is held where mourners are covered in ochre , an earthy pigment associated with clay, while they eat and dance. The traditional corpse disposal of the Aboriginals includes covering the corpse in leaves on a platform. The corpse is then left to decompose. Graves are free if the owner is poor, some ancient people ancient Iranians burial [ fa ] colored
13542-408: The spread of the disease, not realising that the true vector was fleas living on rats in the streets. In the event, there were so many victims that very few were buried in individual graves. Most were placed in massive plague pits so it is unlikely that this event alone gave rise to the "six feet" tradition. Natural burial —also called "green burial"—is the process by which a body is returned to
13664-472: The top of the coffin, but more commonly 30 to 36 inches are required in other places. In some areas, such as central Appalachia , graves were indeed once dug to a depth of six feet to prevent the body being disturbed by burrowing animals. However, this was unnecessary once metal caskets and concrete vaults started to be used. In the United Kingdom, soil is required to be to a depth of three feet above
13786-601: The tradition of Omari and Maadi cultures. Archeologists refer to unmarked prehistoric cemeteries using the neutral term " grave field ". Grave fields are one of the chief sources of information on prehistoric cultures, and numerous archaeological cultures are labelled and defined by their burial customs, such as the Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age . During the Early Middle Ages ,
13908-489: The upper classes. With this change, the practice of cremation became viewed more as an alternative to traditional burials. Cremation was first introduced by Buddhism , but was banned in 1470. It was not until the Japanese colonization period that cremation was reintroduced in 1945 and later lifted the ban. It took until 1998 for cremation to rapidly grow in popularity. A TED Talk by Kelli Swazey discusses how Tana Toraja ,
14030-537: The use of containers for the dead, such as shrouds , coffins , grave liners , and burial vaults , all of which can slow decomposition of the body. Sometimes objects or grave goods are buried with the body, which may be dressed in fancy or ceremonial garb. Depending on the culture, the manner in which the body is positioned may have great significance. The location of the burial may be determined by taking into account concerns surrounding health and sanitation, religious concerns, and cultural practices. Some cultures keep
14152-403: The very poor who cannot afford the wood for cremation. When a family can only afford enough wood to partially incinerate a body, the remaining body parts that were not consumed by fire are set adrift in the water. The Ganges is the most common location for these ceremonies because it is sacred to Hindus and plays a central role in the religion's funerary traditions. The riverside city of Varanasi
14274-413: The workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from nearby plantations were regularly in attendance. At death, a slave's body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property
14396-554: Was based mostly on agriculture , fishing and animal husbandry . Populations in the Badari culture planted wheat, barley, lentils and tubers. Pits that have been found may have served as granaries. They kept cattle, sheep, and goats; their livestock, as well as dogs, were given ceremonial burial. They used boomerangs , fished from the Nile and hunted gazelle . Little is known of their buildings, although remains of wooden stumps have been found at one site and may have been associated with
14518-499: Was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site. Slaves were buried oriented East to West, with feet at the Eastern end (head at the Western end, thus raising facing East). According to Christian doctrine, this orientation permitted rising to face the return of Christ without having to turn around upon
14640-645: Was confirmed after a review by the Health Council of the Netherlands. After this process, the water used goes to a regular water treatment facility where it is filtered and cleaned and returned to the water cycle. At this time, resomation is permitted for commercial use in areas throughout the U.S. However, several other countries, including the UK are considering using this technology within their medical schools and universities. Mushroom burial has been developed by Jae Rhim Lee and her colleagues to address
14762-502: Was needed to make a firm conclusion about the relationship between the early Holocene Nile valley populations and later ancient Egyptians. Kanya Godde in a 2009 study evaluated population relationships by comparing cranial traits in twelve Nubian and Egyptian groups which included skeletal remains from the Badarian period. The results showed small biological distance between the groups, which indicate there may have been some sort of gene flow between these groups of Nubians and Egyptians or
14884-490: Was the passage out of this world. The body had to be shrouded in the expectation that it would be reborn into eternal life . Then, on the eve of burial, the corpse had to be taken to church on a torch-lit bier and placed in the darkness of the nave, then laid in front of the high altar, surrounded by candles. The next day, in front of the whole community, a requiem mass was to be sung and the paschal candle lit [...]. Following this, there were prayers, hymns, special masses, and
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