170-703: Axum , also spelled Aksum (pronounced: / ˈ ɑː k ˈ s uː m / ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015). It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire . Axum is located in the Central Zone of the Tigray Region, near the base of the Adwa mountains. It has an elevation of 2,131 metres (6,991 feet) and
340-586: A Jewish ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty lasted until 1137 AD, when it was overthrown by Mara Takla Haymanot , resulting in the inception of the Agaw -led Zagwe dynasty . According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the Beta Israel king and then reigned for 40 years. She brought her Jewish army from Semien Mountains and Lake Tana to orchestrate
510-469: A Nubian Greek ruler, King Moses Georgios , but remained unanswered. She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem. Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by Mara Tekla Haymanot in 1137 AD, who ushered in
680-601: A 1947 United Nations agreement that the obelisk would be shipped back, Italy balked, resulting in a long-standing diplomatic dispute with the Ethiopian government, which views the obelisk as a symbol of national identity. During the Ethiopian Civil War , on 30 March 1989, Axum was bombed from the air by the Ethiopian Air Force and three people were killed. In April 2005, Italy finally returned
850-559: A 6.5% growth in GDP and a 3.6% rise in per capita income. Instead per capita income declined 0.8% over this period. Famine scholar Alex de Waal observes that while the famine that struck the country in the mid-1980s is usually ascribed to drought, "closer investigation shows that widespread drought occurred only some months after the famine was already under way". Hundreds of thousands fled economic misery, conscription, and political repression, and went to live in neighboring countries and all over
1020-646: A Greek education, indicating that Greco-Roman influence was already present at this time. It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental trade route between Rome and India . The Aksumite control over Adulis enabled the exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both Pliny the Elder and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from
1190-438: A Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or " Gudit " defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors. Gudit sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian iconoclasm . Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had
1360-563: A Semitic root, and means 'a green and dense garden' or 'full of grass'. Before the establishment of Axum, the Tigray plateau of northern Ethiopia was home to a kingdom known as Dʿmt . Archaeological evidence shows that the kingdom was influenced by Sabaeans from modern-day Yemen; scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been the founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been refuted, and their influence
1530-517: A considerable impact." and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the acceptance of Christianity." Before converting to Christianity, King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might have worshiped
1700-487: A couple of months. The farmers are adapted to this, but the problem arises when rains are less than normal. Another major challenge is providing water to urban areas. Smaller towns, but particularly Mekelle, face endemic water shortages . Reservoirs have been built, but their management is sub-optimal. Besides elephants in Western Tigray and the endemic gelada baboon on the highest mountains, large mammals in
1870-546: A crucial role in sustaining both urban and rural populations. Aksumite farmers cultivated a variety of cereal crops with origins from both Africa and the Near East. These crops included teff , finger millet , sorghum , emmer wheat, bread wheat, hulled barley, and oats. In addition to cereal crops, Aksumite farmers also grew linseed, cotton, grapes, and legumes of Near Eastern origin such as lentils, fava beans, chickpeas, common peas, and grass peas. Other important crops included
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#17327654790582040-694: A different direction. In 2018 and 2019, after multiple village discussions that were often vigorous in the more remote areas, 21 independent urban administrations were added and other boundaries re-drawn, resulting in an increase from 35 to 88 woredas in January 2020. Following the 2020 Tigray regional election , on 4 November, after the attacks by TDF on Northern Command units in Tigray, the Ethiopian military launched counterattacks. Ethiopian and Amhara forces advanced through southern Tigray, while Eritrean troops occupied northern border towns. Amhara militias continued to control Western Tigray as of 2023. Warfare,
2210-475: A distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as Adulis and Matara , boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In
2380-857: A great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower. Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of Islam in the early 7th century and the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate . Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615 AD for example, early Muslims from Mecca fleeing Qurayshi persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey
2550-583: A group of military officers. The committee elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as its vice-chairman. In July 1974, the Derg obtained key concessions from the emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold and Endalkachew Makonnen , along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers and officials of
2720-478: A hill to the northwest of Aksum, validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the 7th to 4th centuries BC. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the outset of the common era. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum; perhaps providing
2890-572: A humble regional hub to a dominant power. Archeological findings at Gobadra (Gobo Dara) and the Anqar Baahti rock-shelters suggest Stone Age remnants in close proximity. R. Fattovich's excavations at amba 'Beta Giyorgis above Aksum validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in Aksum dating back to approximately 7th to 4th centuries B.C. Furthermore, excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum. substantiate ongoing activity in that area since
3060-520: A organized military. Around 200 AD, Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in Al-Maafer and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the 3rd century, the kings GDRT and ʽDBH dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with
3230-609: A parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found in Hawelti . Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the roof. The stelae are perhaps the most identifiable part of the Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design. The largest of these towering obelisks would measure 33 meters high had it not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of
3400-409: A rebellion broke out all over southern and eastern Tigray under the slogan, "there is no government; let's organize and govern ourselves". Throughout Enderta Awraja, including Mekelle , Didibadergiajen, Hintalo , Saharti, Samre and Wajirat, Raya Awraja, Kilte-Awlaelo Awraja and Tembien Awraja, local assemblies, called gerreb, were formed. The gerreb sent representatives to a central congress, called
3570-563: A result of the war. As of 2023, the region is run by the Interim Regional Administration of Tigray . Tigray is often regarded as the cradle of Ethiopian civilization. Its landscape has many historic monuments. Three major monotheistic religions, Judaism , Christianity and Islam arrived in Ethiopia through the Red Sea and then Tigray. Given the presence of a large temple complex and fertile surroundings,
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#17327654790583740-464: A significant portion of the highlands in the northern Horn of Africa, with the majority located in northeastern Tigray , Ethiopia, as well as the Akele Guzai and Seraye regions of Eritrea. Despite the concentration in these areas, some Aksumite settlements such as Tchika Beret are located as far as South Wollo . In addition to the highlands, sites from the Aksumite period were discovered along
3910-481: A state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat, barley and teff . The people of Aksum also raised cattle , sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire
4080-441: A step below famine. Tigray is situated between 12° – 15°N and 36° 30' – 40° 30'E. A 2006 national statistics report stated the land area as 50,079 km (19,336 sq mi). The 2011 National Statistics gave an area of 41,410 km (15,990 sq mi), but the sum of the figures it gave for the Tigray zones was substantially different, rendering the 2011 report internally inconsistent. The figure of 50,079 km
4250-622: A throne "here in Sado," presumably a place in Aksum. Libraries in Aksum housed essential Christian documents, and Coptic monks translated many of these books in the 5th and 6th century. The Bible was translated into Ge'ez language, and the sole, complete surviving copy of the Book of Enoch is in the Ge'ez language. Contact with the Byzantine Empire ceased after its eastern provinces were seized by
4420-621: A tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum. After Abraha 's death, his son Masruq Abraha continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor Justinian the Great , but having been denied, he decided to ally with the Sassanid Persian Emperor Khosrow I , triggering
4590-519: A viceroy in the region and troops to defend it until 570 AD when the Sassanids invaded. The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation. Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped
4760-411: Is Tigrinya , similar to that of southern Eritrea. The estimated population as of 2019 is approximately 5,443,000. The majority of the population (c. 80%) are farmers, contributing 46% to the regional gross domestic product (2009). The highlands have the highest population density, especially in eastern and central Tigray. The much less densely populated lowlands comprise 48% of Tigray's area. Although
4930-1254: Is a birdwatcher 's paradise. Detailed inventories list at least 170 bird species, including numerous endemic species. Species belonging to the Afrotropical Highland Biome occur in the dry evergreen montane forests of the highland plateau but can also occupy other habitats. Wattled Ibis can be found feeding in wet grassland and open woodland. Black-winged Lovebird , Banded Barbet , Golden-mantled or Abyssinian Woodpecker , Montane White-eye , Rüppell's Robin-chat , Abyssinian Slaty Flycatcher and Tacazze Sunbird are found in evergreen forest, mountain woodlands and areas with scattered trees including fig trees , Euphorbia abyssinica and Juniperus procera . Erckel's spurfowl , Dusky Turtle Dove , Swainson's or Grey-headed Sparrow , Baglafecht Weaver , African Citril , Brown-rumped Seedeater and Streaky Seedeater are common Afrotropical breeding residents of woodland edges, scrubland and forest edges. White-billed Starling and Little Rock Thrush can be found on steep cliffs; Speckled or African rock pigeon and White-collared Pigeon in gorges and rocky places but also in towns and villages. Species belonging to
5100-1049: Is an Ethiopian relative of Lilac-breasted Roller , which is an intra-tropical breeding migrant of south and east Africa, and of European Roller , an uncommon Palearctic passage migrant. Black-billed Barbet , Yellow-breasted Barbet and Grey-headed Batis are species from the Sahel and Northern Africa but also occur in Acacia woodlands in the area. The most regularly observed raptor birds in crop fields in Tigray are Augur buzzard ( Buteo augur ), Common Buzzard ( Buteo buteo ), Steppe Eagle ( Aquila nipalensis ), Lanner falcon ( Falco biarmicus ), Black kite ( Milvus migrans ), Yellow-billed kite ( Milvus aegyptius ) and Barn owl ( Tyto alba ). Birdwatching can be done particularly in exclosures and forests. Eighteen bird-watching sites have been inventoried in Enderta and Degua Tembien and mapped. Like other Regions in Ethiopia, Tigray
5270-528: Is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire. We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the disc and crescent with the cross. Frumentius was in contact with the Church of Alexandria , and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity. However,
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5440-496: Is conceivable that the ecological damage extended to the surrounding area of Aksum due to increasing demands for foodstuffs and firewood. The region around the town might have eventually become incapable of sustaining the population of a major political center. By the end of the 9th century, Aksum was largely abandoned and lay in ruins. The city rose to prominence again after the rise of the Solomonic Dynasty , and became
5610-535: Is considered to have been minor. The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of Ancient South Arabian script , which developed into Geʽez script , and Ancient Semitic religion . The initial centuries of Aksum's development, transitioning from a modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed at Gobedra , two kilometers west of Aksum . Excavations on Beta Giyorgis,
5780-426: Is evidence of a Semitic-speaking presence in Tigray, Eritrea and northern Ethiopia at least as early as 2000 BC. It is now believed that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities and disappearing after a few decades or a century, It may have represented a trading or military colony, in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto- Aksumite state. After
5950-707: Is evident in substantial "palace" structures not only in Aksum but also in other cities like Adulis and Matara. The presence of a large reservoir, now known as May Sum, below the hill called May Qoho, may trace back to Aksumite times, indicating the city's reliable water supply. Aksum likely had a prosperous agricultural vicinity, evident from wheat depicted on Aksumite coins, abundant livestock, local forests supplying firewood for centuries, and various industries such as metalworking, glassware, and pottery. The Aksumites' achievements in architecture and stone-working, along with evidence of ivory and leather-working, are found in Aksumite tombs. Cosmas Indicopleustes , who visited Aksum in
6120-752: Is known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah . In 630, Muhammad sent a naval expedition against suspected Abyssinian pirates, the Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz . Trade with the Roman/Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in
6290-656: Is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, the Geʽez script , which was eventually modified to include vowels , becoming an abugida . Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is the Obelisk of Aksum . Under Emperor Ezana , Aksum adopted Coptic Christianity in place of its former polytheistic and Judaic religions around 325. The Axumite Coptic Church gave rise to
6460-598: Is subdivided into administrative zones, and further into woredas or districts. Up to January 2020, these were the woredas of Tigray: In 2018 and 2019, after multiple village discussions that were often vigorous in the more remote areas, 21 independent urban administrations were added and other boundaries re-drawn, resulting in an increase from 35 to 94 woredas in January 2020: Mekelle , home to Mekelle University , Mekelle Institute of Technology , Tigray Institute of Policy Studies , Admas University, Microlink College, Nile College, and Mekelle College of Teacher Education
6630-651: Is supported by the Google Maps area calculator. The East African Orogeny led to the growth of a mountain chain in the Precambrian (up to 800 Ma [million years ago]), which was largely eroded afterwards. Around 600 Ma, the Gondwana break-up led to the presence of tectonic structures and a Palaeozoic planation surface , that extents to the north and west of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. Subsequently, there
6800-483: Is surrounded by La'ilay Maychew , a separately administered woreda of the Tigray region . In 1980, UNESCO added Axum's archaeological sites to its list of World Heritage Sites due to their historic value. Prior to the beginning of the Tigray War in 2020, Axum was a leading tourist destination for foreign visitors. Little information is available regarding the early centuries of Aksum's presumed evolution from
6970-587: Is the rock art called the Lioness of Gobedra . Local legend claims the Queen of Sheba lived in the town. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as subtropical highland (Cwb). According to the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), as of 1 July 2012 the town of Axum's estimated population was 56,576. The census indicated that 30,293 of
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7140-465: Is the 24 m (79 ft) King Ezana's Stele . Three more stelae measure 18.2 m (60 ft) high, 15.8 m (52 ft) high, 15.3 m (50 ft) high. The stelae are believed to mark graves and would have had cast metal discs affixed to their sides, which are also carved with architectural designs. The Gudit Stelae to the west of town, unlike the northern area, are interspersed with mostly 4th century tombs . The other major features of
7310-491: Is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger. Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in 'monkey heads', and
7480-522: Is the capital of Tigray, near the geographic center of the state. Kingdom of Aksum The Kingdom of Aksum ( Ge'ez : አክሱም , romanized: ʾÄksum ; Sabaean : 𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣 , ʾkšm ; Ancient Greek : Ἀξωμίτης , romanized : Axōmítēs ) also known as the Kingdom of Axum , or the Aksumite Empire , was a kingdom in East Africa and South Arabia from classical antiquity to
7650-511: The Abyssinian–Adal war of the 1500s. It was again rebuilt by Emperor Gelawdewos (completed by his brother and successor Emperor Minas ) and Emperor Fasilides replaced that structure with the present one. Only men are permitted entry into the Old St. Mary's Cathedral (some say as a result of the destruction of the original church by Gudit). The New Cathedral of St. Mary of Zion stands next to
7820-663: The Aksumite–Persian wars . Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander Vahrez to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the Siege of Sana'a , capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general Vahrez led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to Stuart Munro-Hay , these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as
7990-478: The Bahre Negash , based in the district of Serae . The Book of Aksum , written and compiled mainly in the period from the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries, shows a traditional schematic map of Tigray with the city of Aksum at its center, surrounded by the 13 principal provinces: "Tembien, Shire, Serae, Hamasien, Bur , Sam’a, Agame , Amba Senayt, Garalta , Enderta , Sahart and Abergele." During
8160-623: The Byzantine Empire , which regarded itself as the protector of Christendom . Three inscriptions on the Ezana Stone documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Geez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the " Noba ", and the other against the Beja . According to
8330-524: The COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia , and a locust outbreak contributed to an emergency food situation in the region by January 2021 . Approximately two million people faced food shortages, with a critical situation in Shire Inda Selassie , hosting 100,000 refugees. The Famine Early Warning Systems Network indicated that parts of central and eastern Tigray were likely in emergency phase 4,
8500-527: The Eritrean highlands as the Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result the connection to the Red Sea ports was lost. Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the highlands for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of
8670-521: The Ezana Stone written in Sabaean , Geʽez and Ancient Greek in a similar manner to the Rosetta Stone , King Bazen's Tomb (a megalith considered to be one of the earliest structures), the so-called Queen of Sheba's Bath (actually a reservoir ), the 4th-century Ta'akha Maryam and 6th-century Dungur palaces, Pentalewon Monastery and Abba Liqanos and about 2 km (1.2 mi) west
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#17327654790588840-559: The Greco-Roman cultural sphere . Due to its ties with the Greco-Roman world, Aksum adopted Christianity as the state religion in the mid-4th century, under Ezana (320s – c. 360 ). Following their Christianization, the Aksumites ceased construction of stelae . The kingdom continued to expand throughout late antiquity , conquering Kush under Ezana in 330 for a short period of time and inheriting from it
9010-545: The Mareb River , which is currently constitutes the border between the Ethiopian province of Tigray and Eritrea. After the loss of power of the Bahr negus in the aftermath of Bahr negus Yeshaq 's rebellions, the title of Tigray mekonnen gained power in relation to the Bahr negus and at times included ruling over parts of what is now Eritrea, especially in the 19th century. By the unsettled Zemene Mesafint period ("Era of
9180-485: The Middle Ages , based in what is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea , and spanning present-day Djibouti and Sudan . Emerging from the earlier Dʿmt civilization, the kingdom was founded in 1st century. The city of Axum served as the kingdom's capital for many centuries until it relocated to Kubar in the 9th century due to declining trade connections and recurring external invasions. The Kingdom of Aksum
9350-400: The Red Sea . Others, including Joseph Michels, Henri de Contenson, Tekletsadik Mekuria, and Stanley Burstein, have viewed Dʿmt as the result of a mixture of Sabaean and indigenous peoples. The most recent research, however, shows that Ge'ez , the ancient Semitic language spoken in Tigray, Eritrea and northern Ethiopia in ancient times, is not likely to have been derived from Sabaean . There
9520-825: The Somali-Masai Biome . Hemprich's Hornbill and White-rumped Babbler are found in bushland, scrubland and dense secondary forest, often near cliffs, gorges or water. Chestnut-Winged or Somali Starling and Rüppell's Weaver are found in bushy and shrubby areas. Black-billed wood hoopoes have some red at the base of the bill or an entirely red bill in this area. Species belonging to the Sudan-Guinea Savanna Biome : Green-backed eremomela and Chestnut-crowned Sparrow-Weaver . Species that are neither endemic nor biome-restricted but that have restricted ranges or that can be more easily seen in Ethiopia than elsewhere in their range: Abyssinian Roller
9690-589: The Tablets of Stone upon which the Ten Commandments are inscribed. Zara Yaqob underwent his coronation there in 1436 and continued to reside in Aksum for three years. Subsequently, a few other monarchs also chose Aksum as the site for their coronation ceremonies. This unique ritual involved cutting a cord held by the "daughters of Aksum," symbolizing the king's ascent to "king of Zion." The ancient Aksumite stone thrones served as coronation chairs, although
9860-488: The UNESCO sponsored General History of Africa French archaeologist Francis Anfray, suggests that the Aksumites worshipped Astar , his son, Mahrem , and Beher . Steve Kaplan argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture
10030-669: The Western world , creating an Ethiopian diaspora . Toward the end of January 1991, a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) captured Gondar , the ancient capital city, Bahar Dar , and Dessie . John Young, who visited the area several times in the early 1990s, attributes this delay in part to "central budget restraint, structural readjustment, and lack of awareness by government bureaucrats in Addis Ababa of conditions in
10200-525: The "Reino de Tigr" (Kingdom of Tigray) extended from Hamasien to Temben , from the borders of Dankel to the Adwa mountain. He also stated that Tigray-Mereb Melash was divided into 24 smaller political units (principalities), twelve of which were located south of the Mereb and governed by the Tigray Mekonen, based in Enderta . The other twelve were located north of the Mereb, under the authority of
10370-497: The "coronation" itself comprised an anointing and tonsuring ritual, followed by a mass in the church. Francisco Alvares , a Portuguese missionary and explorer who spent eight months in Aksum in the 1520s described it as "a large town with very good houses and very good wells of water of very beautiful worked masonry, and also in most of the houses ancient figures of lions and dogs and birds, all well made in very hard, fine stone" He also described Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion ,
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#173276547905810540-766: The 11 regional states. Tigray is bordered by Eritrea to the north, the Amhara Region to the south, the Afar Region to the east, and Sudan to the west. Towns in Tigrai include: Mekelle , Adigrat , Axum , Shire , Adwa , Humera , Dansha , Mai Kadra , Enticho , Wukro , Agula'e , Freweyni , Korarit , Adi Daero , Ketema Ngus , Adi Remets , Sheraro , Abiy Addi , Atsbi , Hawzen , Adi Gudom , Adi Shu , Chercher , Korem , Maychew , Alamata , Mekoni , Rama , May Tsebri , Addi Remets , Hagere Selam , Dowhan and Zalambessa . Tigray's official language
10710-466: The 11th century the Tigrinya-speaking lands (Tigray- Mareb Melash ) were divided into two provinces, separated by the Mereb River, by the newly enthroned Agaw emperors. The governor of the northern province received the title Bahre Negash (Ruler of the sea), whereas the governor of the southern province was given the title of Tigray Mekonen (Lord of Tigray). The Portuguese Jesuit Emanuele Baradas's work titled "Do reino de Tigr", written in 1633–34, states that
10880-499: The 2nd century AD, Ptolemy 's geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the 4th century AD, the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and
11050-420: The 7th century at the reign of Ashama ibn-Abjar , when the first followers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (also known as the Sahabah ) migrated from Arabia due to their persecution by the Quraysh , the ruling Arab tribal confederation of Mecca . The Quraysh appealed to the Ashama ibn-Abjar , arguing that the early Muslim migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither
11220-414: The 7th century's Muslim conquests in the Middle East and North Africa, which effectively isolated Axum from the Greco-Roman world, Geʿez replaced Greek entirely. Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a polytheistic religion related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn. In
11390-414: The African oil crop, Guizotia abyssinica , as well as gourds and cress. This diverse range of crops, combined with the herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, contributed to the creation of a highly productive indigenous agropastoral food-producing tradition. This tradition played an integral role in the development of the Aksumite economy and the consolidation of state power. The Empire of Aksum
11560-413: The Aksumites led by an anonymous king achieved significant territorial expansion in the Ethiopian Highlands and the Arabian Peninsula , with their influence extending as far as Lake Tana and the borders of Egypt. By the end of the 3rd century AD, Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet Mani in the Kephalaia , as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As
11730-399: The Arabs and as a consequence, Aksum grew poorer and more isolated. It ceased to be the political capital of the Kingdom of Aksum sometime after the 8th century, which was relocated to the south. An inscription, crafted by a certain Hasani 'Dano'el, mentions his success in subjugating the king of Aksum and reducing the city to the status of a tributary to his own kingdom in the 9th century. It
11900-417: The Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria into Oriental Orthodoxy by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon . Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is said to have been placed in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion by Menelik I for safekeeping. Islam came in
12070-459: The Derg's violent rule, coupled with the draining effects of constant warfare with the separatist guerrilla movements in Tigray, led to a drastic fall in general productivity of food and cash crops. In October 1978, the Derg announced the National Revolutionary Development Campaign to mobilize human and material resources to transform the economy, which led to a Ten-Year Plan (1984/1985-1993/1994) to expand agricultural and industrial output, forecasting
12240-623: The Eritrean highlands. The concertation of these Aksumite ancient settlements suggests high population density in the highlands of Tigray and central Eritrea. According to Taddesse Tamrat , the integral regions of the Aksumite Kingdom included "much of the province of Tigre , the whole of the Eritrean plateau" and the regions of Wag , Lasta and Angot . A complex agricultural system in the Aksumite area, which involved irrigation, dam construction, terracing, and plough-farming, played
12410-723: The Greek exonym "Ethiopia". Aksumite dominance in the Red Sea culminated during the reign of Kaleb of Axum (514–542), who, at the behest of the Byzantine Emperor Justin I , invaded the Himyarite Kingdom in Yemen in order to end the persecution of Christians perpetrated by the Jewish king Dhu Nuwas . With the annexation of Himyar, the Kingdom of Aksum was at its largest territorial extent, being around 2,500,000 km (970,000 sq mi). However,
12580-573: The Imperial court were imprisoned. In August 1974, after a proposed constitution creating a constitutional monarchy was presented to the emperor, the Derg began a program of dismantling the imperial government in order to forestall further developments in that direction. The Derg deposed and imprisoned the emperor on 12 September 1974 . In addition, the Derg in 1975 nationalized most industries and private and somewhat secure urban real-estate holdings. But mismanagement, corruption, and general hostility to
12750-481: The Mai Hejja stelae field, where complex sedimentology of the land can be observed. The foundations for the monuments are around 8.5 m below the surface of the Mai Hejja stelae field. Sediments in this area have undergone a lot of weathering over the years, so the surface of this area has undergone a lot of changes. This is part of the reason for the complex stratigraphic history in this site, some previous layers under
12920-656: The Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants. A second migration consisting of 100 Muslim migrants occurred a few years later. Arabic inscriptions on the Dahlak Archipelago dated to the mid 9th century AD. confirm the existence of an early Muslim presence in Aksum. The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue its own coins , which bore legends in Geʽez and Greek. From
13090-587: The Middle Ages, the position of Tigray Mekonnen ("Governor of Tigray") was established to rule over the area. Other districts included Akele Guzay (now part of Eritrea ), and the kingdom of the Bahr negus , who ruled much of what is now Eritrea and Shire district and town in Western Tigray. At the time when Tigray Mekonnen existed simultaneously with that of Bahr negus, their frontier seems to have been
13260-590: The Princes"), both designations had declined to little more than empty titles, and the lord who succeeded them used (and received from the Emperor) the title of either Ras or Dejazmach , beginning with Ras Mikael Sehul . Rulers of Tigray such as Ras Wolde Selassie alternated with others, chiefly those of Begemder or Yejju , as warlords to maintain the Ethiopian monarchy during the Zemene Mesafint. In
13430-455: The Red Sea coast of Eritrea, near the Gulf of Zula . Numerous Aksumite settlements were strategically positioned along an axis that traversed from Aksum to the Gulf of Zula , forming a route connecting the Aksumite capital in the highlands to the principal Aksumite port of Adulis on the Red Sea. Along this route, two of the largest Aksumite-era settlements, Matara and Qohaito , were situated in
13600-545: The Red Sea from Roman Egypt to the Arabian Sea and India. Although excavations have been limited, fourteen Roman coins dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries have been discovered at Aksumite sites like Matara. This suggests that trade with the Roman Empire existed at least since this period. In 525 AD, the Aksumites attempted to take over the Yemen region to gain control over The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; one of
13770-540: The Tertiary silicified lacustrine deposits : Pila (gastropod) ; Lanistes sp.; Pirenella conica ; and land snails ( Achatinidae indet.). All snail shells, both fossil and recent, are called t’uyo in Tigrinya language , which means ‘ helicoidal ’. As Tigray holds a wide variety of rock types , there is expectedly a varied use of rock. Overall, the region is semi-arid . The wet season lasts only for
13940-753: The Tigrayan imperial elite. Following the outbreak of the Ethiopian Revolution in February 1974, the first signal of any mass uprising was the actions of the soldiers of the 4th Brigade of the 4th Army Division in Nagelle in southern Ethiopia. The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, or the Derg ( Ge'ez "Committee"), was officially announced 28 June 1974 by
14110-419: The aid of irrigation). Askum was also located on a plateau 2,000 m (6,600 ft) feet above sea level, making its soil fertile and the land good for agriculture. This appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to support the demographic base that made this far flung commercial empire possible. It may also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into
14280-465: The beginning of the common era. By the 1st century AD, Aksum was described as a " metropolis " in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea . Several archaeological expeditions have conducted excavations in various parts of Aksum. The early utilization of stelae, or obelisks as grave markers, is documented, evolving over time to encompass some of the world's largest monuments. Initially, the granite stelae in
14450-520: The capital of Kush. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system. Climate change and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for
14620-477: The capital of the 3,000-year-old kingdom of Dʿmt may have been near present-day Yeha . Dʿmt developed irrigation schemes, used the plough , grew millet , and made iron tools and weapons . Some modern historians, including Stuart Munro-Hay, Rodolfo Fattovich, Ayele Bekerie, Cain Felder , and Ephraim Isaac consider this civilization to be indigenous, although Sabaean -influenced due to the latter's dominance of
14790-695: The chapel is closed to all but the guardian monk who resides there. Entrance is even forbidden to the Patriarch of the Orthodox Church, and to the Emperor of Ethiopia during the monarchy. The two cathedrals and the chapel of the Ark are the focus of pilgrimage and considered the holiest sites in Ethiopia to members of its Orthodox Church. Other attractions in Axum include archaeological and ethnographic museums,
14960-511: The church had a nave, two aisles, and a thatched roof. It is possible that some elements of the internal architecture from the former church endured, including the outer walls, within which the smaller new church was situated. In 1608, during the coronation of Susenyos I in Aksum, Mass was conducted at this location. However in 1611, Aksum was sacked by Oromo, who set fire to the church. Pedro Páez who visited Aksum in around 1620 saw only about 150-200 mud houses, and Manoel Barradas wrote that Aksum
15130-515: The church of St. Mary a land grant in 1794. According to the missionary Samuel Gobat , in the early 19th century Aksum was economically well off, as it was situated in a "vast fertile plain" which was "richly cultivated". Apart from the ruins, the settlement was made up almost entirely of round huts with thatched roofs. The warlord Wube Haile Maryam , gave a land grant to the Church of St. Mary in an undated charter. On 12 January 1872, Yohannes IV
15300-453: The church that Alvares had described. Before the city was sacked, a document in the Book of Aksum lists 1,705 golden objects as well as many other items from Aksum that Lebna Dengel distributed to various governors to save them from destruction, and it is recorded by Ahmad's chronicler that a large stone object was removed at this time for safety to "Tabr". Manuel de Almeida who visited after
15470-441: The city as 27,148, of whom 12,536 were men and 14,612 were women. The largest ethnic group reported was Tigrayans with 98.54% and Tigrinya was spoken as a first language by 98.68%. The majority of the population practised Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity with 85.08% reported as embracing that religion, while 14.81% were Muslim. Axum Airport , also known as Emperor Yohannes IV Airport , is located just 5.5 km (3.4 miles) to
15640-405: The coast and their tributaries. While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called Kubar . The Arab writer Ya'qubi was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern Tigray or Angot ; however,
15810-569: The coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia. Dhu Nuwas was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named Esimiphaios ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named Abraha after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to Procopius , following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him, Abraha continued to govern Yemen through
15980-435: The coin after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was at once a useful instrument of propaganda and a source of profit to the empire. In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop podia built of loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as
16150-483: The confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture." The first historical mention of Axum comes from the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-1st century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside Adulis and Ptolemais of the Hunts as lying within the realm of Zoskales . The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. King Zoskales had
16320-489: The convulsions of Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi confirmed the extent of the ruin that befell Aksum in the 16th century commenting that it then had only about 100 inhabitants where everywhere there are ruins to be seen. The city was rebuilt in 1580 by Emperor Sarsa Dengel who restored the church and held his coronation there. In 1604/05 the city was visited by the Jesuit Fernao Guerreiro, he reported that
16490-444: The decline of the culture. The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during the 1st century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to six or seven months, vastly improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without
16660-482: The early 6th century, Cosmas Indicopleustes described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides and back with inscriptions, attributed to Ousanas , Ezana , Kaleb , and his son Wazeba , serving as victory monuments documenting
16830-509: The early 8th century. The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the Beja nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the 7th century AD, a strong Beja tribe known as the Zanafaj entered the Eritrean plateau through the valley of Gash-Barka . They overran and pillaged much of
17000-473: The east of the city. Aksum University was established in May 2006 on a greenfield site, 4 km (2.5 mi) from Axum's central area. The inauguration ceremony was held on 16 February 2007 and the current area of the campus is 107 ha (260 acres), with ample room for expansion. The establishment of a university in Axum is expected to contribute much to the ongoing development of the country in general and of
17170-405: The east, and their altars well ornamented. It has a choir after our fashion, except that it is low, and they reach the vaulted roof with their heads; and the choir is also over the vault, and they do not use it." Adal leader Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi led the conquest of Axum in the sixteenth century. Aksum was sacked and burned in 1535 by the troops of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi who destroyed
17340-528: The empire was Axum , now in northern Ethiopia. Today a smaller community, the city of Axum was once a bustling metropolis and a cultural and economic hub. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area. Along the hills and plain outside the city, the Aksumites had cemeteries with elaborate grave stones, which are called stelae , or obelisks . Other important cities included Yeha , Hawulti-Melazo , Matara , Adulis , and Qohaito ,
17510-436: The exact location of this city is currently unknown. Famine is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs James (819–830) and Joseph (830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains. Under the reign of Degna Djan , during the 9th century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of Angot . Local history holds that, around 960,
17680-485: The exterior and sometimes the interior. Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls. Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals, doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous flights of stairs that often flanked
17850-545: The fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller, unknown successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century BC, the Aksumite Kingdom , which succeeded in reunifying the area and is, in effect, the ancestor of medieval and modern states in Eritrea and Ethiopia using the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. The Kingdom of Aksum
18020-564: The formation of the Zagwe dynasty by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od. After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the Zagwe dynasty in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, Yekuno Amlak , who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern Solomonic dynasty around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from
18190-709: The gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit". Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by his teacher Frumentius , who established the Axumite Coptic Church, which later became the modern Ethiopian Orthodox Church . Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it
18360-573: The ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank. For important monuments built in the region, a particular type of granite is used called nepheline syenite . It is fine grained and has also been used in historic monuments like the Stelae. These monuments are used to celebrate key figures in Axum history, especially kings or priests. These Stelae's are also called "Obelisk's," they are located in
18530-645: The importance of this church in the Ethiopian Empire. Queen Elizabeth visited the Cathedral a few days later. Between the two cathedrals is a small chapel known as The Chapel of the Tablet built at the same time as the new cathedral, and which is believed to house the Ark of the Covenant. Emperor Haile Selassie's consort, Empress Menen Asfaw , paid for its construction from her private funds. Admittance to
18700-419: The initial impetus for settling this area. Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 BC and 150 AD. Small scale district "kingdoms" denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appears to have existed in the early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and here Stuart Munro-Hay concludes that; "Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one which
18870-404: The initial ivory market at Coloe , itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. During
19040-511: The inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the Kingdom of Kush . Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland, since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition
19210-480: The language of Agʿazi , was spoken alongside Greek in the court of Aksum. Although during the early kingdom, Geʿez was a spoken language, it has attestations written in the Old South Arabian language Sabaic . In the 4th century, Ezana of Axum promoted the Geʽez script and made Geʽez an official state language alongside Greek; by the 6th century literary translations into Geʿez were common. After
19380-501: The last emperor of Aksum, Dil Na'od . It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at Lalibela and Yemrehana Krestos Church shows heavy Aksumite influence. The Aksumite population mainly consisted of Semitic -speaking groups, one of these groups were the Agʿazian or
19550-459: The last three of which are now in Eritrea. By the reign of Endubis in the late 3rd century, Aksum had begun minting its own currency and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with China and the Sassanid and Roman empires. It converted to Christianity in 325 or 328 under King Ezana and was the first state to use the image of the cross on its coins. In
19720-417: The local boys were delighted to accompany a stranger about the place. They were intelligent, sharp-eyed little urchins who took a great interest in the search for curiosities, though unless someone is there to reward them for finding the old coins they do not trouble to pick them up, as they are of no value to them." Aksumite remains were investigated in 1906 by an important German archaeological mission led by
19890-564: The lowering of large parts of the Horn of Africa . As a consequence a marine transgression occurred, leading to the deposition of marine sediments ( Antalo Limestone and Agula Shale). The region has an estimated 3.89 billion tons of mostly "excellent" quality oil shale . At the end of the Mesozoic tectonic phase, a new ( Cretaceous ) planation took place. After that, the deposition of continental sediments ( Amba Aradam Formation ) indicates
20060-459: The mid-19th century, the lords of Tembien and Enderta managed to establish an overlordship of Tigray. One of its members, Dejazmach Kahsay Mercha, ascended the imperial throne in 1872 under the name Yohannes IV . Following his 1889 death in the Battle of Metemma , the Ethiopian throne came under the control of the king of Shewa , and the center of power shifted south and away from Tigray. In 1943,
20230-548: The most significant trading routes in the medieval world, connecting the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Rulers were inclined to establish a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea in Yemen to completely control the trading vessels that ran down the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is located in the maritime choke point between Yemen and Djibouti and Eritrea. Because of the ruler of Yemen's persecution of Christians in 523 AD, Kaleb I,
20400-424: The northern highlands until a joint Himyarite-Sabean alliance pushed them out. Aksum-Himyar conflicts persisted throughout the 3rd century. During the reign of Endubis (270–310), Aksum began minting coins that have been excavated as far away as Caesarea and southern India. As the kingdom became a major power on the trade route between Rome and India and gained a monopoly of Indian Ocean trade , it entered
20570-585: The obelisk pieces to Axum amidst much official and public rejoicing; Italy also covered the US$ 4 million costs of the transfer. UNESCO assumed responsibility for the re-installation of this stele in Axum, and by the end of July 2008 the obelisk had been reinstalled. It was unveiled on 4 September 2008. During the Tigray War , around 100–800 civilians were massacred by the Eritrean Army between 28 November and 15 December 2020. The major Aksumite monuments in
20740-509: The official and literary language of the Axumite state, coming from the influence of the significant Ethiopian Greek communities established in Axum , the port of Adulis , Ptolemais Theron , and other cities in the region during Ptolemaic times. Greek was used in the state's administration, international diplomacy, and trade; it can be widely seen in coinage and inscriptions. Geʿez ,
20910-483: The old one, and was built to fulfil a pledge by Emperor Haile Selassie to Our Lady of Zion for the liberation of Ethiopia from the Fascist occupation . Built in a neo-Byzantine style , work on the new cathedral began in 1955, and allows entry to women. Emperor Haile Selassie interrupted the state visit of Queen Elizabeth II to travel to Axum to attend the dedication of the new cathedral and pay personal homage, showing
21080-437: The percentage of Muslims in Tigray is less than 5%, it has supposedly been historically Islam's doorway to the region and to Africa at large. 96% of Tigrayans are Orthodox Christian . After Armenians , ethnic Tigrayans have the highest percentage of Orthodox Christians in the world. The government of Tigray consists of the executive branch , led by the president, Getachew Reda ; the legislative branch , which comprises
21250-588: The pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in Tigray . Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and stelae are found in the area. Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly Dil Na'od , while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in Shewa , protected by Christians. He begged assistance from
21420-464: The political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite stelae in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in
21590-412: The population were females and 26,283 were males. The 2007 national census showed that the town population was 44,647, of whom 20,741 were males and 23,906 females). The majority of the inhabitants said they practised Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity , with 88.03% reporting that as their religion, while 10.89% of the population were Ethiopian Muslim . The 1994 national census reported the population for
21760-766: The presence of less shallow seas, probably caused by a regional uplift. At the beginning of the Caenozoic , there was a relative tectonic quiescence, during which the Amba Aradam Sandstones were partially eroded, which led to the formation of a new planation surface. In the Eocene , the Afar plume , a broad regional uplift, deformed the lithosphere , leading to the eruption of flood basalts . Three major formations may be distinguished: lower basalts , interbedded lacustrine deposits and upper basalts . Almost at
21930-597: The present day Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church in 1959) and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church (granted autonomy from the Ethiopian Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the Council of Chalcedon (451), it has been an important Miaphysite church, and its scriptures and liturgy continue to be in Geʽez. Greek became
22100-462: The president of Tigray was Gebru Asrat . In 1998, war erupted between Eritrea and Ethiopia over a portion of territory that had been administered as part of Tigray, which included the town of Badme . A 2002 United Nations decision awarded much of this land to Eritrea, but Ethiopia did not accept the ruling until 2018, when a bilateral agreement ended the border conflict . The text of this agreement has not been publicly availed. From 2001 to 2010
22270-506: The president was Tsegay Berhe . Between 2018 and 2020, as part of a reform aimed to deepen and strengthen decentralisation, woredas were reorganised, and new boundaries established. As smaller towns had been growing, they had started providing a larger range of services, such as markets and even banks, that encouraged locals to travel there rather than to their formal woreda centre. However, these locals still had to travel to their local woreda centre for most local government services - often in
22440-667: The primary cemetery, housing the Aksumite royal tombs, and in other cemeteries around the town were plain and rough. Subsequently, they became plain but carefully dressed in granite, eventually carved to emulate multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. The Aksumite architecture is characterized by massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar to fix them, bricks for vaulting and arches, and an external wooden framework resembling "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. The walls tend to incline inwards as they ascend, often featuring several recessed bays for added strength. A comparable architectural style
22610-403: The province", but notes "an equally significant obstacle was posed by an entrenched, and largely Amhara-dominated, central bureaucracy which used its power to block government-authorised funds from reaching Tigray". At the same time, a growing urban middle class of traders, businessmen and government officials emerged that was suspicious of and distant from the victorious EPRDF. From 1991 to 2001,
22780-467: The reason for its decline. Aksum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, and through uncertain circumstances, the kingdom collapsed around 960. Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, the Kingdom of Aksum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout the Late Middle Ages. Carlo Conti Rossini believed that the word Aksum derives from
22950-616: The region in particular. Tigray Region The Tigray Region (or simply Tigray ; officially the Tigray National Regional State ) is the northernmost regional state in Ethiopia . The Tigray Region is the homeland of the Tigrayan , Irob and Kunama people . Its capital and largest city is Mekelle . Tigray is the fifth-largest by area, the fourth-most populous, and the fifth-most densely populated of
23120-921: The region, with scientific (italics), English and Tigrinya language names, are: The most common pest rodents with widespread distribution in agricultural fields and storage areas are three Ethiopian endemic species: the Dembea grass rat ( Arvicanthis dembeensis , sometimes considered a subspecies of Arvicanthis niloticus ), Ethiopian white-footed rat ( Stenocephalemys albipes ), and Awash multimammate mouse ( Mastomys awashensis ). Bats occur in natural caves , church buildings and abandoned homesteads. The large colony of bats that roosts in Zeyi cave comprises Hipposideros megalotis ( Ethiopian large-eared roundleaf bat ), Hipposideros tephrus , and Rhinolophus blasii ( Blasius's horseshoe bat ). With its numerous exclosures , forest fragments and church forests , Tigray
23290-400: The reign of Endubis up to Armah (approximately 270 to 610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to
23460-594: The renowned scholar Enno Littmann . Early in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , Italian troops seized Aksum in October 1936. In 1937, a 24 m (79 ft) tall, 1,700-year-old Obelisk of Axum , was broken into five parts by the Italians and shipped to Rome to be erected. The obelisk is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of engineering from the height of the Axumite empire. Despite
23630-570: The ruler of Aksum (a Christian region) at the time, responded to the persecutions by attacking the Himyarite king Yūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known as Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish convert who was persecuting the Christian community of Najran,Yemen in 525 AD, with the help of the Byzantine empire, with whom had ties with his kingdom. Victoriously, the Aksum empire was able to claim the Yemen region, establishing
23800-520: The same interior region of Africa was that of the Kingdom of Kush , which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the Nile corridor. By the 1st century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to Meroë ,
23970-790: The same time, the Mekelle Dolerite intruded into the Mesozoic sediments, following joints and faults . A new magma intrusion occurred in the Early Miocene , which gave rise to phonolite plugs, mainly in the Adwa area and also in Dogu’a Tembien. The present geomorphology is marked by deep valleys, eroded as a result of the regional uplift. Throughout the Quaternary , deposition of alluvium and freshwater tufa occurred in
24140-523: The second decade of the 6th century, described the four-towered palace of the king of Ethiopia, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also housed rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities such as Astar, Baher, Madr, and Mahram. These thrones incorporated large panels with inscriptions, some attributed to Ousanas , Ezana , Kaleb , and his son Wazeba , chronicling their wars and serving as victory monuments. One inscription mentions Ezana setting up
24310-464: The shengo, which elected leaders and established a military command system. Although the first Woyane rebellion of 1943 had shortcomings as a prototype revolution, historians agree that it involved a fairly high level of spontaneity and peasant initiative. It demonstrated considerable popular participation and reflected widely shared grievances. The uprising was specifically directed against the central Shoan Amhara regime of Haile Selassie I , rather than
24480-406: The southern frontier of the Aksumite kingdom. Aksum also had a sizeable Ethiopian Greek population, which resided in the cities of Ptolemais Theron and Adulis . Nilotic groups also inhabited Aksum, as inscriptions from the time of Ezana note the "Barya", an animist tribe who lived in the western part of the empire, believed to be the Naras . Aksumite settlements were distributed across
24650-437: The speakers of Geʽez , the commenter of the Adulis inscription identifies them as the main inhabitants of Aksum and its surroundings. The Cushitic -speaking Agaw people were also known to have lived within the kingdom, as Cosmas Indicopleustes notes that a "governor of Agau", was entrusted by King Kaleb of Axum with the protection of the vital long-distance caravan routes from the south, suggesting that they lived within
24820-413: The spiritual capital of the Ethiopian Empire . A collection of Ge'ez documents, encompassing a concise legendary history of Aksum, land charters, and other related material, known as the Book of Axum , is occasionally discovered bound within manuscript books alongside the Kebra Nagast and other works. This compilation provides numerous insights into the church's possessions and the subsequent history of
24990-437: The state council; and the judicial branch , which is led by the state supreme court. In early November 2020, a conflict between the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) and the Ethiopian federal government (with support from Eritrea) rapidly escalating into the Tigray War , destabilizing the region, and exposing a well-organized campaign to wipe out the region of ethnic Tigrayans. As many as 600,000 people were killed as
25160-448: The stelae and the church. James Bruce also left descriptions of the old town, which in his time consisted, he estimated, of about 600 houses. He believed Aksum to have been mainly the work of the Ptolemies, crediting most of the monuments to Ptolemy III Euergetes . After the decline of imperial authority in the period of the Zemene Mesafint , Aksum fell under the control of the rulers of Tigray. One of whom, Wolde Selassie , would grant
25330-459: The stelae, the thrones and other structures. He thought the town had been the former residence of the Queen of Sheba , as well as Kandake and Gudit . Describing the church, he wrote: "This church is very large; it has five aisles of good width and great length, vaulted above, and all the vaults closed, the ceiling and sides all painted. Below, the body of the church is well worked with handsome cut stone; it has seven chapels, all with their backs to
25500-566: The surface of the site. Covering parts of what is now northern Ethiopia and southern and eastern Eritrea , Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between the Indian subcontinent and the Mediterranean ( Rome , later Byzantium ), exporting ivory , tortoise shell, gold and emeralds , and importing silk and spices. Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit in trade between various African ( Nubia ), Arabian ( Yemen ), and Indian states. The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of
25670-467: The territory was lost in the Aksumite–Persian wars . Aksum held on to Southern Arabia from 520 until 525 when Sumyafa Ashwa was deposed by Abraha . The kingdom's slow decline had begun by the 7th century, at which point currency ceased to be minted. The Persian (and later Muslim) presence in the Red Sea caused Aksum to suffer economically, and the population of the city of Axum shrank. Alongside environmental and internal factors, this has been suggested as
25840-450: The title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR negus of Aksum." Later in the century the mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns (kings of Habashat DTWNS and ZQRNS ) are also mentioned fighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the Monumentum Adulitanum recorded by Cosmas Indicopleustes , in around the mid to late 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260),
26010-439: The town are steles . These obelisks are around 1,700 years old and have become a symbol of the Ethiopian people's identity. The largest number are in the Northern Stelae Park , ranging up to the 33-metre-long (108 ft) Great Stele , believed to have fallen and broken during construction. The Obelisk of Axum was removed by the Italian army in 1937, and returned to Ethiopia in 2005 and reinstalled 31 July 2008. The next tallest
26180-446: The town are the old and new churches of Our Lady Mary of Zion . The Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion was built in 1665 by Emperor Fasilides and said to have previously housed the Ark of the Covenant. The original cathedral, said to have been built by Ezana and augmented several times afterwards, was believed to have been massive with an estimated 12 naves. It was burned to the ground by Gudit , rebuilt, and then destroyed again during
26350-422: The town. The city also had its own governor known as the Nebure Id , who was also a high dignitary of the church. The Kebra Nagast was written by Nebure Id Yishaq of Aksum, but Aksum is never mentioned by name in the book. Instead, the "city of the kingdom" is called Dabra Makadda. The Aksum Seyon was restored by Dawit I in 1406. It has been rumored to house the Biblical Ark of the Covenant , in which lie
26520-559: The valley bottoms. In Tigray, there are two main fossil-bearing geological units. The Antalo Limestone ( upper Jurassic ) is the largest. Its marine deposits comprise mainly benthic marine invertebrates . Also, the Tertiary lacustrine deposits , interbedded in the basalt formations, contain a range of silicified mollusc fossils. In the Antalo Limestone : large Paracenoceratidae cephalopods ( nautilus ); Nerineidae indet.; sea urchins ; Rhynchonellid brachiopod ; crustaceans ; coral colonies ; crinoid stems. In
26690-413: The wall got higher, so the walls narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often whitewashed, like at Yemrehana Krestos Church ) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on
26860-567: The walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later rock hewn churches of Tigray and Lalibela . Palaces usually consisted of a central pavilion surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (see Dungur for an example). The largest of these structures now known
27030-407: The wars of these kings. King Ezana became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the 4th century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340 AD. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural link with the Mediterranean . Aksum gained a political link with
27200-538: Was a trading empire rooted in northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. According to the Book of Axum , Axum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia. The Empire of Aksum, at its height, at times extended across most of present-day Eritrea , Ethiopia, Djibouti , Sudan, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. The capital city of
27370-460: Was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded: salt . Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently. It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked the Roman Empire and India . This change took place around the start of the 1st century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red Sea
27540-512: Was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king Silko carved on the wall of the Temple of Kalabsha . King Kaleb sent an expedition against the Jewish Himyarite King Dhu Nuwas , who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as
27710-473: Was considered one of the four great powers of the 3rd century by the Persian prophet Mani , alongside Persia , Rome , and China . Aksum continued to expand under the reign of Gedara ( c. 200–230 ), who was the first king to be involved in South Arabian affairs. His reign resulted in the control of much of western Yemen , such as the Tihama , Najran , Al-Maʿafir , Ẓafar (until c. 230 ), and parts of Hashid territory around Hamir in
27880-445: Was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia in the city of Aksum. In February 1893 the British explorers, James Theodore Bent and his wife Mabel Bent , travelled by boat to Massawa on the west coast of the Red Sea. They then made their way overland to excavate at Axum and Yeha , in the hope of researching possible links between early trading networks and cultures on both sides of the Red Sea. They reached Axum by 24 February 1893, but their work
28050-407: Was curtailed by the tensions between the Italian occupiers and local warlords, together with the continuing ramifications of the First Italo-Ethiopian War and they had to make a hasty retreat by the end of March to Zula for passage back to England. The British journalist Augustus B. Wylde wrote after visiting Aksum in 1897: "after every heavy downpour of rain, old coins are washed out of the soil,
28220-405: Was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'King-of-Kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it is quite possible that at the death of a King-of-Kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in
28390-518: Was no more than a small village. In 1655, Fasilides had the church restored. Its dedication was celebrated by his daughter, Princess Yodit, who gave "an incalculable quantity of money", so that the church became "marvellous and magnificent". In 1678, rebels under Ras 'Faris, governor of Salawa, burned Aksum, but the church survived to serve at the coronation of Iyasu I in 1693. The French traveller Charles-Jacques Poncet [ fr ] visited Aksum (which he called "Heleni") in 1700, describing
28560-489: Was of secondary importance to the Persian Gulf and overland connections to the Levant . Starting around 1st century, a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the Arabian Sea directly to southern India . By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down
28730-439: Was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that "The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign of Queen of Sheba BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AD." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had
28900-530: Was the deposition of sedimentary and volcanic formations, from older (at the foot of the massif) to younger, near the summits. From Palaeozoic to Triassic , Tigray was located near the South Pole. The (reactivate) Precambrian extensional faults guided the deposition of glacial sediments ( Edaga Arbi Glacials and Enticho Sandstone ). Later alluvial plain sediments were deposited ( Adigrat Sandstone ). The break-up of Gondwana ( Late Palaeozoic to Early Triassic ) led to an extensional tectonic phase , what caused
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