44-655: The Zhan Guo Ce ( W-G : Chan-kuo T'se ), also known in English as the Strategies of the Warring States or Annals of the Warring States , is an ancient Chinese text that contains anecdotes of political manipulation and warfare during the Warring States period (5th to 3rd centuries BC). It is an important text of the Warring States period as it describes the strategies and political views of
88-626: A contemporary of Han Xin . Although this argument had been seconded by Jin Dejian (1932) and Zu Zhugeng (1937), but by 1939 it was refuted by Zhang Xincheng. The six versions of written works from the School of Diplomacy were discovered by Liu Xiang during his editing and proofreading of the imperial literary collection. Those works of political views and diplomatic strategies from the School of Diplomacy were in poor condition, with confusing contents and missing words. Liu Xiang proofread and edited them into
132-548: A number of cities with Kuomintang mayors. However, the current Tsai Ing-wen administration and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) along with the majority of the people in Taiwan, both native and overseas, use spelling and transcribe their legal names based on the Wade–Giles system, as well as the other aforementioned systems. The tables below show the Wade–Giles representation of each Chinese sound (in bold type), together with
176-462: A number of the entries are only a single character long. There are 11 entries that read simply *tung 螽 ( zhōng ), meaning 'a plague of insects'—probably locusts . Some modern scholars have questioned whether the entries were ever originally intended as a chronicle for human readers, and have suggested that the Annals entries may have been intended as "ritual messages directed primarily to
220-458: A syllable is not the first in a word, its first letter is not capitalized , even if it is part of a proper noun . The use of apostrophe-like characters, hyphens, and capitalization is frequently not observed in place names and personal names. For example, the majority of overseas Taiwanese people write their given names like "Tai Lun" or "Tai-Lun", whereas the Wade–Giles is actually "Tai-lun". (See also Chinese names .) Note: In Hànyǔ Pīnyīn,
264-487: A syllable on its own, Wade–Giles writes ê or o depending on the character. In all other circumstances, it writes ê . What is pronounced in Peking dialect as [wo] is usually written as o in Wade–Giles, except for wo , shuo (e.g. "說" shuo ) and the three syllables of kuo , kʻuo , and huo (as in 過, 霍, etc.), which contrast with ko , kʻo , and ho that correspond to Pīnyīn ge , ke , and he . This
308-400: A syllable on its own, it is written ê or o depending on the character. Wade–Giles writes [-wo] as -uo after kʻ , k , h and sh , otherwise as -o : kʻuo , kuo , huo , shuo , bo , tso . After chʻ , it is written chʻo or chʻuo depending on the character. For -ih and -ŭ , see below . Giles's A Chinese–English Dictionary also includes
352-601: Is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese . It developed from the system produced by Thomas Francis Wade during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert Giles 's A Chinese–English Dictionary (1892). The romanization systems in common use until the late 19th century were based on the Nanjing dialect , but Wade–Giles was based on the Beijing dialect and was the system of transcription familiar in
396-427: Is a succinct scribal record that has around 18,000 total words, with terse entries that record events such as the accessions, marriages, deaths, and funerals of rulers, battles fought, sacrificial records observed, natural disasters, and celestial phenomena believed to be of ritual significance. The entries/sentences average only 10 characters in length; the longest entry in the entire work is only 47 characters long, and
440-519: Is also the Chunqiu shiyu from the Mawangdui tombs detailing less information and some say shiyu was the teacher's name who wrote it. The Annals is one of the core Chinese classics and had an enormous influence on Chinese intellectual discourse for nearly 2,500 years. This was due to Mencius ' assertion in the 4th century BC that Confucius himself edited the Annals , an assertion which
484-477: Is an ancient Chinese chronicle that has been one of the core Chinese classics since ancient times. The Annals is the official chronicle of the State of Lu , and covers a 242-year period from 722 to 481 BCE. It is the earliest surviving Chinese historical text to be arranged in annals form . Because it was traditionally regarded as having been compiled by Confucius —after a claim to this effect by Mencius —it
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#1732764943716528-736: Is based on the Wade–Giles derived romanized form, for example Kaohsiung , the Matsu Islands and Chiang Ching-kuo . Wade–Giles was developed by Thomas Francis Wade , a scholar of Chinese and a British ambassador in China who was the first professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge . Wade published Yü-yen Tzŭ-erh Chi ( 語言自邇集 ; 语言自迩集 ) in 1867, the first textbook on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin in English, which became
572-522: Is because characters like 羅, 多, etc. (Wade–Giles: lo , to ; Pīnyīn: luó , duō ) did not originally carry the medial [w] . Peking dialect does not have phonemic contrast between o and -uo / wo (except in interjections when used alone) and a medial [w] is usually inserted in front of -o to form [wo] . Zhùyīn and Pīnyīn write [wo] as ㄛ -o after ㄅ b , ㄆ p , ㄇ m and ㄈ f , and as ㄨㄛ -uo after all other initials. Tones are indicated in Wade–Giles using superscript numbers (1–4) placed after
616-557: Is similar to Wade–Giles. POJ, Legge romanization , Simplified Wade , and EFEO Chinese transcription use the letter ⟨h⟩ instead of an apostrophe-like character to indicate aspiration. (This is similar to the obsolete IPA convention before the revisions of the 1970s ). The convention of an apostrophe-like character or ⟨h⟩ to denote aspiration is also found in romanizations of other Asian languages, such as McCune–Reischauer for Korean and ISO 11940 for Thai . People unfamiliar with Wade–Giles often ignore
660-570: The Book of Han and the Records of the Grand Historian provide detailed accounts of the origins of the three texts. The Gongyang and Guliang commentaries were compiled during the 2nd-century BC, although modern scholars had suggested they probably incorporate earlier written and oral traditions of explanation from the period of Warring States . They are based upon different editions of
704-801: The Shijing , Mozi , Yulingzi and Gongsun Longzi had never been questioned since the Western Han period. The earliest to assert the texts were apocryphal scriptures was perhaps the compiler of the Annotated Bibliography of the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries , but he provided no warrant for it. In 1931, Luo Genze put forward an argument that the book was composed by Kuai Tong ( Chinese : 蒯通 ) in his two papers based on six conclusions which he drew,
748-455: The Annals , and Song dynasty prime minister Wang Anshi famously dismissed the Annals as "a fragmentary court gazette" ( 斷爛朝報 ; duànlàn cháobào ). Some Western scholars have given similar evaluations: the French sinologist Édouard Chavannes referred to the Annals as "an arid and dead chronicle". The Annals have become so evocative of the era in which they were composed that it
792-587: The Fan clan by the Zhi clan in 490 BC up to the failed assassination of Qin Shi Huang by Gao Jianli in 221 BC. The chapters take the form of anecdotes meant to illustrate various strategies and tricks employed by the Warring States. With the focus thus being more on providing general political insights than on presenting the whole history of the period, there is no stringent year-by-year dating such as that found in
836-495: The School of Diplomacy and reveals the historical and social characteristics of the period. The author of Zhan Guo Ce has not yet been verified: it is generally deemed, after Zhang Xincheng, that the book was not written by a single author at one time. It is thought to have been composed by Su Qin and his peers, before being obtained by Liu Xiang . Unlike many of the pre-Qin classics, the authenticity of Zhan Guo Ce , along with
880-507: The Spring and Autumn Annals , and are phrased as questions and answers. The Zuo Zhuan , composed in the early 4th century BC, is a general history covering the period from 722 to 468 BC which follows the succession of the rulers of the state of Lu . In the 3rd-century AD, the Chinese scholar Du Yu interpolated the Zuo Zhuan with the Annals so that each entry of the Annals
924-402: The Warring States period (475–221 BCE), a number of commentaries to the Annals were created that attempted to elaborate on or find deeper meaning in the brief entries in the Annals . The Zuo Zhuan , the best known of these commentaries, became a classic in its own right, and is the source of more Chinese sayings and idioms than any other classical work. The Spring and Autumn Annals
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#1732764943716968-556: The unaspirated-aspirated stop consonant pairs using a character resembling an apostrophe . Thomas Wade and others used the spiritus asper (ʽ or ʻ), borrowed from the polytonic orthography of the Ancient Greek language. Herbert Giles and others used a left (opening) curved single quotation mark (‘) for the same purpose. A third group used a plain apostrophe ('). The backtick , and visually similar characters, are sometimes seen in various electronic documents using
1012-574: The English-speaking world for most of the 20th century. Both of these kinds of transcription were used in postal romanizations (romanized place-names standardized for postal uses). In mainland China , Wade–Giles has been mostly replaced by Hanyu Pinyin , which was officially adopted in 1958, with exceptions for the romanized forms of some of the most commonly used names of locations and persons, and other proper nouns. The romanized name for most locations, persons and other proper nouns in Taiwan
1056-649: The School of Diplomacy During the Warring States Period)". The book contained 27 chapters, 11 of which were found to be similar to the contents in Zhan Guo Ce and the Records of the Grand Historian . That publication appeared in Taiwan in 1977 as the Boshu Zhanguoce ( Chinese : 帛書戰國策 ). The texts were written in between the style of Seal script and Clerical script . The transcript
1100-620: The ancestral spirits". Since the text of this book is terse and its contents limited, a number of commentaries were composed to annotate the text, and explain and expand on its meanings. The Book of Han vol. 30 lists five commentaries: No text of the Zou or Jia commentaries has survived. The surviving commentaries are known collectively as the Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals ( 春秋三傳 ; Chūnqiū Sānzhuàn ). Both
1144-650: The apostrophe-like characters are kept, the system reveals a symmetry that leaves no overlap: Like Yale and Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II , Wade–Giles renders the two types of syllabic consonant ( simplified Chinese : 空韵 ; traditional Chinese : 空韻 ; Wade–Giles: kʻung -yün ; Hànyǔ Pīnyīn : kōngyùn ) differently: These finals are both written as -ih in Tongyòng Pinyin , as -i in Hànyǔ Pīnyīn (hence distinguishable only by
1188-715: The basis for the system later known as Wade–Giles. The system, designed to transcribe Chinese terms for Chinese specialists, was further refined in 1892 by Herbert Giles (in A Chinese–English Dictionary ), a British diplomat in China, and his son Lionel Giles , a curator at the British Museum. Taiwan used Wade–Giles for decades as the de facto standard, co-existing with several official romanizations in succession, namely, Gwoyeu Romatzyh (1928), Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (1986), and Tongyong Pinyin (2000). The Kuomintang (KMT) has previously promoted pinyin with Ma Ying-jeou 's successful presidential bid in 2008 and in
1232-427: The book into a different genus. This lasted until 1936 where scholars like Zhong Fengnian demonstrated that the book was written as a handbook of diction from the School of Diplomacy, and not intended to be a compilation of historical facts. ^ a: See HKUL Digital Initiatives for G. W. Bonsall translation. Wade-Giles Wade–Giles ( / ˌ w eɪ d ˈ dʒ aɪ l z / WAYD JYLZE )
1276-555: The corresponding IPA phonetic symbol (in square brackets), and equivalent representations in Bopomofo and Hanyu Pinyin . Instead of ts , tsʻ and s , Wade–Giles writes tz , tzʻ and ss before ŭ (see below ). Wade–Giles writes -uei after kʻ and k , otherwise -ui : kʻuei , kuei , hui , shui , chʻui . It writes [-ɤ] as -o after kʻ , k and h , otherwise as -ê : kʻo , ko , ho , shê , chʻê . When [ɤ] forms
1320-408: The finals -io (in yo , chio , chʻio , hsio , lio and nio ) and -üo (in chüo , chʻüo , hsüo , lüo and nüo ), both of which are pronounced -üeh in modern Standard Chinese : yüeh , chüeh , chʻüeh , hsüeh , lüeh and nüeh . Wade–Giles writes the syllable [i] as i or yi depending on the character. A feature of the Wade–Giles system is the representation of
1364-491: The historical contributions from the School of Diplomacy, devaluing the book's historical importance. The book does not emphasize the historical facts or fiction, but appears to be an extensive collection of anecdotes with little bearing to the chronological order of chapter and narration. Since the 12th century, it has been widely debated whether the book should be considered a historical documentation from writer Chao Gongwu and Gao Sisun, and there have been attempts to categorize
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1408-532: The initial from [i] as in li ), and as -y in Gwoyeu Romatzyh and Simplified Wade . They are typically omitted in Zhùyīn (Bōpōmōfō) . Final o in Wade–Giles has two pronunciations in modern Peking dialect: [wo] and [ɤ] . What is pronounced in vernacular Peking dialect as a close-mid back unrounded vowel [ɤ] is written usually as ê , but sometimes as o , depending on historical pronunciation (at
1452-638: The new book under the title Zhan Guo Ce ; it was therefore not written by a single author at one time. Significant contents of Zhan Guo Ce were lost in subsequent centuries. Zeng Gong of the Northern Song dynasty reclaimed some lost chapters, proofread and edited the modern version. Some writings on cloth were excavated from the Han dynasty tomb at Mawangdui near the city of Changsha in 1973 and edited and published in Beijing in 1976 as Zhanguo Zonghengjia Shu ( Chinese : 戰國縱橫家書 , "Works from
1496-552: The preceding Spring and Autumn Annals . Stories are sorted chronologically by under which ruler they take place, but within the reign of a single king there is no way to tell if the time elapsed between two anecdotes is a day or a year. The book comprises approximately 120,000 words, and is divided into 33 chapters and 497 sections. The twelve dynasties the strategies pertain to are: The intellectual aspects have been disputed due to its stress on fame and profit and its conflicts with Confucian ideology. The book appears to overemphasize
1540-462: The so-called neutral tone is written leaving the syllable with no diacritic mark at all. In Tongyòng Pinyin, a ring is written over the vowel. There are several adaptations of Wade–Giles. The Romanization system used in the 1943 edition of Mathews' Chinese–English Dictionary differs from Wade–Giles in the following ways: Examples of Wade–Giles derived English language terminology: Spring and Autumn Annals The Spring and Autumn Annals
1584-676: The spiritus asper, sometimes omitting them when copying texts, unaware that they represent vital information. Hànyǔ Pīnyīn addresses this issue by employing the Latin letters customarily used for voiced stops, unneeded in Mandarin, to represent the unaspirated stops: b, p, d, t, g, k, j, q, zh, ch. Partly because of the popular omission of apostrophe-like characters, the four sounds represented in Hànyǔ Pīnyīn by j , q , zh , and ch often all become ch , including in many proper names. However, if
1628-465: The syllable. This contrasts with the use of diacritics to represent the tones in Pīnyīn. For example, the Pīnyīn qiàn (fourth tone) has the Wade–Giles equivalent chʻien . ( s ; t ; lit ) Wade–Giles uses hyphens to separate all syllables within a word (whereas Pīnyīn separates syllables only in specially defined cases, using hyphens or closing (right) single quotation marks as appropriate). If
1672-469: The system. Examples using the spiritus asper: p , pʻ , t , tʻ , k , kʻ , ch , chʻ . The use of this character preserves b , d , g , and j for the romanization of Chinese varieties containing voiced consonants, such as Shanghainese (which has a full set of voiced consonants) and Min Nan (Hō-ló-oē) whose century-old Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ, often called Missionary Romanization)
1716-437: The time Wade–Giles was developed). Specifically, after velar initials k , kʻ and h (and a historical ng , which had been dropped by the time Wade–Giles was developed), o is used; for example, "哥" is ko (Pīnyīn gē ) and "刻" is kʻo (Pīnyīn kè ). In Peking dialect, o after velars (and what used to be ng ) have shifted to [ɤ] , thus they are written as ge , ke , he and e in Pīnyīn. When [ɤ] forms
1760-471: Was accepted by the entire Chinese scholarly tradition and went almost entirely unchallenged until the early 20th century. The Annals' terse style was interpreted as Confucius' deliberate attempt to convey "lofty principles in subtle words" ( 微言大義 ; wēiyán dàyì ). Not all scholars accepted this explanation: Tang dynasty historiographer Liu Zhiji believed the Commentary of Zuo was far superior to
1804-452: Was followed by the corresponding passages of the Zuo Zhuan . Du Yu's version of the text was the basis for the "Right Meaning of the Annals " ( 春秋正義 Chūnqiū zhèngyì ) which became the imperially authorised text and commentary on the Annals in 653 AD. During the late Han dynasty, there was a saying that the Guoyu was an "Outer Commentary" to the Spring and Autumn Annals . There
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1848-582: Was included as one of the Five Classics of Chinese literature. The Annals records main events that occurred in Lu during each year, such as the accessions, marriages, deaths, and funerals of rulers, battles fought, sacrificial rituals observed, celestial phenomena considered ritually important, and natural disasters. The entries are tersely written, averaging only 10 characters per entry, and contain no elaboration on events or recording of speeches. During
1892-422: Was likely composed in the 5th century BC. By the time of Confucius , in the 6th century BC, the term 'springs and autumns' ( chūnqiū 春秋 , Old Chinese *tʰun tsʰiw ) had come to mean 'year' and was probably becoming a generic term for 'annals' or 'scribal records'. The Annals was not the only work of its kind, as many other Eastern Zhou states also kept annals in their archives. The Annals
1936-518: Was probably composed around 195 BC before its burial, as the text tend to avoid using the word bang (邦), the personal name of Emperor Gao of Han , to circumvent naming taboo . According to James Legge's translation of the Book of Rites it shares a story with the Lost Book of Zhou mentioned in the Rites . The Zhan Guo Ce recounts the history of the Warring States from the conquest of
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