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88-730: The Doctrine of the Mean or Zhongyong is one of the Four Books of classical Chinese philosophy and a central doctrine of Confucianism . The text is attributed to Zisi (Kong Ji), the only grandson of Confucius (Kong Zi). It was originally a chapter in the Classic of Rites . The phrase "doctrine of the mean" occurs in Book VI, verse 29 of the Analects of Confucius , which states: The Master [Confucius] said, The virtue embodied in

176-448: A "new earth" as the abode of mankind following the resurrection of the dead. Originally, the two ideas of immortality and resurrection were different but in rabbinic thought they are combined: the soul departs from the body at death but is returned to it at the resurrection . This idea is linked to another rabbinic teaching, that men's good and bad actions are rewarded and punished not in this life but after death, whether immediately or at

264-529: A belief that, in accordance with John 14, those who in the afterlife see the Saviour are in different mansions, some dwelling in the heavens, others in paradise and others in " the city ". While the word used in all these writings, in particular the New Testament Greek word οὐρανός ( ouranos ), applies primarily to the sky , it is also used metaphorically of the dwelling place of God and

352-600: A book review for the De l'un au multiple book The Journal of Asian Studies , a "major impediment" to translation. The Tsinghua bamboo slips feature the text "Bao xun" (保訓) which shares the topos of centrality with the Zhongyong . Four Books The Four Books ( 四書 ; Sìshū ) are Chinese classic texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism . They were selected by intellectual Zhu Xi in

440-580: A chariot of fire. According to Michael B. Hundley, the text in both of these instances is ambiguous regarding the significance of the actions being described and in neither of these cases does the text explain what happened to the subject afterwards. The God of the Israelites is described as ruling both Heaven and Earth. Other passages, such as 1 Kings 8:27 state that even the vastness of Heaven cannot contain God's majesty. A number of passages throughout

528-515: A form which at present you know not." According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad , the founder of the Ahmadiyya sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to

616-682: A human soul belongs in Heaven and that Earth is merely a temporary abode in which the soul is tested to prove its worthiness became increasingly popular during the Hellenistic period (323–31 BC). Gradually, some Hebrews began to adopt the idea of Heaven as the eternal home of the righteous dead. Descriptions of Heaven in the New Testament are more fully developed than those in the Old Testament, but are still generally vague. As in

704-477: A large enigmatic Lote tree, marks the end of the seventh heaven and the utmost extremity for all of God's creatures and heavenly knowledge. One interpretation of "heavens" is that all the stars and galaxies (including the Milky Way ) are part of the "first heaven", and "beyond that six still bigger worlds are there," which have yet to be discovered by scientists. According to Shi'ite sources, Ali mentioned

792-548: A particular place somewhere in the cosmos ) of the supreme fulfillment of theosis in the beatific vision of the Godhead . In most forms of Christianity , Heaven is also understood as the abode for the redeemed dead in the afterlife , usually a temporary stage before the resurrection of the dead and the saints ' return to the New Earth . The resurrected Jesus is said to have ascended to Heaven where he now sits at

880-429: A person died, his or her soul went to Kur (later known as Irkalla ), a dark shadowy underworld , located deep below the surface of the earth. All souls went to the same afterlife, and a person's actions during life had no impact on how he would be treated in the world to come. Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that Inanna had the power to bestow special favors upon her devotees in

968-404: A person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape. The Baháʼí Faith regards the conventional description of heaven (and hell) as a specific place as symbolic. The Baháʼí writings describe heaven as a "spiritual condition" where closeness to God is defined as heaven; conversely hell

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1056-556: A radical proposal pushing them, Chinese won't permit even the mildest reform." Andrew H. Plaks wrote the essay "The mean, nature and self-realization. European translations of the Zhongyong ", which was published in De l'un au multiple: Traductions du chinois vers les langues européenes . In his essay Plaks argues that since the text of the Doctrine of the Mean is "too easy", this factor is, as paraphrased by Joshua A. Fogel , an author of

1144-457: A reconstructed *k̑emen- or *k̑ōmen- "stone, heaven", has been proposed. Others endorse the derivation from a Proto-Indo-European root *h₂éḱmō "stone" and, possibly, "heavenly vault" at the origin of this word, which then would have as cognates ancient Greek ἄκμων (ákmōn "anvil, pestle; meteorite "), Persian آسمان ( âsemân, âsmân "stone, sling-stone; sky, heaven") and Sanskrit अश्मन् ( aśman "stone, rock, sling-stone; thunderbolt ;

1232-632: A set collection, and to be called collectively the "Five Classics". The Classic of Music is sometimes considered the sixth classic but was lost. Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn. However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems-Rituals-Spring and Autumn. Authors and editors of later eras have also appropriated

1320-518: A ternion." In China prior to the twentieth century the Doctrine of the Mean was integrated into the education system statewide. Also, one of the prerequisites for employment in the imperial government was the study and understanding of the Four Classics , included in this is the Doctrine of the Mean . The imperial state wanted to reinforce the three bonds of society; between the parent and child, husband and wife, and ruler and subject. This

1408-484: A truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved." The Baháʼí teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in the afterlife , where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those above. Each soul can continue to progress in

1496-436: A variant final -l : Old Frisian himel, himul "sky, heaven", Old Saxon and Old High German himil , Old Saxon and Middle Low German hemmel , Old Dutch and Dutch hemel , and modern German Himmel . All of these have been derived from a reconstructed Proto-Germanic form * hemina- . or *hemō . The further derivation of this form is uncertain. A connection to Proto-Indo-European *ḱem- "cover, shroud", via

1584-664: Is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophies, and religions, and is on one end of the spectrum a synonym of Shangdi ("Supreme Deity") and on the other naturalistic end, a synonym for nature and the sky. The Chinese term for "heaven", Tian (天), derives from the name of the supreme deity of the Zhou dynasty . After their conquest of the Shang dynasty in 1122 BC, the Zhou people considered their supreme deity Tian to be identical with

1672-466: Is not discussed as often. The Torah has little to say on the subject of survival after death, but by the time of the rabbis two ideas had made inroads among the Jews: one, which is probably derived from Greek thought, is that of the immortal soul which returns to its creator after death; the other, which is thought to be of Persian origin, is that of resurrection of the dead . Jewish writings refer to

1760-470: Is seen as a state of remoteness from God. Bahá'u'lláh , the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, has stated that the nature of the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond comprehension in the physical plane, but has stated that the soul will retain its consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be able to recognize other souls and communicate with them. For Baháʼís, entry into

1848-580: Is that each man must die – beyond that we can only guess." Similar to Jewish traditions such as the Talmud , the Qur'an and Hadith frequently mention the existence of seven samāwāt (سماوات), the plural of samāʾ (سماء), meaning 'heaven, sky, celestial sphere', and cognate with Hebrew shamāyim (שמים). Some of the verses in the Qur'an mentioning the samaawat are 41:12 , 65:12 and 71:15 . Sidrat al-Muntaha ,

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1936-531: Is the eighth heaven, where the benevolent, higher divinities dwell. During the end of days , the seven heavens of the Archons will collapse on each other. The heaven of Yaldabaoth will split in two and cause the stars in his celestial sphere to fall. In the native Chinese Confucian traditions, heaven ( Tian ) is an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic propaganda, for example. Heaven

2024-445: The Doctrine of the Mean , stating, "Being excessive is too left-leaning and being deficient means too right-leaning. We need to find an optimal status, which is what the Doctrine of the Mean suggests" and that "this thought is indeed a great discovery of Confucius [...] a great achievement, an important category of philosophy, and it deserves a good explanation." Lu Xun , a leading figure of modern Chinese literature, saw Doctrine of

2112-552: The Gathas , spoke of the existence of Heaven and Hell. Historically, the unique features of Zoroastrianism, such as its conception of heaven, hell, angels, monotheism, belief in free will, and the day of judgement, among other concepts, may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including the Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Northern Buddhism, and Greek philosophy. As in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, in

2200-519: The Hadiths , these are the different regions in paradise. According to the Ahmadiyya view, much of the imagery presented in the Quran regarding Heaven, but also Hell, is metaphorical. They propound the verse which describes, according to them, how the life to come after death is different from the life on Earth. The Quran says: "From bringing in your place others like you, and from developing you into

2288-840: The Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard in Matthew 20, the Parable of the Great Banquet in Matthew 22, and the Parable of the Prodigal Son in Luke 15. Traditionally, Christianity has taught that Heaven is the location of the throne of God as well as the holy angels , although this is in varying degrees considered metaphorical . In traditional Christianity, it is considered a state or condition of existence (rather than

2376-589: The Right Hand of God and will return to Earth in the Second Coming . Various people have been said to have entered Heaven while still alive , including Enoch , Elijah and Jesus , after his resurrection. According to Roman Catholic teaching , Mary, mother of Jesus , is also said to have been assumed into Heaven and is titled the Queen of Heaven . In the second century AD, Irenaeus of Lyons recorded

2464-470: The Shang supreme deity Shangdi . The Zhou people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes, evidenced in the etymology of the Chinese character for heaven or sky, which originally depicted a person with a large cranium. Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over all people. Heaven is affected by people's doings, and having personality, is happy and angry with them. Heaven blesses those who please it and sends calamities upon those who offend it. Heaven

2552-569: The Song dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations . More information of them are as follows: The Five Classics ( 五經 ; Wǔjīng ) are five pre- Qin Chinese books that form part of the traditional Confucian canon. Several of the texts were already prominent by

2640-604: The Warring States period . Mencius , the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the Spring and Autumn Annals as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods. During the Western Han dynasty , which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology, these texts became part of the state-sponsored curriculum. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as

2728-778: The World of Darkness emerged. The Great Living God ( Hayyi Rabbi ) and his uthras (angels or guardians) dwell in the World of Light. The World of Light is also the source of Piriawis , the Great Yardena (or Jordan River ) of Life. The cosmological description of the universe in the Gnostic codex On the Origin of the World presents seven heavens created by the lesser god or Demiurge called Yaldabaoth, which are individually ruled over by one of his Archons . Above these realms

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2816-457: The blessed . Similarly, though the English word "heaven" keeps its original physical meaning when used, for instance, in allusions to the stars as "lights shining through from heaven", and in phrases such as heavenly body to mean an astronomical object, the heaven or happiness that Christianity looks forward to is, according to Pope John Paul II, "neither an abstraction nor a physical place in

2904-427: The firmament "). In the latter case English hammer would be another cognate to the word. The ancient Mesopotamians regarded the sky as a series of domes (usually three, but sometimes seven) covering the flat Earth . Each dome was made of a different kind of precious stone. The lowest dome of heaven was made of jasper and was the home of the stars . The middle dome of heaven was made of saggilmut stone and

2992-481: The Doctrine of the Mean, and one who follows these guidelines can be called a respectable person : " Zhong-ni said, 'The respectable person embodies the course of the Mean; the average person acts contrary to the course of the Mean." This guideline requires self-education, self-questioning and self-discipline during the process of self-cultivation. This principle was exposited in the first chapter of Doctrine of

3080-646: The Earth and learn nothing of what Heaven is like. There is almost no mention in the Hebrew Bible of Heaven as a possible afterlife destination for human beings, who are instead described as "resting" in Sheol . The only two possible exceptions to this are Enoch , who is described in Genesis 5:24 as having been "taken" by God, and the prophet Elijah , who is described in 2 Kings 2:11 as having ascended to Heaven in

3168-743: The Four Books and wrote commentaries whose new interpretations became accepted as being those of Confucius himself. Under the reign of Emperor Wu of Han , the Five Classics and Four Books became the basis of the Imperial examination system. Heaven This is an accepted version of this page Heaven , or the heavens , is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities , angels , souls , saints , or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned , or reside. According to

3256-570: The Han dynasty which supposedly survived the Qin dynasty burning of the books but many of them held that these works had not been edited by Confucius but survived directly from the Zhou dynasty . For quite different reasons, mainly having to do with modern textual scholarship , a greater number of twentieth century scholars both in China and in other countries hold that Confucius had nothing to do with editing

3344-650: The Hebrew Bible concerns the God of Israel's relationship with his people, most of the events described in it take place on Earth, not in Heaven. The Deuteronomistic source , Deuteronomistic History , and Priestly source all portray the Temple in Jerusalem as the sole channel of communication between Earth and Heaven. During the period of the Second Temple ( c. 515 BC – 70 AD), the Hebrew people lived under

3432-426: The Hebrew Bible indicate that Heaven and Earth will one day come to an end. This view is paralleled in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, which also regarded Heaven and Earth as vulnerable and subject to dissolution. However, the Hebrew Bible differs from other ancient Near Eastern cultures in that it portrays the God of Israel as independent of creation and unthreatened by its potential destruction. Because most of

3520-444: The Hebrew Bible, the universe is commonly divided into two realms: heaven ( šāmayim ) and earth ( ’ereṣ ). Sometimes a third realm is added: either "sea", "water under the earth", or sometimes a vague "land of the dead" that is never described in depth. The structure of heaven itself is not fully described in the Hebrew Bible, but the fact that the Hebrew word šāmayim is plural has been interpreted by scholars as an indication that

3608-533: The Kingdom of God was of something that is present but also still yet to come. For instance, Wright points to the synoptic gospels that Jesus' death and resurrection was anticipated as the climax and fulfillment of his "Kingdom of God" messages and that his combined prophecy about the temple's doom, through apocalyptic language, would serve as his vindication. The synoptic gospels and Pauline epistles portray Jesus as believing his death and resurrection would complete

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3696-413: The Mean as major contributing factor of the abject ethnic stereotype in modern China, believing it prevented reform from happening. In his speech Silent China , Lu Xun said that Chinese likes the reconcilable and the compromised. "For example, people will not allow you to add a window to a dark room, but when you threaten to uncover the roof, they would compromise to the idea of adding a window. Without

3784-408: The Mean failed to realize that something deserves absolute negation, and in compromise, Doctrine of the Mean prevented China from progress. In his comment, Mao said that the Doctrine of the Mean also goes against dialectics as it stops qualitative change by emphasizing balance and harmony, maintaining contradictions past the point where they can be abolished . On another occasion, Mao cited

3872-440: The Mean is controversial. Traditionally, authorship of the treatise (which was actually a chapter from Liji , one of the Five Classics of antiquity) was attributed to Zisi (Kong Ji / Tzu Ssu / Zi Si / 子思), a grandson of Confucius and disciple of Zeng Shen; however, this was first questioned by Qing dynasty scholar Cui Shu (1740—1816). According to some modern scholars parts of it may have been written or edited by Confucians during

3960-472: The Mean , other English-language translators have rendered it differently. James Legge called it Constant Mean , Pierre Ryckmans (aka Simon Leys) used Middle Way , while Arthur Waley chose Middle Use . Ezra Pound 's translations include Unswerving Pivot and Unwobbling Pivot . Roger T. Ames and David L. Hall titled their 2001 translation Focusing the Familiar . The authorship of The Doctrine of

4048-399: The Mean : "The respectable person does not wait till he sees things to be cautious, nor till he hears things to be apprehensive. There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute. Therefore the superior person is watchful over himself, when he is alone." This guideline requires understanding, concern and tolerance towards one another. Leniency

4136-598: The Old Testament, in the New Testament God is described as the ruler of Heaven and Earth, but his power over the Earth is challenged by Satan . The Gospels of Mark and Luke speak of the " Kingdom of God " ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ ; basileía tou theou ), while the Gospel of Matthew more commonly uses the term " Kingdom of heaven " ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν ; basileía tōn ouranōn ). Both phrases are thought to have

4224-625: The Synoptic Gospels, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7. Jesus also taught that, in the Kingdom of Heaven, there would be a reversal of roles in which "the last will be first and the first will be last." This teaching recurs throughout the recorded teachings of Jesus, including in the admonition to be like a child, the Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus in Luke 16,

4312-472: The World-to-come. According to Nicholas de Lange , Judaism offers no clear teaching about the destiny which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after death has been expressed as follows: "For the future is inscrutable, and the accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or reason, or revelation, offer no clear guidance about what is to come. The only certainty

4400-442: The afterlife, but the soul's development is not entirely dependent on its own conscious efforts, the nature of which we are not aware, but also augmented by the grace of God, the prayers of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of that person. Mandaeans believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light). The World of Light is the primeval, transcendent world from which Tibil and

4488-475: The afterlife. Despite the separation between heaven and earth, humans sought access to the gods through oracles and omens . The gods were believed to live in Heaven, but also in their temples, which were seen as the channels of communication between Earth and Heaven, which allowed mortal access to the gods. The Ekur temple in Nippur was known as the "Dur-an-ki", the "mooring rope" of heaven and earth. It

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4576-603: The ancient Israelites envisioned the heavens as having multiple layers, much like the ancient Mesopotamians. This reading is also supported by the use of the phrase "heaven of heavens" in verses such as Deuteronomy 10:14, 1 Kings 8:27, and 2 Chronicles 2:6. In line with the typical view of most Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible depicts Heaven as a place that is inaccessible to humans. Although some prophets are occasionally granted temporary visionary access to heaven, such as in 1 Kings 22:19–23, Job 1:6–12 and 2:1–6, and Isaiah 6, they hear only God's deliberations concerning

4664-563: The beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife or, in exceptional cases, enter Heaven without dying . Heaven is often described as a "highest place", the holiest place, a paradise , in contrast to hell or the underworld or the "low places" and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity , goodness , piety , faith , or other virtues or right beliefs or simply divine will . Some believe in

4752-463: The classics, much less writing them. Yao Xinzhong reports that still other scholars hold the "pragmatic" view that the history of the Classics is a long one and that Confucius and his followers, although they did not intend to create a system of classics, "contributed to their formation." In any case, it is undisputed that for most of the last 2,000 years, Confucius was believed to have either written or edited these classics. The most important events in

4840-748: The clouds, but a living, personal relationship with the Holy Trinity . It is our meeting with the Father which takes place in the risen Christ through the communion of the Holy Spirit ." While the concept of Heaven ( malkuth hashamaim מלכות השמים, the Kingdom of Heaven ) is much discussed in Christian thought, the Jewish concept of the afterlife , sometimes known as olam haba , the World-to-come,

4928-809: The company of their parents, spouses, and children. In Islam if one's good deeds outweigh one's sins then one may gain entrance to paradise only through God's mercy . Conversely, if one's sins outweigh their good deeds they are sent to hell. The more good deeds one has performed the higher the level of Jannah one is directed to. Quran verses which describe paradise include: 13:15, 18:31, 38:49–54, 35:33–35 and 52:17. The Quran refers to Jannah with different names: Al-Firdaws , Jannātu-′Adn ("Garden of Eden" or "Everlasting Gardens"), Jannatu-n-Na'īm ("Garden of Delight"), Jannatu-l-Ma'wa ("Garden of Refuge"), Dāru-s-Salām ("Abode of Peace"), Dāru-l-Muqāma ("Abode of Permanent Stay"), al-Muqāmu-l-Amin ("The Secure Station") and Jannātu-l-Khuld ("Garden of Immortality"). In

5016-463: The divine realm. Heaven and Earth were separated by their very nature; humans could see and be affected by elements of the lower heaven, such as stars and storms, but ordinary mortals could not go to Heaven because it was the abode of the gods alone. In the Epic of Gilgamesh , Gilgamesh says to Enkidu , "Who can go up to heaven, my friend? Only the gods dwell with Shamash forever." Instead, after

5104-557: The doctrine of the Mean is of the highest order. But it has long been rare among people The Analects never expands on what this term means, but Zisi's text, The Doctrine of the Mean , explores its meaning in detail, as well as how to apply it to one's life. The application of Confucian metaphysics to politics and virtue ethics . The text was adopted into the canon of the Neo-Confucian movement, as compiled by Zhu Xi . While Burton Watson translated Zhōngyōng as Doctrine of

5192-407: The doctrine. Chiang Kai-shek praised the doctrine as the book that introduced him to learning and as an essence of ancient Chinese learned thought. According to Mao Zedong 's comment on Ai Siqi 's analysis of Doctrine of the Mean , Doctrine of the Mean is an eclecticism which simultaneously opposes the abolishment of exploitation and excessive exploitation. According to Mao, Doctrine of

5280-637: The earlier ( Middle English ) heven (attested 1159); this in turn was developed from the previous Old English form heofon . By about 1000, heofon was being used in reference to the Christianized "place where God dwells", but originally, it had signified "sky, firmament" (e.g. in Beowulf , c. 725). The English term has cognates in the other Germanic languages : Old Saxon heƀan "sky, heaven" (hence also Middle Low German heven "sky"), Old Icelandic himinn , Gothic himins ; and those with

5368-407: The example in behaving to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me." Sincerity contributes to a close connection between Heaven and human. This guideline was exposited in the 23rd chapter: "It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven , who can give its full development to his nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, he can do

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5456-533: The gospels record Jesus as having explained exactly what the phrase "Kingdom of God" means. The most likely explanation for this apparent omission is that the Kingdom of God was a commonly understood concept that required no explanation. According to Sanders and Casey, Jews in Judea during the early first century believed that God reigns eternally in Heaven, but many also believed that God would eventually establish his kingdom on earth as well. Because God's Kingdom

5544-427: The idea of the resurrection of the dead is thought to be derived from Persian cosmology, although the later claim has been recently questioned. By the early first century AD, these two seemingly incompatible ideas were often conflated by Hebrew thinkers. The Hebrews also inherited from the Persians, Greeks, and Romans the idea that the human soul originates in the divine realm and seeks to return there. The idea that

5632-420: The mean into their practices, as long as they do not exceed their natural order. The Doctrine of the Mean represents moderation, rectitude, objectivity, sincerity, honesty and propriety. The guiding principle is that one should never act in excess. The Doctrine of the Mean is divided into three parts: Doctrine of the Mean proposed three guidelines—Self-watchfulness, Leniency and Sincerity—for how to pursue

5720-402: The names of the seven heavens as below: Still an afterlife destination of the righteous is conceived in Islam as Jannah ( Arabic : جنة "Garden [of Eden]" translated as "paradise"). Regarding Eden or paradise the Quran says, "The description of the Paradise promised to the righteous is that under it rivers flow; eternal is its fruit as well as its shade. That is the ˹ultimate˺ outcome for

5808-438: The next life has the potential to bring great joy. Bahá'u'lláh likened death to the process of birth. He explains: "The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother." The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Baháʼí view of earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development,

5896-400: The physical world provides for the development of the individual soul . Accordingly, Baháʼís view life as a preparatory stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life. The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the current Manifestation of God , which Baháʼís believe is currently Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh wrote, "Know thou, of

5984-491: The possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come . Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions , heaven is considered as Svargaloka , and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma . This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana . Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside

6072-647: The righteous. But the outcome for the disbelievers is the Fire!" Islam rejects the concept of original sin , and Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure. Children automatically go to paradise when they die, regardless of the religion of their parents. Paradise is described primarily in physical terms as a place where every wish is immediately fulfilled when asked. Islamic texts describe immortal life in Jannah as happy, without negative emotions . Those who dwell in Jannah are said to wear costly apparel, partake in exquisite banquets, and recline on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones. Inhabitants will rejoice in

6160-413: The rule of first the Persian Achaemenid Empire , then the Greek kingdoms of the Diadochi , and finally the Roman Empire . Their culture was profoundly influenced by those of the peoples who ruled them. Consequently, their views on existence after death were profoundly shaped by the ideas of the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The idea of the immortality of the soul is derived from Greek philosophy and

6248-422: The same meaning, but the author of the Gospel of Matthew changed the name "Kingdom of God" to "Kingdom of Heaven" in most instances because it was the more acceptable phrase in his own cultural and religious context in the late first century. Modern scholars agree that the Kingdom of God was an essential part of the teachings of the historical Jesus but there is no agreement on what this kingdom was. None of

6336-432: The same to the nature of other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can give their full development to the natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to the natures of creatures and things, he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth . Able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, he may with Heaven and Earth form

6424-511: The subsequent resurrection. Around 1 CE, the Pharisees believed in an afterlife but the Sadducees did not. The Mishnah has many sayings about the World to Come , for example, "Rabbi Yaakov said: This world is like a lobby before the World to Come; prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall." Judaism holds that the righteous of all nations have a share in

6512-413: The tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as the otherworld . At least in the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity , Islam , and some schools of Judaism , as well as Zoroastrianism , heaven is the realm of afterlife where good actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity ( hell being the place where bad behavior is punished). The modern English word heaven is derived from

6600-479: The terms "Book" and "Classic" and applied them ironically to compendia focused on patently low-brow subject matter. Examples include the Classic of Whoring ( Piaojing 嫖經) and Zhang Yingyu's A New Book for Foiling Swindles ( Dupian Xinshu 杜騙新書, ca. 1617), which is known colloquially as The Book of Swindles or The Classic of Swindles . Traditionally, it was thought that Confucius himself had compiled or edited

6688-403: The text, the goal of the mean is to maintain balance and harmony from directing the mind to a state of constant equilibrium. The person who follows the mean is on a path of duty and must never leave it. A superior person is cautious, a gentle teacher and shows no contempt for their inferiors. The person always does what is natural according to their status in the world. Even common people can carry

6776-424: The texts of the Five Classics. The scholar Yao Xinzhong allows that there are good reasons to believe that Confucian classics took shape in the hands of Confucius, but that "nothing can be taken for granted in the matter of the early versions of the classics." From the time of the Western Han dynasty, Yao continues, most Confucian scholars believed that Confucius re-collected and edited the prior works, thereby "fixing"

6864-448: The textual career of these classics were the adoption of Confucianism as state orthodoxy in the Han dynasty , which led to their preservation, and the "renaissance" of Confucianism in the Song dynasty , which led to their being made the basis of Confucian orthodoxy in the imperial examination system in the following dynasties. The Neo-Confucian sage Zhu Xi (1130–1200) fixed the texts of

6952-470: The transition from the Qin to Han dynasties. However, it is widely agreed that the book presents the ethical core of Confucian teachings. Others seem to attribute it to Confucius himself. The Doctrine of the Mean is a text rich with symbolism and guidance to perfecting oneself. The mean is also described as the "unswerving pivot" or zhongyong . Zhong means bent neither one way or another, and yong represents unchanging. In James Legge 's translation of

7040-683: The versions of the ancient writings which became the Classics. Confucian tradition believes that the Shijing collection was edited by Confucius from a collection of 3,000 pieces to its traditional form of 305 pieces. In the twentieth century, many Chinese scholars still held to this tradition. The New Confucian scholar, Xiong Shili (1885–1968), for instance, held that the Six Classics were the final versions "fixed up" by Confucius in his old age. Other scholars had and have different views. The Old Text School , for instance, relied on versions found in

7128-406: The will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embryonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born in which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state

7216-498: The work of inaugurating the Kingdom of God and that his followers who wrote everything down expressed their belief he had done so, using first-century Jewish idioms, and that such events "did with evil and launch the project of new creation". In the teachings of the historical Jesus, people are expected to prepare for the coming of the Kingdom of God by living moral lives. Jesus's commands for his followers to adopt lifestyles of moral perfectionism are found in many passages throughout

7304-608: Was believed to be superior to any human kingdom, this meant that God would necessarily drive out the Romans, who ruled Judea, and establish his own direct rule over the Jewish people. This belief is referenced in the first petition of the Lord's Prayer , taught by Jesus to his disciples and recorded in Matthew and Luke 11:2: "Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven." Other scholars contend that Jesus' teaching of

7392-613: Was believed to emphasize a peaceful home and an orderly state. Recently in China, the New Confucians revisited the Classics, because of its strong foundation in the educational system. Using the Doctrine of the Mean has become a useful source for New Confucians due to the similarities in the terminology and expression used by them and found within the text. This is further reinforced by the support from ancient sages and worthies who prefer education systems more closely linked to traditional Confucian thought. Sun Yat-sen critiqued

7480-536: Was exposited in the 13th chapter: "When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others." In this chapter, Confucius explained this guideline with four examples: "to serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me", " to serve my prince as I would require my minister to serve me", "to serve my elder brother as I would require my younger brother to serve me", "to set

7568-481: Was himself overthrown by his son, Kumarbi . Almost nothing is known of Bronze Age (pre-1200 BC) Canaanite views of heaven and the archaeological findings at Ugarit (destroyed c. 1200 BC) have not provided information. The first century Greek author Philo of Byblos may have preserved elements of Iron Age Phoenician religion in his Sanchuniathon . Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian prophet who introduced

7656-671: Was the abode of the Igigi . The highest and outermost dome of heaven was made of luludānītu stone and was personified as An , the god of the sky. The celestial bodies were equated with specific deities as well. The planet Venus was believed to be Inanna , the goddess of sex and war. The Sun was her brother Utu , the god of justice, and the Moon was their father Nanna . In ancient Near Eastern cultures in general and in Mesopotamia in particular, humans had little to no access to

7744-477: Was widely thought to have been built and established by Enlil himself. The ancient Hittites believed that some deities lived in Heaven while others lived in remote places on Earth, such as mountains, where humans had little access. In the Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is the abode of the gods. In the Song of Kumarbi , Alalu was king in Heaven for nine years before giving birth to his son, Anu . Anu

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