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117-582: The earliest evidence of wine production dates from between 6000 and 5000 BC. Wine making technology improved considerably with the ancient Greeks but it was not until the end of the Roman Empire that cultivation techniques as we know them were common throughout Europe. In medieval Europe the Catholic Church was a staunch supporter of wine, which was necessary for the celebration of the Mass . During

234-461: A century, New York's Cornell University , the University of California, Davis , and California State University, Fresno , among others, have been conducting scientific experiments to improve viticulture and educate practitioners. The research includes developing improved grape varieties and investigating pest control. The International Grape Genome Program is a multi-national effort to discover

351-460: A company gains an added benefit by expanding its size. These economies are due to the presence of some resource or competence that is not fully utilized, or to the existence of specific market positions that create a differential advantage in expanding the size of the firms. That growth economies disappear once the scale size expansion process is completed. For example, a company that owns a supermarket chain benefits from an economy of growth if, opening

468-591: A differentiated demand with respect to the quality of the product, and assistance before and after the sale. Very different organizational forms can therefore co-exist in the same sector of activity, even in the presence of economies of scale, such as, for example, flexible production on a large scale, small-scale flexible production, mass production, industrial production based on rigid technologies associated with flexible organizational systems and traditional artisan production. The considerations regarding economies of scale are therefore important, but not sufficient to explain

585-421: A firm's costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function. A production function has constant returns to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion. Returns are decreasing if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and increasing if more than double

702-512: A genetic means to improving quality, increasing yield and providing a "natural" resistance to pests. The implementation of mechanical harvesting is often stimulated by changes in labor laws, labor shortages, and bureaucratic complications. It can be expensive to hire labor for short periods of time, which does not square well with the need to reduce production costs and harvest quickly, often at night. However, very small vineyards, incompatible widths between rows of grape vines and steep terrain hinder

819-601: A lesser extent "Eucharist" are far more typical. The celebrant of a Methodist Eucharist must be an ordained or licensed minister. In the Free Methodist Church , the liturgy of the Eucharist, as provided in its Book of Discipline, is outlined as follows: Methodist services of worship, post-1992, reflect the ecumenical movement and Liturgical Movement , particularly the Methodist Mass , largely

936-427: A more efficient division of labour. The economies of division of labour derive from the increase in production speed, from the possibility of using specialized personnel and adopting more efficient techniques. An increase in the division of labour inevitably leads to changes in the quality of inputs and outputs. Many administrative and organizational activities are mostly cognitive and, therefore, largely independent of

1053-847: A more expansively Catholic context in which to celebrate the liturgical use found in the Book of Common Prayer and related liturgical books. In England supplementary liturgical texts for the proper celebration of Festivals, Feast days and the seasons is provided in Common Worship; Times and Seasons (2013), Festivals (Common Worship: Services and Prayers for the Church of England) (2008) and Common Worship: Holy Week and Easter (2011). These are often supplemented in Anglo-Catholic parishes by books specifying ceremonial actions, such as A Priest's Handbook by Dennis G. Michno, Ceremonies of

1170-407: A new supermarket, it gets an increase in the price of the land it owns around the new supermarket. The sale of these lands to economic operators, who wish to open shops near the supermarket, allows the company in question to make a profit, making a profit on the revaluation of the value of building land. Overall costs of capital projects are known to be subject to economies of scale. A crude estimate

1287-727: A number of parishes within the Eastern Orthodox Church which use an edited version of Latin liturgical rites . Most parishes use the "Divine Liturgy of St. Tikhon" which is a revision of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, or "the Divine Liturgy of St. Gregory" which is derived from the Tridentine form of the Roman Rite Mass . These rubrics have been revised to reflect the doctrine and dogmas of

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1404-496: A product X is lower when a single firm instead of two separate firms produce it. See Economies of scope#Economics . Some of the economies of scale recognized in engineering have a physical basis, such as the square–cube law , by which the surface of a vessel increases by the square of the dimensions while the volume increases by the cube. This law has a direct effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships and airplanes. In structural engineering,

1521-547: A relationship somewhat similar to the square–cube law. In some productions, an increase in the size of the plant reduces the average variable cost, thanks to the energy savings resulting from the lower dispersion of heat. Economies of increased dimension are often misinterpreted because of the confusion between indivisibility and three-dimensionality of space. This confusion arises from the fact that three-dimensional production elements, such as pipes and ovens, once installed and operating, are always technically indivisible. However,

1638-461: A result, numerous studies have indicated that the procurement volume must be sufficiently high to provide sufficient profits to attract enough suppliers, and provide buyers with enough savings to cover their additional costs. However, Shalev and Asbjornse found, in their research based on 139 reverse auctions conducted in the public sector by public sector buyers, that the higher auction volume, or economies of scale, did not lead to better success of

1755-469: A short phrase and follows it up with a prayer called the embolism , after which the people respond with another doxology. The sign of peace is exchanged and then the " Lamb of God " ("Agnus Dei" in Latin) litany is sung or recited while the priest breaks the host and places a piece in the main chalice; this is known as the rite of fraction and commingling. The priest then displays the consecrated elements to

1872-425: A traditional-language, Anglo-Catholic adaptation of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer has been published ( An Anglican Service Book ). All of these books contain such features as meditations for the presiding celebrant(s) during the liturgy, and other material such as the rite for the blessing of palms on Palm Sunday, propers for special feast days, and instructions for proper ceremonial order. These books are used as

1989-733: A unit of capacity of many types of equipment, such as electric motors, centrifugal pumps, diesel and gasoline engines, decreases as size increases. Also, the efficiency increases with size. Operating crew size for ships, airplanes, trains, etc., does not increase in direct proportion to capacity. (Operating crew consists of pilots, co-pilots, navigators, etc. and does not include passenger service personnel.) Many aircraft models were significantly lengthened or "stretched" to increase payload. Many manufacturing facilities, especially those making bulk materials like chemicals, refined petroleum products, cement and paper, have labor requirements that are not greatly influenced by changes in plant capacity. This

2106-440: A variety of organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a production, plant or an entire enterprise. When average costs start falling as output increases, then economies of scale occur. Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation and industrial equipment, have a physical or engineering basis . The economic concept dates back to Adam Smith and

2223-427: Is a 500-square-metre vineyard which is part of a larger consolidated vineyard. Investors purchase a piece of land within a vineyard, and outsource the grape maintenance and production operations to an outside grape grower or wine producers. Because they are contracting under a co-operative structure, they benefit from economies of scale and hence cheaper labour and operational costs. Mass (liturgy) Mass

2340-445: Is a correlating relationship between a firm's total sales and underlying efficiency. Firms with higher productivity will always outperform a firm with lower productivity which will lead to lower sales. Through trade liberalization, organizations are able to drop their trade costs due to export growth. However, trade liberalization does not account for any tariff reduction or shipping logistics improvement. However, total economies of scale

2457-632: Is a historically contingent fact, and not essential to the nature of such enterprises. In the case of agriculture, for example, Marx calls attention to the sophistical nature of the arguments used to justify the system of concentrated ownership of land: Instead of concentrated private ownership of land, Marx recommends that economies of scale should instead be realized by associations : Alfred Marshall notes that Antoine Augustin Cournot and others have considered "the internal economies [...] apparently without noticing that their premises lead inevitably to

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2574-477: Is based on the exporters individual frequency and size. So large-scale companies are more likely to have a lower cost per unit as opposed to small-scale companies. Likewise, high trade frequency companies are able to reduce their overall cost attributed per unit when compared to those of low-trade frequency companies. Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of returns to scale. Where economies of scale refer to

2691-411: Is because labor requirements of automated processes tend to be based on the complexity of the operation rather than production rate, and many manufacturing facilities have nearly the same basic number of processing steps and pieces of equipment, regardless of production capacity. Karl Marx noted that large scale manufacturing allowed economical use of products that would otherwise be waste. Marx cited

2808-797: Is divided into two main parts: The Liturgy of the Word (Gathering, Proclaiming and Hearing the Word, Prayers of the People) and the Liturgy of the Eucharist (together with the Dismissal), but the entire liturgy itself is also properly referred to as the Holy Eucharist. The sequence of the liturgy is almost identical to the Roman Rite , except the Confession of Sin ends the Liturgy of the Word in

2925-424: Is expanded, including the aspects concerning the development of knowledge and the organization of transactions, it is possible to conclude that economies of scale do not always lead to monopoly. In fact, the competitive advantages deriving from the development of the firm's capabilities and from the management of transactions with suppliers and customers can counterbalance those provided by the scale, thus counteracting

3042-442: Is one where the costs of production fall when the number of firms in the industry drops, but the remaining firms increase their production to match previous levels. Conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized services and machinery. Economies of scale exist whenever the total cost of producing two quantities of

3159-505: Is possible within a particular country—for example, it would not be efficient for Liechtenstein to have its own carmaker if they only sold to their local market. A lone carmaker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale also play a role in a " natural monopoly ". There is a distinction between two types of economies of scale: internal and external. An industry that exhibits an internal economy of scale

3276-570: Is professed on Sundays and solemnities, and the Universal Prayer or Prayer of the Faithful follows. The designation "of the faithful" comes from when catechumens did not remain for this prayer or for what follows. The Liturgy of the Eucharist begins with the preparation of the altar and gifts, while the collection may be taken. This concludes with the priest saying: "Pray, brethren, that my sacrifice and yours may be acceptable to God,

3393-608: Is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship products uneconomic distances. Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a higher defect rate. Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade (a commodity) and find it costly to switch grades frequently. They will, therefore, avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often smaller (usually older) manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity-grade production to specialty products. Economies of scale must be distinguished from economies stemming from an increase in

3510-433: Is that if the capital cost for a given sized piece of equipment is known, changing the size will change the capital cost by the 0.6 power of the capacity ratio (the point six to the power rule ). In estimating capital cost, it typically requires an insignificant amount of labor, and possibly not much more in materials, to install a larger capacity electrical wire or pipe having significantly greater capacity. The cost of

3627-636: Is the main Eucharistic liturgical service in many forms of Western Christianity . The term Mass is commonly used in the Catholic Church , Western Rite Orthodoxy , Old Catholicism , and Independent Catholicism . The term is also used in many Lutheran churches, as well as in some Anglican churches, and on rare occasion by other Protestant churches. Other Christian denominations may employ terms such as Divine Service or worship service (and often just "service"), rather than

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3744-591: The Book of Common Prayer , both of which owed their form and contents chiefly to the work of Thomas Cranmer , who in about 1547 had rejected the medieval theology of the Mass. Although the 1549 rite retained the traditional sequence of the Mass, its underlying theology was Cranmer's and the four-day debate in the House of Lords during December 1548 makes it clear that this had already moved far beyond traditional Catholicism. In

3861-800: The Deuterocanonical Books ), or the Acts of the Apostles during Eastertide . The first reading is followed by a psalm, recited or sung responsorially. The second reading is from the New Testament epistles, typically from one of the Pauline epistles . A Gospel acclamation is then sung as the Book of the Gospels is processed, sometimes with incense and candles, to the ambo; if not sung it may be omitted. The final reading and high point of

3978-627: The Eastern Orthodox Church . Therefore, the filioque clause has been removed, a fuller epiclesis has been added, and the use of leavened bread has been introduced. In the Book of Concord , Article XXIV ("Of the Mass") of the Augsburg Confession (1530) begins thus: Falsely are our churches accused of abolishing the Mass; for the Mass is retained among us, and celebrated with the highest reverence. We do not abolish

4095-741: The Lord's Supper . Occasionally the term used in Eastern churches, the Divine Liturgy , is also used. In the English-speaking Anglican world, the term used often identifies the Eucharistic theology of the person using it. "Mass" is frequently used by Anglo-Catholics . The various Eucharistic liturgies used by national churches of the Anglican Communion have continuously evolved from the 1549 and 1552 editions of

4212-615: The Second Vatican Council , numerous other Eucharistic prayers have been composed, including four for children's Masses. Central to the Eucharist is the Institution Narrative , recalling the words and actions of Jesus at his Last Supper , which he told his disciples to do in remembrance of him. Then the congregation acclaims its belief in Christ's conquest over death, and their hope of eternal life. Since

4329-692: The orders of their clergy, and as a result, does not ordinarily permit intercommunion between members of these Churches. In a 1993 letter to Bishop Johannes Hanselmann of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria , Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) affirmed that "a theology oriented to the concept of succession [of bishops], such as that which holds in the Catholic and in the Orthodox church , need not in any way deny

4446-415: The short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve down and to the right. Economies of scale is a concept that may explain patterns in international trade or in the number of firms in a given market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries. It is also a justification for free trade policies, since some economies of scale may require a larger market than

4563-580: The sign of the cross with the people and formally greets them. Of the options offered for the Introductory Rites, that preferred by liturgists would bridge the praise of the opening hymn with the Glory to God which follows. The Kyrie eleison here has from early times been an acclamation of God's mercy. The Penitential Act instituted by the Council of Trent is also still permitted here, with

4680-417: The "physical" point of view of the returns to scale. Furthermore, supply contracts entail fixed costs which lead to decreasing average costs if the scale of production increases. This is of important utility in the study of corporate finance . Economies of productive capacity balancing derives from the possibility that a larger scale of production involves a more efficient use of the production capacities of

4797-408: The 1552 revision, this was made clear by the restructuring of the elements of the rite while retaining nearly all the language so that it became, in the words of an Anglo-Catholic liturgical historian (Arthur Couratin) "a series of communion devotions; disembarrassed of the Mass with which they were temporarily associated in 1548 and 1549". Some rites, such as the 1637 Scottish rite and the 1789 rite in

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4914-608: The Anglican rites in North America, while in the Roman Rite (when used) and in Anglican rites in many jurisdictions the Confession is near the beginning of the service. The Anglican tradition includes separate rites for nuptial, funeral, and votive Masses. The Eucharist is an integral part of many other sacramental services, including ordination and Confirmation . Some Anglo-Catholic parishes use Anglican versions of

5031-673: The Eucharist by Howard E. Galley, Low Mass Ceremonial by C. P. A. Burnett , and Ritual Notes by E.C.R. Lamburn. Other guides to ceremonial include the General Instruction of the Roman Missal , Ceremonies of the Modern Roman Rite (Peter Elliott), Ceremonies of the Roman Rite Described (Adrian Fortescue), and The Parson's Handbook ( Percy Dearmer ). In Evangelical Anglican parishes,

5148-572: The Liturgy of the Word is the proclamation of the Gospel by the deacon or priest. On all Sundays and Holy Days of Obligation , and preferably at all Masses, a homily or sermon that draws upon some aspect of the readings or the liturgy itself, is then given. The homily is preferably moral and hortatory. Finally, the Nicene Creed or, especially from Easter to Pentecost , the Apostles' Creed

5265-560: The Mass but religiously keep and defend it. [...] We keep the traditional liturgical form. [...] In our churches Mass is celebrated every Sunday and on other holy days, when the sacrament is offered to those who wish for it after they have been examined and absolved (Article XXIV). Martin Luther rejected parts of the Roman Rite Mass, specifically the Canon of the Mass , which, as he argued, did not conform with Hebrews 7:27 . That verse contrasts

5382-696: The New World is significant. Europe's 1.6 million vineyards are an average of 0.2 km (49 acres) each, while the average Australian vineyard is 0.5 km (120 acres), providing considerable economies of scale . Exports to Europe from New World growers increased by 54% in the six years up to 2006. There have also been significant changes in the kinds of grapes that are grown. For example, in Chile, large areas of low-quality grapes have been replaced with such grapes as Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon . In Argentina, due to an economic down-turn, acreage of Malbec

5499-561: The Old Testament priests, who needed to make a sacrifice for sins on a regular basis, with the single priest Christ, who offers his body only once as a sacrifice. The theme is carried out also in Hebrews 9:26 , 9:28 , and 10:10 . Luther composed as a replacement a revised Latin-language rite, Formula missae , in 1523, and the vernacular Deutsche Messe in 1526. Scandinavian, Finnish , and some English speaking Lutherans , use

5616-669: The Tridentine Missal, such as the English Missal , The Anglican Missal , or the American Missal , for the celebration of Mass, all of which are intended primarily for the celebration of the Eucharist, or use the order for the Eucharist in Common Worship arranged according to the traditional structure, and often with interpolations from the Roman Rite. In the Episcopal Church (United States) ,

5733-557: The United States, went back to the 1549 model. From the time of the Elizabethan Settlement in 1559 the services allowed for a certain variety of theological interpretation. Today's rites generally follow the same general five-part shape. Some or all of the following elements may be altered, transposed or absent depending on the rite, the liturgical season and use of the province or national church: The liturgy

5850-527: The acclamation " Holy, Holy ....Heaven and earth are full of your glory. ...Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest." The anaphora , or more properly "Eucharistic Prayer", follows, The oldest of the anaphoras of the Roman Rite, fixed since the Council of Trent , is called the Roman Canon , with central elements dating to the fourth century. With the liturgical renewal following

5967-511: The advantages of external economies linked to an increase in the production of an entire sector of activity. However, "those economies which are external from the point of view of the individual firm, but internal as regards the industry in its aggregate, constitute precisely the class which is most seldom to be met with." "In any case - Sraffa notes – in so far as external economies of the kind in question exist, they are not linked to be called forth by small increases in production," as required by

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6084-435: The almighty Father." The congregation stands and responds: "May the Lord accept the sacrifice at your hands, for the praise and glory of His name, for our good, and the good of all His holy Church." The priest then pronounces the variable prayer over the gifts. Then in dialogue with the faithful the priest brings to mind the meaning of "eucharist", to give thanks to God. A variable prayer of thanksgiving follows, concluding with

6201-569: The assumption of free competition to address the study of firms that have their own particular market. This stimulated a whole series of studies on the cases of imperfect competition in Cambridge. However, in the succeeding years Sraffa followed a different path of research that brought him to write and publish his main work Production of commodities by means of commodities ( Sraffa 1966 ). In this book, Sraffa determines relative prices assuming no changes in output, so that no question arises as to

6318-431: The auction. They found that auction volume did not correlate with competition, nor with the number of bidders, suggesting that auction volume does not promote additional competition. They noted, however, that their data included a wide range of products, and the degree of competition in each market varied significantly, and offer that further research on this issue should be conducted to determine whether these findings remain

6435-431: The average cost for all firms as opposed to internal economies of scale which only allows benefits to the individual firm. Advantages that arise from external economies of scale include; Firms are able to lower their average costs by buying their inputs required for the production process in bulk or from special wholesalers. Firms might be able to lower their average costs by improving their management structure within

6552-434: The base of dynamic economies of scale, associated with the process of growth of the scale dimension and not to the dimension of scale per se. Learning by doing implies improvements in the ability to perform and promotes the introduction of incremental innovations with a progressive lowering of average costs. Learning economies are directly proportional to the cumulative production ( experience curve ). Growth economies emerge if

6669-508: The capitalist system is therefore characterized by two tendencies, connected to economies of scale: towards a growing concentration and towards economic crises due to overproduction. In his 1844 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts , Karl Marx observes that economies of scale have historically been associated with an increasing concentration of private wealth and have been used to justify such concentration. Marx points out that concentrated private ownership of large-scale economic enterprises

6786-583: The caution that it should not turn the congregation in upon itself during these rites which are aimed at uniting those gathered as one praiseful congregation. The Introductory Rites are brought to a close by the Collect Prayer. On Sundays and solemnities, three Scripture readings are given. On other days there are only two. If there are three readings, the first is from the Old Testament (a term wider than " Hebrew Scriptures ", since it includes

6903-452: The chemical industry as an example, which today along with petrochemicals, remains highly dependent on turning various residual reactant streams into salable products. In the pulp and paper industry, it is economical to burn bark and fine wood particles to produce process steam and to recover the spent pulping chemicals for conversion back to a usable form. Large and more productive firms typically generate enough net revenues abroad to cover

7020-425: The conclusion that, whatever firm first gets a good start will obtain a monopoly of the whole business of its trade … ". Marshall believes that there are factors that limit this trend toward monopoly, and in particular: Piero Sraffa observes that Marshall, in order to justify the operation of the law of increasing returns without it coming into conflict with the hypothesis of free competition, tended to highlight

7137-474: The congregation, saying: "Behold the Lamb of God, behold him who takes away the sins of the world. Blessed are those called to the supper of the Lamb," to which all respond: "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof, but only say the word and my soul shall be healed." Then Communion is given, often with lay ministers assisting with the consecrated wine. According to Catholic teaching, one should be in

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7254-447: The cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation, and are typically measured by the amount of output produced per unit of time . A decrease in cost per unit of output enables an increase in scale that is, increased production with lowered cost. At the basis of economies of scale, there may be technical, statistical, organizational or related factors to the degree of market control. Economies of scale arise in

7371-410: The development of "T" budding now permits the grafting of a different grape variety onto existing rootstock in the vineyard, making it possible to switch varieties within a two-year period. Local legislation often dictates which varieties are selected, how they are grown, whether vineyards can be irrigated and exactly when grapes can be harvested, all of which in serves to reinforce tradition. Changes in

7488-522: The early church an essential part of the Eucharistic prayer has been the epiclesis , the calling down of the Holy Spirit to sanctify our offering. The priest concludes with a doxology in praise of God's work, at which the people give their Amen to the whole Eucharistic prayer. All together recite or sing the " Lord's Prayer " ("Pater Noster" or "Our Father"). The priest introduces it with

7605-462: The economies of scale due to the increase in size do not depend on indivisibility but exclusively on the three-dimensionality of space. Indeed, indivisibility only entails the existence of economies of scale produced by the balancing of productive capacities, considered above; or of increasing returns in the utilisation of a single plant, due to its more efficient use as the quantity produced increases. However, this latter phenomenon has nothing to do with

7722-434: The economies of scale which, by definition, are linked to the use of a larger plant. At the base of economies of scale there are also returns to scale linked to statistical factors. In fact, the greater of the number of resources involved, the smaller, in proportion, is the quantity of reserves necessary to cope with unforeseen contingencies (for instance, machine spare parts, inventories, circulating capital, etc.). One of

7839-580: The employment of machine harvesting even more than the resistance of traditional views which reject such harvesting. Numbers of New World vineyard plantings have been increasing almost as fast as European vineyards are being uprooted. Between 1990 and 2003, the number of U.S. vineyards increased from 1,180 to 3,860 km or 292,000 to 954,000 acres, while Australian vineyard numbers more than doubled from 590 to 1,440 km (146,000 to 356,000 acres) and Chilean vineyards grew from 654 to 1,679 km (161,500 to 415,000 acres). The size of individual vineyards in

7956-422: The factors underlying the ever-increasing concentration of capital. Marx observes that in the capitalist system the technical conditions of the work process are continuously revolutionized in order to increase the surplus by improving the productive force of work. According to Marx, with the cooperation of many workers brings about an economy in the use of the means of production and an increase in productivity due to

8073-410: The firm increase, the notions of increasing returns to scale and economies of scale can be considered equivalent. However, if input prices vary in relation to their quantities purchased by the company, it is necessary to distinguish between returns to scale and economies of scale. The concept of economies of scale is more general than that of returns to scale since it includes the possibility of changes in

8190-518: The firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per-unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale if and only if it has increasing returns to scale, has diseconomies of scale if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale. In this case, with perfect competition in

8307-454: The firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the input's per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels. Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range. In essence, returns to scale refer to

8424-435: The fixed costs associated with exporting. However, in the event of trade liberalization, resources will have to be reallocated toward the more productive firm, which raises the average productivity within the industry. Firms differ in their labor productivity and the quality of their products, so more efficient firms are more likely to generate more net income abroad and thus become exporters of their goods or services. There

8541-465: The fixed structure outlined below, which is specific to the Roman Rite , the Scripture readings, the antiphons sung or recited during the entrance procession or at Communion, and certain other prayers vary each day according to the liturgical calendar. The priest enters, with a deacon if there is one, and altar servers (who may act as crucifer , candle-bearers and thurifer ). The priest makes

8658-616: The founder of political economy as an autonomous discipline. John Stuart Mill , in Chapter IX of the First Book of his Principles, referring to the work of Charles Babbage (On the economics of machines and manufactories), widely analyses the relationships between increasing returns and scale of production all inside the production unit. In Das Kapital (1867), Karl Marx , referring to Charles Babbage , extensively analyzed economies of scale and concludes that they are one of

8775-531: The fruit, rather than foliage. The terroir philosophy is predominantly French in origin, the flavour and character of the place defining the individuality and the special attributes of wines and combined with hundreds of years of the finest wine making traditions, terroir gives wines their distinctive taste and signature. However, wildfires in California and Australia have also influenced the character of vineyard plantations and grapes in those areas. A vignette

8892-438: The idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor. Diseconomies of scale are the opposite. Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber, pulp and paper industry . A common limit for a low cost per unit weight commodities

9009-479: The increase in the division of labour. Furthermore, the increase in the size of the machinery allows significant savings in construction, installation and operation costs. The tendency to exploit economies of scale entails a continuous increase in the volume of production which, in turn, requires a constant expansion of the size of the market. However, if the market does not expand at the same rate as production increases, overproduction crises can occur. According to Marx

9126-419: The individual phases of the production process. If the inputs are indivisible and complementary, a small scale may be subject to idle times or to the underutilization of the productive capacity of some sub-processes. A higher production scale can make the different production capacities compatible. The reduction in machinery idle times is crucial in the case of a high cost of machinery. A larger scale allows for

9243-488: The late 19th century, the entire species was nearly destroyed in an event known as the Great French Wine Blight , in which the grape pest phylloxera , an insect related to aphids , was accidentally introduced to Europe from North America. Native American grapevines include varieties such as Vitis labrusca , which are resistant to the insect. Vitis vinifera varieties were saved by being grafted onto

9360-793: The law can also change which grapes are planted. For example, during Prohibition in the U.S. (1920–1933), vineyards in California expanded sevenfold to meet the increasing demand for home brewing. However, they were largely planted in varieties with tough skins that could be transported across the country to home wine-makers and the resulting wine was of a low quality. According to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine , in April 2015, China (799,000 hectares or 1,970,000 acres) overtook France (792,000 hectares or 1,960,000 acres) in terms of land devoted to vineyards, in second place behind Spain (1,000,200 hectares or 2,472,000 acres),

9477-571: The lengthy instability of the Middle Ages, the monasteries maintained and developed viticultural practices, having the resources, security, stability and interest in improving the quality of their vines. They owned and tended the best vineyards in Europe, and vinum theologium was considered superior to all others. European vineyards were planted with a wide variety of the Vitis vinifera grape. In

9594-424: The marginalist theory of price. Sraffa points out that, in the equilibrium theory of the individual industries, the presence of external economies cannot play an important role because this theory is based on marginal changes in the quantities produced. Sraffa concludes that, if the hypothesis of perfect competition is maintained, economies of scale should be excluded. He then suggests the possibility of abandoning

9711-649: The more progressive of the so-called "Old World" vineyards. Other recent practices include spraying water on vines to protect them from sub-zero temperatures, new grafting techniques, soil slotting, and mechanical harvesting. Such technique have made possible the development of wine industries in New World countries such as Canada. Today there is increasing interest in developing organic , ecologically sensitive and sustainable vineyards. Biodynamic wine has become increasingly popular in viticulture. The use of drip irrigation in recent years has expanded vineyards into areas which were previously unplantable. For well over half

9828-454: The noun missa that claim not to derive from the formula ite, missa est . Fortescue (1910) cites older, "fanciful" etymological explanations, notably a latinization of Hebrew matzâh ( מַצָּה ) "unleavened bread; oblation", a derivation favoured in the 16th century by Reuchlin and Luther , or Greek μύησις "initiation", or even Germanic mese "assembly". The French historian Du Cange in 1678 reported "various opinions on

9945-466: The occasion ( proprium , proper ). The Catholic Church sees the Mass or Eucharist as "the source and summit of the Christian life", to which the other sacraments are oriented. Remembered in the Mass are Jesus ' life , Last Supper , and sacrificial death on the cross at Calvary . The ordained celebrant ( priest or bishop ) is understood to act in persona Christi , as he recalls

10062-431: The origin" of the noun missa "Mass", including the derivation from Hebrew matzah ( Missah, id est, oblatio ), here attributed to Caesar Baronius . The Hebrew derivation is learned speculation from 16th-century philology; medieval authorities did derive the noun missa from the verb mittere , but not in connection with the formula ite, missa est . Thus, De divinis officiis (9th century) explains

10179-411: The output market the long-run equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long-run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale). If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified. For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but

10296-475: The output. If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, and if that production function is homogeneous , returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function. Homogeneous production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous, increasing returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by degrees of homogeneity less than one. If

10413-468: The people, choosing a formula by which the people are "sent forth" to spread the good news . The congregation responds: "Thanks be to God." A recessional hymn is sung by all, as the ministers process to the rear of the church. Since most Eastern Orthodox Christians use the Byzantine Rite , most Eastern Orthodox Churches call their Eucharistic service "the Divine Liturgy ." However, there are

10530-405: The presence of significant economies of scale. This contradiction, between the empirical evidence and the logical incompatibility between economies of scale and competition, has been called the 'Cournot dilemma'. As Mario Morroni observes, Cournot's dilemma appears to be unsolvable if we only consider the effects of economies of scale on the dimension of scale. If, on the other hand, the analysis

10647-450: The price of inputs when the quantity purchased of inputs varies with changes in the scale of production. The literature assumed that due to the competitive nature of reverse auctions , and in order to compensate for lower prices and lower margins, suppliers seek higher volumes to maintain or increase the total revenue. Buyers, in turn, benefit from the lower transaction costs and economies of scale that result from larger volumes. In part as

10764-569: The production of a given plant. When a plant is used below its optimal production capacity , increases in its degree of utilization bring about decreases in the total average cost of production. Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1966) and Nicholas Kaldor (1972) both argue that these economies should not be treated as economies of scale. The simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size. Common sources of economies of scale are purchasing (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing

10881-400: The reasons firms appear is to reduce transaction costs . A larger scale generally determines greater bargaining power over input prices and therefore benefits from pecuniary economies in terms of purchasing raw materials and intermediate goods compared to companies that make orders for smaller amounts. In this case, we speak of pecuniary economies, to highlight the fact that nothing changes from

10998-425: The resulting wine may be virtually undetectable. Vineyards are often located on hillsides and planted in soil that is of only marginal value to other plants. A common saying is that "the worse the soil, the better the wine." Planting on hillsides, especially those facing north (in the southern hemisphere) or south (in the northern hemisphere), is most often in an attempt to maximize the amount of sunlight that falls on

11115-464: The rootstock of Native American varieties, although there is still no remedy for phylloxera , which remains a danger to any vineyard not planted with grafted rootstock. The quest for vineyard efficiency has produced a bewildering range of systems and techniques in recent years. Due to the often much more fertile New World growing conditions, attention has focussed heavily on managing the vine's more vigorous growth. Innovation in palissage (training of

11232-649: The rubrics detailed in the Book of Common Prayer are sometimes considered normative. The celebration of the "Mass" in Methodist churches, commonly known as the Service of the Table, is based on The Sunday Service of 1784, a revision of the liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer authorized by John Wesley . The use of the term "Mass" is very rare in Methodism. The terms "Holy Communion", "Lord's Supper", and to

11349-510: The salvation-granting presence of the Lord [ Heilschaffende Gegenwart des Herrn ] in a Lutheran [ evangelische ] Lord's Supper". The Decree on Ecumenism , produced by Vatican II in 1964, records that the Catholic Church notes its understanding that when other faith groups (such as Lutherans, Anglicans , and Presbyterians ) "commemorate His death and resurrection in the Lord's Supper, they profess that it signifies life in communion with Christ and look forward to His coming in glory". Within

11466-441: The same when purchasing the same product for both small and high volumes. Keeping competitive factors constant, increasing auction volume may further increase competition. The first systematic analysis of the advantages of the division of labour capable of generating economies of scale, both in a static and dynamic sense, was that contained in the famous First Book of Wealth of Nations (1776) by Adam Smith , generally considered

11583-426: The scale of production. When the size of the company and the division of labour increase, there are a number of advantages due to the possibility of making organizational management more effective and perfecting accounting and control techniques. Furthermore, the procedures and routines that turned out to be the best can be reproduced by managers at different times and places. Learning and growth economies are at

11700-425: The sick in hospitals and nursing homes. The practice of weekly Communion is increasingly the norm again in most Lutheran parishes throughout the world. The bishops and pastors of the larger Lutheran bodies have strongly encouraged this restoration of the weekly Mass. In the Anglican tradition, Mass is one of many terms for the Eucharist. More frequently, the term used is either Holy Communion , Holy Eucharist , or

11817-427: The size of the company and the market structure. It is also necessary to take into account the factors linked to the development of capabilities and the management of transaction costs. External economies of scale tend to be more prevalent than internal economies of scale. Through the external economies of scale, the entry of new firms benefits all existing competitors as it creates greater competition and also reduces

11934-446: The specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower- interest charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), marketing (spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in media markets ), and technological (taking advantage of returns to scale in the production function). Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of production by shifting

12051-485: The state of grace, without mortal sin, to receive Communion. Singing by all the faithful during the Communion procession is encouraged "to express the communicants' union in spirit" from the bread that makes them one. A silent time for reflection follows, and then the variable concluding prayer of the Mass. The priest imparts a blessing over those present. The deacon or, in his absence, the priest himself then dismisses

12168-449: The strength of beams increases with the cube of the thickness. Drag loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results in less fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed. Heat loss from industrial processes vary per unit of volume for pipes, tanks and other vessels in

12285-399: The tendency towards a monopoly inherent in economies of scale. In other words, the heterogeneity of the organizational forms and of the size of the companies operating in a sector of activity can be determined by factors regarding the quality of the products, the production flexibility, the contractual methods, the learning opportunities, the heterogeneity of preferences of customers who express

12402-457: The term "Mass" for their Eucharistic service, but in most German and English-speaking churches, the terms "Divine Service", "Holy Communion, or "the Holy Eucharist" are used. Lutheran churches often celebrate the Eucharist each Sunday, if not at every worship service. This aligns with Luther's preference and the Lutheran confessions. Also, eucharistic ministers take the sacramental elements to

12519-417: The variation in the relationship between inputs and output . This relationship is therefore expressed in "physical" terms. But when talking about economies of scale, the relation taken into consideration is that between the average production cost and the dimension of scale. Economies of scale therefore are affected by variations in input prices. If input prices remain the same as their quantities purchased by

12636-556: The variation or constancy of returns. In 1947, DuPont engineer Roger Williams, Jr. (1930-2005) published a rule of thumb that costs of chemical process are roughly proportional to the tonnage in power ~0.6 . In the following decades it became widely adopted other engineering industries and terrestrial mining, sometimes (e. g., in electrical power generation) with modified exponential scaling factors. It has been noted that in many industrial sectors there are numerous companies with different sizes and organizational structures, despite

12753-499: The vine, usually along a trellis, and often referred to as "canopy management") and pruning and thinning methods (which aim to optimize the Leaf Area/Fruit (LA/F) ratio relative to a vineyard's microclimate ) have largely replaced more general, traditional concepts like "yield per unit area" in favor of "maximizing yield of desired quality". Many of these new techniques have since been adopted in place of traditional practice in

12870-486: The vineyard. For this reason, some of the best wines come from vineyards planted on quite steep hills, conditions which would make most other agricultural products uneconomic. The stereotypical vineyard site for wine grapes (in the Northern hemisphere) is a hillside in a dry climate with a southern exposure, good drainage to reduce unnecessary water uptake, and balanced pruning to force the vine to put more of its energy into

12987-626: The word Mass . For the celebration of the Eucharist in Eastern Christianity , including Eastern Catholic Churches , other terms such as Divine Liturgy , Holy Qurbana , Holy Qurobo and Badarak (or Patarag ) are typically used instead. The English noun Mass is derived from the Middle Latin missa . The Latin word was adopted in Old English as mæsse (via a Vulgar Latin form * messa ), and

13104-439: The word as "a mittendo, quod nos mittat ad Deo" ("from 'sending', because it sends us towards God"), while Rupert of Deutz (early 12th century) derives it from a "dismissal" of the "enmities which had been between God and men" ( "inimicitiarum quæ erant inter Deum et homines" ). A distinction is made between texts that recur for every Mass celebration ( ordinarium , ordinary ), and texts that are sung depending on

13221-582: The words and gestures of Jesus Christ at the Last Supper and leads the congregation in praise of God . The Mass is composed of two parts, the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist . Although similar in outward appearance to the Anglican Mass or Lutheran Mass , the Catholic Church distinguishes between its own Mass and theirs on the basis of what it views as the validity of

13338-768: The work of theologian Donald C. Lacy. The English suffix -mas (equivalent to modern English "Mass") can label certain prominent (originally religious) feasts or seasons based on a traditional liturgical year . For example: Present form of the Roman Rite Tridentine Mass Anglicanism Lutheran doctrine Economy of scale 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville  ·  Marx ·  Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto ·  Tönnies · Veblen ·  Simmel · Durkheim ·  Addams ·  Mead · Weber ·  Du Bois ·  Mannheim · Elias In microeconomics , economies of scale are

13455-406: The world's largest producer. Terroir refers to the combination of natural factors associated with any particular vineyard. These factors include things such as soil, underlying rock, altitude, slope of hill or terrain, orientation toward the sun, and microclimate (typical rain, winds, humidity, temperature variations, etc.). No two vineyards have exactly the same terroir, although any difference in

13572-484: Was significantly reduced in the 1980s, but in the 1990s, during the quality revolution incited by Malbec Pioneer Nicolás Catena Zapata, growers started planting more Malbec, most notably in higher altitudes where cooler temperatures and more intense sunlight yield more concentrated yet smoother and more complex malbecs. Grape changes are often in response to changing consumer demand but sometimes result from vine pull schemes designed to promote vineyard change. Alternatively,

13689-403: Was sometimes glossed as sendnes (i.e. 'a sending, dismission'). The Latin term missa itself was in use by the 6th century. It is most likely derived from the concluding formula Ite, missa est ("Go; the dismissal is made"); missa here is a Late Latin substantive corresponding to classical missio . Historically, however, there have been other etymological explanations of

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