78-396: The Bārhaspatya sūtras (derived from the name of the author Brhaspati), or Lokāyata sutras are the foundational texts of the nastika Charvaka school of materialist philosophy. This text has been lost, and is known only from fragmentary quotations. Dakshinaranjan Shastri in 1928 published 60 such verses. In 1959, he published 54 selected verses as Barhaspatya sutram . Shastri
156-456: A bhedabheda -based synthesis of the teachings found in the diverse Upanishads , and while there may have been other similar syntheses in the past, only the Brahma Sūtras have survived to the present day. The Bhagavadgītā , with its syncretism of Samkhya , Yoga , and Upanishadic thought, has also been a significant influence on Vedantic thought. All Vedāntins agree that scripture (śruti)
234-485: A Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint." Badarayana summarized the teachings of the classical Upanishads and refuted the rival philosophical schools in ancient India like the sāṃkhya system. The Brahma Sutras laid the basis for the development of Vedanta philosophy. Though attributed to Badarayana, the Brahma Sutras were likely composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years. The estimates on when
312-525: A Buddhist, and could lead to expulsion from Buddhist monastic community. Thus, states Nicholson, the colonial era Indologist definition of astika and nastika schools of Indian philosophy, was based on a narrow study of literature such as a version of Manusmriti , while in truth these terms are more complex and contextually apply within the diverse schools of Indian philosophies. The most common meaning of astika and nastika, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism
390-666: A common group of texts called the Prasthānatrayī , translated as "the three sources": the Upanishads , the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita . All Vedanta traditions are exegetical in nature, but also contain extensive discussions on ontology , soteriology , and epistemology , even as there is much disagreement among the various traditions. Independently considered, they may seem completely disparate due to
468-529: A divine potency that is inconceivable. He is all-pervading and thus in all parts of the universe (non-difference), yet he is inconceivably more (difference). This school is at the foundation of the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition. The ISKCON or the Hare Krishnas also affiliate to this school of Vedanta Philosophy. The history of Vedanta can be divided into two periods: one prior to
546-509: A lower Brahman endowed with qualities as the creator of the universe: Ramanuja, in formulating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, rejects Nirguṇa – that the undifferentiated Absolute is inconceivable – and adopts a theistic interpretation of the Upanishads , accepting Brahman as Īśvara , the personal God who is the seat of all auspicious attributes, as the One reality. The God of Vishishtadvaita
624-619: A school of Vedanta. The schools of this tradition emphasize that the individual self ( Jīvatman ) is both different and not different from Brahman . Notable figures in this tradition are Nimbārka (7th century) who founded the Dvaitadvaita school, Bhāskara (8th–9th century), Ramanuja's teacher Yādavaprakāśa , Chaitanya (1486–1534) who founded the Achintya Bheda Abheda school, and Vijñānabhikṣu (16th century). Influenced by Buddhism, Advaita vedanta departs from
702-521: Is bhakti . Vallabha opposed renunciation of monistic sannyasa as ineffective and advocates the path of devotion ( bhakti ) rather than knowledge ( jnana ). The goal of bhakti is to turn away from ego, self-centered-ness and deception, and to turn towards the eternal Krishna in everything continually offering freedom from samsara . Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 – 1533) was the prime exponent of Achintya-Bheda-Abheda . In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable'. Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents
780-419: Is non-theistic (as it does not explicitly affirm the existence of God in its classical formulation), as āstika ( Veda -affirming) philosophy, though "God" is often used as an epithet for consciousness ( purusha ) within its doctrine. Similarly, though Buddhism is considered to be nāstika , Gautama Buddha is considered an avatar of the god Vishnu in some Hindu denominations . Due to its acceptance of
858-531: Is a construct of Western languages, and lacks scholarly roots in Sanskrit. Recent scholarly studies state that there have been various heresiological translations of Āstika and Nāstika in 20th century literature on Indian philosophies, but many are unsophisticated and flawed. Āstika is a Sanskrit adjective and noun that derives from asti ('there is or exists'), meaning 'knowing that which exists' or ' pious .' The word Nāstika ( na , not, + āstika )
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#1732780079189936-575: Is accessible to the devotee, yet remains the Absolute, with differentiated attributes. Madhva, in expounding Dvaita philosophy, maintains that Vishnu is the supreme God, thus identifying the Brahman , or absolute reality, of the Upanishads with a personal god, as Ramanuja had done before him. Nimbarka, in his Dvaitadvata philosophy, accepted the Brahman both as nirguṇa and as saguṇa . Vallabha, in his Shuddhadvaita philosophy, not only accepts
1014-640: Is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā , which means the "latter enquiry" or "higher enquiry"; and is often contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā , the "former enquiry" or "primary enquiry". Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with the karmakāṇḍa or ritualistic section (the Samhita and Brahmanas ) in the Vedas while Uttara Mīmāṃsā concerns itself with the deeper questions of the relation between humans and Divine or Absolute reality. Despite their differences, all traditions of Vedanta share some common features: The main Upanishads ,
1092-662: Is applied only to those who do not believe in the Vedas. The Sāṃkhya s and Mīmāṃsaka s do not believe in God, but they believe in the Vedas and hence they are not Nāstikas. The Buddhists, Jains, and Cārvākas do not believe in the Vedas; hence they are Nāstikas. Āstika is also a name, such as that of a Vedic scholar born to the goddess Mānasā ('Mind') and the sage Jaratkaru . The terms Āstika and Nāstika have been used to classify various Indian intellectual traditions. The āstika schools are six systems or ṣaḍdarśana that consider
1170-618: Is defined as those who believe in the existence of Atman (Self), while Nastika being those who deny there is any "Self" in human beings and other living beings. All six schools of Hinduism classified as Astika philosophies hold the premise, "Atman exists". Buddhism, in contrast, holds the premise, "Atman does not exist." Asanga Tilakaratna translates Astika as 'positivism' and Nastika as 'negativism', with Astika illustrated by Brahmanic traditions who accepted "Self and God exists", while Nastika as those traditions, such as Buddhism, who denied "Self and God exists." According to G. S. Ghurye ,
1248-451: Is false or illusive, and that saguna Brahman with attributes is also real. Ramanuja states that God, like man, has both soul and body, and the world of matter is the glory of God's body. The path to Brahman ( Vishnu ), according to Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of the personal god ( bhakti of saguna Brahman ). The Swaminarayan Darshana, also called Akshar-Purushottam Darshan by
1326-508: Is held to be the sole unchanging metaphysical reality and identical to the individual Atman . The physical world, on the other hand, is always-changing empirical Maya . The absolute and infinite Atman - Brahman is realized by a process of negating everything relative, finite, empirical and changing. The school accepts no duality, no limited individual souls ( Atman / Jīvatman ), and no separate unlimited cosmic soul. All souls and their existence across space and time are considered to be
1404-718: Is its negative. One of the traditional etymologies of the term āstika —based on Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī 4.4.60 (" astināstidiṣṭam matiḥ ")—defines the concept as 'he whose opinion is that Īśvara exists' ( asti īśvara iti matir yasya ). According to Sanskrit grammarian Hemachandra , āstika is a synonym for 'he who believes'. Other definitions include: As used in Hindu philosophy, the differentiation between āstika and nāstika does not refer to theism or atheism. The terms often, but not always, relate to accepting Vedic literature as an authority, particularly on their teachings on Self. The Veda and Hinduism do not subscribe to or include
1482-413: Is more a tradition than a school of Vedanta. The schools of this tradition emphasize that the individual self ( Jīvatman ) is both different and not different from Brahman . Notable figures in this school are Bhartriprapancha, Nimbārka and Srinivasa (7th century) who founded the Dvaitadvaita school, Bhāskara (8th–9th century), Ramanuja's teacher Yādavaprakāśa , Chaitanya (1486–1534) who founded
1560-759: Is one of the most widely commented upon works in Vedanta. This text is so central to the Krishna-centered Vedanta schools that the Vedantin theologian Vallabha added the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as a fourth text to the Prasthānatrayī (three classic scriptures of Vedanta). Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three. Shankara, in formulating Advaita, talks of two conceptions of Brahman : The higher Brahman as undifferentiated Being, and
1638-455: Is one of the six orthodox ( āstika ) traditions of textual exegesis and Hindu philosophy . The word "Vedanta" means "conclusion of the Vedas ", and encompasses the ideas that emerged from, or aligned and reinterpreted, the speculations and enumerations contained in the Upanishads , focusing, with varying emphasis on devotion and knowledge, and liberation. Vedanta developed into many traditions, all of which give their specific interpretations of
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#17327800791891716-403: Is one who "accepts there exist another world ( paraloka ), transmigration of Self, virtue and vice that affect how a Self journeys through time". The 5th–6th century Jainism scholar Haribhadra , states Andrew Nicholson, does not mention anything about accepting or rejecting the Vedas or god as a criterion for being an astika or nastika . Instead, Haribhadra explains nastika in the manner of
1794-587: Is only His grace that leads to redemption and salvation. Madhva believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned, a view not found in Advaita and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. While the Vishishtadvaita Vedanta asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", Madhva asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls". Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 CE), states that
1872-632: Is sometimes wrongly perceived as the sole representation of Vedantic thought, with Shankara being a follower of Shaivism, the true essence of Vedanta lies within the Vaisnava tradition and can be considered a discourse within the broad framework of Vaisnavism. Four Vaishnava sampradays are considered to be of special significance based on the teachings of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, and Nimbarka. The number of prominent Vedanta schools varies among scholars, with some classifying them as three to six. Bhedābheda means "difference and non-difference" and
1950-594: Is the earliest surviving complete text on Advaita Vedanta. Gaudapada's Kārikā relied on the Mandukya , Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya Upanishads . In the Kārikā , Advaita (non-dualism) is established on rational grounds ( upapatti ) independent of scriptural revelation; its arguments are devoid of all religious, mystical or scholastic elements. Scholars are divided on a possible influence of Buddhism on Gaudapada's philosophy. The fact that Shankara, in addition to
2028-416: Is the only means of knowing (pramāṇa) regarding spiritual matters (which are beyond perception and inference). This is explained by Rāmānuja as follows: A theory that rests exclusively on human concepts may at some other time or place be refuted by arguments devised by cleverer people.... The conclusion is that with regard to supernatural matters, Scripture alone is the epistemic authority and that reasoning
2106-472: Is to be used only in support of Scripture’ [Śrī Bhāṣya 2.1.12]. For specific sub-traditions of Vedanta, other texts may be equally important. For example, for Advaita Vedanta, the works of Adi Shankara are nominally central, though other teachers were equally, or even more, influential. For the theistic Vaishnava schools of Vedanta, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa is particularly important. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa
2184-464: Is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman . Vishishtadvaita is a qualified non-dualistic school of Vedanta and like Advaita, begins by assuming that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation. On the relation between the Brahman and the world of matter ( Prakriti ), Vishishtadvaita states both are two different absolutes, both metaphysically true and real, neither
2262-545: The Bhagavadgītā and the Brahma Sūtras are the foundational scriptures in Vedanta. All traditions of Vedanta give a specific exegesis of these texts, collectively called the Prasthānatrayī , literally, three sources . All prominent Vedantic teachers, including Shankara , Bhaskara , Ramanuja , Madhva , Nimbarka , and Vallabha wrote commentaries on these three sources. The Brahma Sūtras of Badarayana serve as
2340-624: The Brahma Sutras , the principal Upanishads and the Bhagvad Gita , wrote an independent commentary on the Kārikā proves its importance in Vedāntic literature. Adi Shankara (c.800-c.850), elaborated on Gaudapada's work and more ancient scholarship to write detailed commentaries on the Prasthanatrayi and the Kārikā . The Mandukya Upanishad and the Kārikā have been described by Shankara as containing "the epitome of
2418-400: The Achintya Bheda Abheda school, and Vijñānabhikṣu (16th century). Nimbārka (7th century) sometimes identified with Bhāskara , and Srinivasa propounded Dvaitādvaita . Brahman (God), souls (chit) and matter or the universe (achit) are considered as three equally real and co-eternal realities. Brahman is the controller (niyanta) , the soul is the enjoyer (bhokta) , and
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2496-495: The Sarvadarshanasamgraha , gives a detailed account of Charvaka, but it doesn't quote Charvaka texts directly, instead paraphrasing the doctrine according to the understanding of a learned 14th century Vedantin . Bhattacharya lists 68 items on 9 pages. Nastika Āstika ( Sanskrit : आस्तिक; IAST : Āstika ) and Nāstika ( Sanskrit : नास्तिक; IAST : Nāstika) are concepts that have been used to classify
2574-505: The Vedas a reliable and authoritative source of knowledge. These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons. The main schools of Indian philosophy that reject the Vedas were regarded as heterodox in the tradition: The use of the term nāstika to describe Buddhism and Jainism in India is explained by Gavin Flood as follows: At an early period, during
2652-771: The Vākyapadīya , written by Bhartṛhari (second half 5th century, ) and the Kārikā written by Gaudapada (early 6th or 7th century CE). Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his school in his commentaries. A number of important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the Vedārthasamgraha by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the Yatīndramatadīpikā by Śrīnivāsa Dāsa. At least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between
2730-410: The nāstika schools do not. However, a separate way of distinguishing the two terms has evolved in current Indian languages like Telugu , Hindi and Bengali , wherein āstika and its derivatives usually mean ' theist ', and nāstika and its derivatives denote ' atheism '. Still, philosophical tradition maintains the earlier distinction, for example, in identifying the school of Sāṃkhya , which
2808-528: The BAPS, was propounded by Swaminarayan (1781-1830 CE) and is rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita . It asserts that Parabrahman (Purushottam, Narayana) and Aksharbrahman are two distinct eternal realities. Adherents believe that they can achieve moksha (liberation) by becoming aksharrup (or brahmarup), that is, by attaining qualities similar to Akshar (or Aksharbrahman) and worshipping Purushottam (or Parabrahman;
2886-481: The Brahma Sutra commentaries by Nimbarka , Ramanuja , Vallabha , Shankara and Madhva . In his conclusion, Ghate determined that Nimbarka's and Ramanuja's commentaries provide the most accurate interpretation of the Brahma Sutras, considering both the passages that emphasize unity and those that emphasize diversity. Gavin Flood suggests that although Advaita Vedanta is the most well-known school of Vedanta and
2964-548: The Brahma Sutras were complete vary, with Nakamura in 1989 and Nicholson in his 2013 review stating, that they were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE. Isaeva suggests they were complete and in current form by 200 CE, while Nakamura states that "the great part of the Sutra must have been in existence much earlier than that" (800 - 500 BCE). The book is composed of four chapters, each divided into four-quarters or sections. These sutras attempt to synthesize
3042-403: The Hindu traditions. However, states John Kelly, most later scholarship considers this as incorrect, and that the astika and nastika terms were directed towards the competing Buddhist traditions and the intended audience of the texts were Buddhist monks debating an array of ideas across various Buddhist traditions. The charges of being a nastika were serious threat to the social standing of
3120-511: The Jain texts define na + astika as one "denying what exists" or any school of philosophy that denies the existence of the Self. The Vedanta sub-traditions of Hinduism are "astika" because they accept the existence of Self, while Buddhist traditions denying this are referred to as "nastika". One of the earliest mentions of astika concept in Jain texts is by Manibhadra , who states that an astika
3198-727: The Sanskrit grammarian and Hindu scholar Pāṇini in section 4.4.60 of the Astadhyayi . The 12th century Jaina scholar Hemachandra similarly states, in his text Abithana Chintamani , that a nastika is any philosophy that presumes or argues there is "no virtue and vice." Nagarjuna , according to Chandradhar Sharma, equates Nastikya to "nihilism". The 4th century Buddhist scholar Asanga , in Bodhisattva Bhumi , refers to nastika Buddhists as sarvaiva nastika , describing them as who are complete deniers. To Asanga, nastika are those who say "nothing whatsoever exists", and
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3276-523: The Vedas, āstika philosophy, in the original sense, is often equivalent to Hindu philosophy : philosophy that developed alongside the Hindu religion . Āstika ( Sanskrit : आस्तिक ; from Sanskrit: asti , 'there is, there exists') means one who believes in the existence of a Self or Brahman , etc. It has been defined in one of three ways: Nāstika ( Sanskrit : नास्तिक; from Sanskrit: na , 'not' + āstika ), by contrast, are those who deny all
3354-534: The West due to the influence of the 14th century Advaitin Vidyaranya and modern Hindus like Swami Vivekananda and Ramana Maharshi , most Vedanta traditions focus on Vaishnava theology . The word Vedanta is made of two words : The word Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads . Vedanta is concerned with the jñānakāṇḍa or knowledge section of
3432-419: The basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical exegesis to defend the point of view of their specific sampradaya . Varying interpretations of the Upanishads and their synthesis, the Brahma Sutras , led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time. Vinayak Sakaram Ghate of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute conducted a comprehensive comparative analysis of
3510-512: The bhedabheda-philosophy, instead postulating the identity of Atman with the Whole ( Brahman ), Gaudapada (c. 6th century CE), was the teacher or a more distant predecessor of Govindapada , the teacher of Adi Shankara. Shankara is widely considered as the apostle of Advaita Vedanta . Gaudapada's treatise, the Kārikā – also known as the Māṇḍukya Kārikā or the Āgama Śāstra –
3588-488: The composition of the Brahma Sutras and the other encompassing the schools that developed after the Brahma Sutras were written. Until the 11th century, Vedanta was a peripheral school of thought. Little is known of schools of Vedanta existing before the composition of the Brahma Sutras (first composition c. 2nd cent. BCE, final redaction 400–450 CE). It is clear that Badarayana, the writer of Brahma Sutras ,
3666-461: The composition of the Brahma Sutras and Shankara's lifetime. A noted scholar of this period was Bhartriprapancha. Bhartriprapancha maintained that the Brahman is one and there is unity, but that this unity has varieties. Scholars see Bhartriprapancha as an early philosopher in the line who teach the tenet of Bhedabheda . Bhedābheda means "difference and non-difference" and is more a tradition than
3744-572: The concept of an almighty that is separate from oneself i.e. there is no concept of God in the Christian or Islamic sense. N. N. Bhattacharya writes: The followers of Tantra were often branded as Nāstika by the political proponents of the Vedic tradition. The term Nāstika does not denote an atheist since the Veda presents a godless system with no singular almighty being or multiple almighty beings. It
3822-491: The definition of Nāstika as one who believes, "there is no other world, there is no purpose in giving charity , there is no purpose in rituals and the teachings in the Vedic literature." Manusmriti does not define, or imply a definition for Astika. It is also silent or contradictory on specific rituals such as animal sacrifices, asserting Ahimsa ( non-violence , non-injury) is dharma in its verses such as verse 10.63 based on Upanishadic layer of Vedic literature, even though
3900-539: The diverse teachings of the Upanishads. However, the cryptic nature of aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras have required exegetical commentaries. These commentaries have resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own commentary. Little with specificity is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras (5th century CE) and Adi Shankara (8th century CE). Only two writings of this period have survived:
3978-620: The earlier ancient layer. In contrast to Manusmriti , the 6th century CE Jain scholar and doxographer Haribhadra , provided a different perspective in his writings on Astika and Nāstika. Haribhadra did not consider "reverence for Vedas" as a marker for an Astika. He and other 1st millennium CE Jaina scholars defined Astika as one who "affirms there exists another world, transmigration exists, virtue ( punya ) exists, vice ( paapa ) exists." The 7th century scholars Jayaditya and Vamana, in Kasikavrtti of Pāṇini tradition, were silent on
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#17327800791894056-442: The entire universe is real and is subtly Brahman only in the form of Krishna . Vallabhacharya agreed with Advaita Vedanta's ontology , but emphasized that prakriti (empirical world, body) is not separate from the Brahman , but just another manifestation of the latter. Everything, everyone, everywhere – soul and body, living and non-living, jīva and matter – is the eternal Krishna . The way to Krishna , in this school,
4134-828: The formation of the Upaniṣads and the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, we must envisage a common heritage of meditation and mental discipline practiced by renouncers with varying affiliations to non-orthodox (Veda-rejecting) and orthodox (Veda-accepting) traditions.... These schools [such as Buddhism and Jainism] are understandably regarded as heterodox ( nāstika ) by orthodox ( āstika ) Brahmanism. Tantric traditions in Hinduism have both āstika and nāstika lines; as Banerji writes in Tantra in Bengal : Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic. In accordance with
4212-401: The material universe is the object enjoyed (bhogya) . The Brahman is Krishna , the ultimate cause who is omniscient, omnipotent, all-pervading Being. He is the efficient cause of the universe because, as Lord of Karma and internal ruler of souls, He brings about creation so that the individual souls can reap the consequences of their karma . God is considered to be the material cause of
4290-418: The more ancient Jain scholar Manibhadra, by stating a nastika to be one "who says there is no other worlds, there is no purpose in charity, there is no purpose in offerings". An astika , to Haribhadra, is one who believes that there is a purpose and merit in an ethical life such as ahimsa (non-violence) and ritual actions. This exposition of the word astika and nastika by Haribhadra is similar to one by
4368-435: The older layer of Vedic literature mention such sacrifices unlike the later layer of Vedic literature. Indian scholars, such as those from Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vedanta schools, accepted Astika to be those that include Śabda ( शब्द ; or Aptavacana , testimony of Vedic literature and reliable experts) as a reliable means of epistemology , but they accepted the later ancient layer of the Vedic literature to be superseding
4446-479: The philosophy of "inconceivable difference in non-difference", in relation to the non-dual reality of Brahman - Atman which it calls ( Krishna ), svayam bhagavan . The notion of "inconceivability" ( acintyatva ) is used to reconcile apparently contradictory notions in Upanishadic teachings. This school asserts that Krishna is Bhagavan of the bhakti yogins , the Brahman of the jnana yogins , and has
4524-503: The philosophy of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya . Most major Vedanta schools, except Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Vedanta, are related to Vaishnavism and emphasize devotion ( Bhakti ) to God , understood as Vishnu or a related manifestation . Advaita Vedanta, on the other hand, emphasizes Jñana (knowledge) and Jñana Yoga over theistic devotion. While the monism of Advaita has attracted considerable attention in
4602-585: The predominance of the deity the āstika works are again divided as Śākta, Śaiva, Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava . Manusmriti, in verse 2.11, defines Nāstika as those who do not accept " Vedic literature in entirety based on two roots of science of reasoning ( Śruti and Smriti )". The 9th century Indian scholar Medhatithi analyzed this definition and stated that Nāstika does not mean someone who says "Vedic literature are untrue", but rather one who says "Vedic literature are immoral". Medhatithi further noted verse 8.309 of Manusmriti , to provide another aspect of
4680-559: The pronounced differences in thoughts and reasoning. The main traditions of Vedanta are: Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference); Advaita ( non-dualism ); and the Vaishnavite traditions of Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), Tattvavada ( Dvaita ) (dualism), Suddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), and Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (inconceivable difference and non-difference). Modern developments in Vedanta include Neo-Vedanta , and
4758-476: The quotes attributed to them in later literature, Sharma postulates that Ashmarathya and Audulomi were Bhedabheda scholars, Kashakrtsna and Brahmadatta were Advaita scholars, while Tanka and Dravidacharya were either Advaita or Viśiṣṭādvaita scholars. Badarayana summarized and interpreted teachings of the Upanishads in the Brahma Sutras , also called the Vedanta Sutra , possibly "written from
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#17327800791894836-486: The realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, post-Shankara Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, Vivartavada , which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal ( vivarta ) transformation of its cause, Brahman. The Upanishads present an associative philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form
4914-488: The respective definitions of āstika ; they do not believe in the existence of Self. The six most studied Āstika schools of Indian philosophies, sometimes referred to as orthodox schools, are Nyāyá , Vaiśeṣika , Sāṃkhya , Yoga , Mīmāṃsā , and Vedānta . The five most studied Nāstika schools of Indian philosophies, sometimes referred to as heterodox schools, are Buddhism , Jainism , Chārvāka , Ājīvika , and Ajñana . However, this orthodox-heterodox terminology
4992-611: The role of or authority of Vedic literature in defining Astika and Nāstika. They state, "Astika is the one who believes there exists another world. The opposite of him is the Nāstika." Similarly the widely studied 2nd–3rd century CE Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna , in Chapter 1 verses 60–61 of Ratnāvalī, wrote Vaiśeṣika and Sāṃkhya schools of Hinduism were Nāstika, along with Jainism, his own school of Buddhism and Pudgalavadins ( Vātsīputrīya ) school of Buddhism. Astika, in some texts,
5070-546: The same oneness. Spiritual liberation in Advaita is the full comprehension and realization of oneness, that one's unchanging Atman (soul) is the same as the Atman in everyone else, as well as being identical to Brahman . Vishishtadvaita , propounded by Ramanuja (11–12th century), asserts that Jīvatman (human souls) and Brahman (as Vishnu ) are different, a difference that is never transcended. With this qualification, Ramanuja also affirmed monism by saying that there
5148-452: The schools of Indian philosophy by modern scholars, as well as some Hindu , Buddhist and Jain texts. The various definitions for āstika and nāstika philosophies have been disputed since ancient times, and there is no consensus. One standard distinction, as within ancient- and medieval-era Sanskrit philosophical literature, is that āstika schools accept the Vedas , the ancient texts of India, as fundamentally authoritative, while
5226-519: The scriptural testimony, is considered the most authentic means of knowledge instead. All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of Satkāryavāda , which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support Parinamavada , the idea that the world is a real transformation ( parinama ) of Brahman. According to Nicholson (2010 , p. 27), "the Brahma Sutras espouse
5304-459: The six are epistemologically valid. For example, while Advaita Vedanta accepts all six pramanas , Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept only three pramanas (perception, inference and testimony). Advaita considers Pratyakṣa (perception) as the most reliable source of knowledge, and Śabda , the scriptural evidence, is considered secondary except for matters related to Brahman, where it is the only evidence. In Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita, Śabda ,
5382-477: The study of reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of Pramana is the manner in which correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows or does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired. Ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths: The different schools of Vedanta have historically disagreed as to which of
5460-421: The substance of the import of Vedanta". It was Shankara who integrated Gaudapada work with the ancient Brahma Sutras , "and give it a locus classicus " alongside the realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras . A noted contemporary of Shankara was Maṇḍana Miśra , who regarded Mimamsa and Vedanta as forming a single system and advocated their combination known as Karma-jnana-samuchchaya-vada . The treatise on
5538-642: The supreme living entity; God). Tattvavada, propounded by Madhvacharya (13th century), is based on the premise of realism or realistic point of view. The term Dvaita, which means dualism, was later applied to Madhvacharya's philosophy. Atman (soul) and Brahman (as Vishnu ) are understood as two completely different entities. Brahman is the creator of the universe, perfect in knowledge, perfect in knowing, perfect in its power, and distinct from souls, distinct from matter. In Dvaita Vedanta, an individual soul must feel attraction, love, attachment and complete devotional surrender to Vishnu for salvation, and it
5616-499: The triple ontological essence of the Brahman , but also His manifestation as personal God ( Īśvara ), as matter, and as individual souls. The schools of Vedanta differ in their conception of the relation they see between Ātman / Jīvātman and Brahman / Īśvara : Pramāṇa ( Sanskrit : प्रमाण) literally means "proof", "that which is the means of valid knowledge". It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies, and encompasses
5694-560: The universe because creation was a manifestation of His powers of soul (chit) and matter (achit) ; creation is a transformation (parinama) of God's powers. He can be realized only through a constant effort to merge oneself with His nature through meditation and devotion. Advaita Vedanta ( IAST Advaita Vedānta ; Sanskrit : अद्वैत वेदान्त), propounded by Gaudapada (7th century) and Adi Shankara (9th century), but popularized by Vidyaranya (14th century) and 19th-20th century neo-Vedantins , espouses non-dualism and monism. Brahman
5772-599: The vedas which is called the Upanishads . The meaning of Vedanta expanded later to encompass the different philosophical traditions that interpret and explain the Prasthanatrayi in the light of their respective views on the relation between humans and the Divine or Absolute reality. The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses: Vedanta is one of the six orthodox ( āstika ) traditions of textual exegesis and Indian philosophy . It
5850-569: The worst kind of nastika are those who deny all designation and reality. Astika are those who accept merit in and practice a religious life. According to Andrew Nicholson, later Buddhists understood Asanga to be targeting Madhyamaka Buddhism as nastika , while considering his own Yogachara Buddhist tradition to be astika . Initial interpretations of the Buddhist texts with the term astika and nastika , such as those composed by Nagarjuna and Aśvaghoṣa , were interpreted as being directed at
5928-414: Was not the first person to systematize the teachings of the Upanishads , as he quotes six Vedantic teachers before him – Ashmarathya, Badari, Audulomi, Kashakrtsna, Karsnajini and Atreya. References to other early Vedanta teachers – Brahmadatta, Sundara, Pandaya, Tanka and Dravidacharya – are found in secondary literature of later periods. The works of these ancient teachers have not survived, but based on
6006-563: Was of the opinion that many more fragments could be recovered. Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2002) attempts a new reconstruction, with the caveat that the more verses are listed, the greater the uncertainty that it will be either misquoted or foreign materials included as a part of the text. Most of the fragments are found in works dated to the Indian Middle Ages, roughly between the 8th and 12th centuries. The extensive 14th century treatise on Indian philosophy by Madhava Vidyaranya ,
6084-557: Was the acceptance and adherence to ethical premises, and not textual validity or doctrinal premises, states Nicholson. It is likely that astika was translated as orthodox, and nastika as heterodox, because the early European Indologists carried the baggage of Christian theological traditions and extrapolated their own concepts to Asia, thereby distorting the complexity of Indian traditions and thought. Vedanta Vedanta ( / v eɪ ˈ d ɑː n t ə / ; Sanskrit : वेदान्त , IAST : Vedānta ), also known as Uttara Mīmāṃsā ,
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