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83-531: Altogether, the early Transcaucasian culture enveloped a vast area approximately 1,000 km by 500 km, and mostly encompassed the modern-day territories of the South Caucasus (except western Georgia), northwestern Iran , the northeastern Caucasus , eastern Turkey , and as far as northern Syria . The name of the culture is derived from the Kura and Araxes river valleys. Some local variations of

166-753: A Greek historian who is known as 'the Father of History' and Strabo , a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian, spoke about autochthonous peoples of the Caucasus in their books. In the Middle Ages, various people, including Scythians , Alani , Huns , Khazars , Arabs , Seljuq Turks , and Mongols settled in Caucasia. These invasions influenced on the culture of the peoples of the South Caucasus. In parallel Middle Eastern influence disseminated

249-546: A complex religious system. In the central part of the Mokhrablur settlement III construction horizon, a volume-spatial creation was uncovered: a structure-tower with a rectangular plan (7,4x5,5 m) constructed with hard tuff, in the eastern part of which a 3,9 m long one-piece basalt altar was placed. Near this stone structure, clay buildings and ash pits were uncovered, in which the ashes of the sacred hearths had been accumulated. Many tufa idols and clay hearths were excavated in

332-707: A cultural influence from the more ancient civilizations of the Fertile Crescent to the south. In the 3rd millennium B.C., one particular group of mounds of the Kura–Araxes culture is remarkable for their wealth. This was the final stage of culture's development. These burial mounds are known as the Martqopi (or Martkopi) period mounds. Those on the left bank of the river Alazani are often 20–25 meters high and 200–300 meters in diameter. They contain especially rich artefacts, such as gold and silver jewelry. While it

415-536: A diameter of 4-10 m and rectangular floorplan were widespread. The latter had a flat, log roof, and the buildings with round floorplan had primitive roofs of “hazarashen” type, covered with clay mud-bricks with reed, with a skylights hole in the centre of the roof, that solved the issues of light and ventilation of the house (Shengavit, Mokhrablur). The floors were of rammed earth. There were also plaster covered, up to 10 cm thick (Shengavit) and red painted (Garakepek-Tepe) floors. There are found samples of attempts to enliven

498-573: A regional capital of Isuwa at the frontier between the Hittites and the Mitanni; it was loyal to Tushratta. Suppiluliuma I used Melid as a base for his military campaign to sack the Mitanni capital Washukanni . After the end of the Hittite empire, from the 12th to 7th century BC, the city became the center of an independent Luwian Neo-Hittite state of Kammanu , also known as 'Malizi'. A palace

581-477: A related site, is seen as an important gateway for Kura-Araxes culture on its way south towards Lake Urmia area. Ancient obsidian trade and distribution are particularly revealing of cultural connections, and Kul Tepe Jolfa was an important transshipment point for the movement of Caucasian obsidian to Iranian sites. This trade was probably conducted by groups of mobile pastoralists from Iran. Also in Iran downstream

664-735: A significant increase in the use of metal objects occurred at Kura-Araxes sites. Also the variation in copper alloys increased during this time. The rich tomb of a woman at Kvazchela is a good example of this, which is quite similar to the 'royal tomb' from Arslantepe . The use of an arsenical component up to 25% in copper objects resulted in a shiny greyish, silvery colour. So it's quite possible that these unusually high arsenical alloys were intended to imitate silver. The Kura–Araxes culture would later display "a precocious metallurgical development, which strongly influenced surrounding regions". They worked copper , arsenic , silver , gold , tin , and bronze . Their metal goods were widely distributed, from

747-488: A switch from agriculture to pastoralism and that it serves as possible proof of a large-scale arrival of Indo-Europeans , facts such as that settlement in the lowlands remained more or less continuous suggest merely that the people of this culture were diversifying their economy to encompass crop and livestock agriculture . Shengavit Settlement is a prominent Kura-Araxes site in present-day Yerevan area in Armenia . It

830-405: A third at copper/silver composition of 50%/35% with a trace of arsenic. Among them, three swords were beautifully inlaid with silver. These objects were found in the "hall of weapons" in the area of the palace. These weapons have a total length of 45 to 60 cm which suggests their description as either short swords or long daggers. These discoveries were made back in the 1980s. They belong to

913-539: Is uncertain. By the late Uruk period development had grown to include a large temple/palace complex. Numerous similarities have been found between these early layers at Arslantepe, and the somewhat later site of Birecik ( Birecik Dam Cemetery ), also in Turkey, to the southwest of Melid. Around 3000 BC, the transitional EBI-EBII, there was widespread burning and destruction of the previous significant Uruk-oriented settlement. After this Kura–Araxes pottery appeared in

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996-574: Is unknown what languages were present in Kura-Araxes, the two most widespread theories suggest a connection with Hurro-Urartian and/or Anatolian languages . The Kartvelian and Northeast Caucasian languages were likely spoken in the region as well. Transcaucasia The South Caucasus , also known as Transcaucasia or the Transcaucasus , is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and West Asia , straddling

1079-680: The 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War , Russia annexed Kars , Ardahan , Agri and Batumi from the Ottomans , joined to this unit, and established the province of Kars Oblast as its most south-westerly territory in the South Caucasus. After the fall of the Russian Empire in 1918, the South Caucasus region was unified into a single political entity twice, as the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and as

1162-600: The Achaemenid Empire , the Parthian Empire , and the Sassanid Empire , during which Zoroastrianism became the dominant religion in the region. However, after the rise of Christianity and conversion of Caucasian kingdoms to the new religion , Zoroastrianism lost its prevalence and only survived because of Persian power and influence still lingering in the region. Thus, the South Caucasus became

1245-701: The Arsacid dynasty of Iberia , and the Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania . In the middle of the 8th century, with the capture of Derbend by the Umayyad armies during the Arab–Khazar wars , most of the South Caucasus became part of the Caliphate and Islam spread throughout the region. Later, the Orthodox Christian Kingdom of Georgia dominated most of the South Caucasus. The region

1328-472: The European Parliament passed a resolution confirming Armenia meets Maastricht Treaty Article 49 requirements and that the country may apply for EU membership. The South Caucasus, in particular where modern-day Turkey , Georgia , Armenia and Iran are located, is one of the native areas of the wine-producing vine Vitis vinifera . Some experts speculate that the South Caucasus may be

1411-605: The European Political Community , and participate in the EU's Eastern Partnership and Euronest Parliamentary Assembly . On 8 November 2023, the European Commission issued an official recommendation to grant EU candidate status to Georgia, which was confirmed on 14 December 2023. Georgia, thus becoming, the first country in the South Caucasus to receive EU candidate status. On 12 March 2024,

1494-827: The Greater Caucasus mountain range, the entire Lesser Caucasus mountain range, the Colchis Lowlands , the Kura-Aras Lowlands , Qaradagh , the Talysh Mountains , the Lankaran Lowland , Javakheti and the eastern portion of the Armenian Highland . All of present-day Armenia is in the South Caucasus; the majority of present-day Georgia and Azerbaijan , including the exclave of Nakhchivan , also fall within

1577-635: The Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936. Both times these Transcaucasian entities dissolved, although the region would remain politically bound together in the Soviet Union in the form of the three separate Soviet Socialist Republics of Armenia , Azerbaijan and Georgia . All three regained independence in 1991 when the Soviet Union dissolved . The Russo-Georgian War took place in 2008 across

1660-589: The Treaty of Gulistan that followed after the 1804-1813 war, Iran was forced to cede modern-day Dagestan , Eastern Georgia , and most of the Azerbaijan Republic to Russia. By the Treaty of Turkmenchay that followed after the 1826-1828 war, Iran lost all of what is modern-day Armenia and the remainder of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that remained in Iranian hands. After the 1828-1829 war,

1743-459: The Uruk period . The next Phases or periods were VI B1 and VI B2. This is the time to which the other big discovery at Arslantepe belongs. This is the rich “Royal Tomb” where high quality pottery, and a large number of refined metal objects, made with several kinds of copper based alloys, were found. A sword was also found in the tomb. This tomb is also known as the tomb of "Signor Arslantepe", as he

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1826-621: The Volga , Dnieper and Don - Donets river systems in the north to Syria and Palestine in the south and Anatolia in the west. Their pottery was distinctive. The spread of their pottery along trade routes into surrounding cultures was much more impressive than any of their achievements domestically. It was painted black and red, using geometric designs. Examples have been found as far south as Syria and Israel , and as far north as Dagestan and Chechnya . The spread of this pottery, along with archaeological evidence of invasions, suggests that

1909-571: The 'Late Uruk Collapse' (end of the Uruk period ), taking place at the end of Uruk IV phase c.  3100 BC . There are many important Kura-Araxes sites located along the Araxes river, south of which is modern Iran. Kultepe, Azerbaijan , in Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic close to Araxes river, has already been known for a long time. In Iran, the excavations especially accelerated in the 21st century. Kul Tepe Jolfa ,

1992-469: The 33rd to 31st centuries BCE, during the Early Bronze Age, and have been founds at Arslantepe by Marcella Frangipane of Sapienza University of Rome . A cache of nine swords and daggers was found; they are cast from an arsenic–copper alloy . Analysis of two swords showed a copper/arsenic composition of 96%/3.15% and 93%/2.65%. Two daggers tested at copper/arsenic 96%/3.99% and 97%/3.06% with

2075-693: The 5th millennium BC. This is based on the recent data from Ovçular Tepesi , a Late Chalcolithic settlement located in Nakhchivan by the Arpaçay river . Rather quickly, elements of Kura–Araxes culture started to proceed westward to the Erzurum plain, southwest to Cilicia , and to the southeast into the area of Lake Van , and below the Urmia basin in Iran, such as to Godin Tepe . Finally, it proceeded into

2158-708: The Araxes river, two additional sites from the same period have recently been excavated, Kohne Pasgah and Kohne Tepesi. Many other Iranian sites have come to light recently and have been excavated already. Kura–Araxes culture is closely linked to the approximately contemporaneous Maykop culture of the North Caucasus. The two cultures seem to have influenced one another. The economy was based on farming and livestock -raising (especially of cattle and sheep). They grew grain and orchard crops, and are known to have used implements to make flour . They raised cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, and in later phases, horses. Before

2241-408: The Caucasus and nearby territories. Late Kura-Araxes sites often featured Kurgans of greatly varying sizes, with larger, wealthier kurgans surrounded by smaller kurgans containing less wealth. These kurgans also contained a wide assortment metalworks. This trend suggests the eventual emergence of a marked social hierarchy. Their practice of storing relatively great wealth in burial kurgans was probably

2324-539: The Caucasus. Köhne Shahar is a very large Kura-Araxes archaeological site in Iran located close to the Turkish border. Situated in a narrow valley at the altitude of 1905m asl, it was excavated in 2012-2014. It was located on the trade route between Iran and Anatolia. Viticulture and wine-making were widely practised in the area from the earliest times. Viticulture even goes back to the earlier Shulaveri-Shomu culture . The earliest evidence of domesticated grapes in

2407-484: The Early Bronze Age in 3000-2200 BC, this settlement was part of the Kura-Araxes phenomenon. At Arslantepe , Turkey, around 3000 BCE, there was widespread burning and destruction, after which Kura-Araxes pottery appeared in the area. According to Geoffrey Summers, the movement of Kura-Araxes peoples into Iran and the Van region, which he interprets as quite sudden, started shortly before 3000 BC, and may have been prompted by

2490-678: The Iranian languages and Islamic religion in Caucasus. Located on the peripheries of Iran , Russia and Turkey , the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, and cultural rivalries and expansionism for centuries. Throughout its history, the region has come under control of various empires, including the Achaemenid , Neo-Assyrian Empire , Parthian , Roman , Sassanian , Byzantine , Umayyad , Abbassid , Mongol , Ottoman , successive Iranian ( Safavid , Afsharid , Qajar ), and Russian Empires , all of which introduced their faiths and cultures. Throughout history, most of

2573-601: The Kura-Araxes cultural complex, and the date and circumstances of its rise, have been long debated. Shulaveri-Shomu culture preceded the Kura–Araxes culture in the area. There were many differences between these two cultures, so the connection was not clear. Later, it was suggested that the Sioni culture of eastern Georgia possibly represented a transition from the Shulaveri to the Kura-Arax cultural complex. At many sites,

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2656-596: The Kura-Araxes folk may have spread Vitis vinifera vine and wine technology to the " Fertile Crescent "—to Mesopotamia and the Eastern Mediterranean . The spread of the wine-goblet form , such as represented by the Khirbet Kerak ware, is clearly associated with these peoples. The same applies to the large ceramic vessels used for grape fermentation. The bearers of the Shengavit culture had

2739-544: The Kura-Araxes people may have spread outward from their original homes and, most certainly, had extensive trade contacts. Jaimoukha believes that its southern expanse is attributable primarily to Mitanni and the Hurrians . According to Giulio Palumbi (2008), the typical red-black ware of Kura–Araxes culture originated in eastern Anatolia, and then moved on to the Caucasus area. But then these cultural influences came back to Anatolia mixed in with other cultural elements from

2822-527: The Kura-Araxes period, horse bones were not found in Transcaucasia. Later, beginning about 3300 BCE, they became widespread, with signs of domestication. There is evidence of trade with Mesopotamia as well as Asia Minor . It is, however, considered above all to be indigenous to the Caucasus , and its major variants characterized (according to Caucasus historian Amjad Jaimoukha) later major cultures in

2905-575: The Kura–Araxes culture are sometimes known as Shengavitian , Karaz ( Erzurum ), Pulur (after a site renamed later as Sakyol ), and Yanik Tepe (Iranian Azerbaijan, near Lake Urmia ) cultures. It gave rise to the Khirbet Kerak-ware culture found in the Levant and Trialeti culture of the South Caucasus and Armenian Highlands . In Nakhchivan region and nearby areas, Kura-Araxes culture was followed by Nakhchivan culture . This civilization

2988-532: The Kura–Araxes culture showed that ancient settlements were found along the Hrazdan river , as shown by drawings at a mountainous area in a cave nearby. Structures in settlements have not revealed much differentiation, nor was there much difference in size or character between settlements, facts that suggest they probably had a poorly developed social hierarchy for a significant stretch of their history. Some, but not all, settlements were surrounded by stone walls. Among

3071-520: The Late Bronze Age, the site became an administrative center of a larger region in the kingdom of Isuwa . The city was heavily fortified, probably due to the Hittite threat from the west. It was culturally influenced by the Hurrians , Mitanni and the Hittites. Around 1350 BC, Šuppiluliuma I of the Hittites conquered Melid in his war against Tushratta of Mitanni . At the time Melid was

3154-536: The Ottomans ceded Western Georgia (except Adjaria , which was known as Sanjak of Batum), to the Russians, who populated this new southern boundary mostly with undesirable citizens and tolerated heretics ( sektanty ). In 1844, what comprises present-day Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan were combined into a single czarist government-general, which was termed a vice-royalty in 1844-1881 and 1905–1917. Following

3237-514: The Shengavit culture were located in the altars front. They had diameters of up to one meter, with the edges of the inner space resembling a ship bow divided into three parts, with the upper platforms were red-painted and decorated with geometric figures. Statuettes of women and men and worshiped animals like horses, bulls and rams were found near these hearths. The horseshoe-shaped mobile shrines with ram protomes, threelegged pedestals, phallus-shaped pendant figures were also of religious nature. One of

3320-420: The Shengavit settlement. In 2012 year, a complex cult system was excavated-a room with a rectangular plan, designed specifically for ritual ceremonies, inside which a clay altar decorated with relief ornaments on its front was uncovered. A statue of an idol was affixed into the altar and goblets for libation were placed in front of the heart. To the right from the stairs, leading to the semi-subterranean room of

3403-463: The Sioni culture layers can be seen as intermediary between Shulaver-Shomu-Tepe layers and the Kura-Araxes layers. This kind of stratigraphy warrants a chronological place of the Sioni culture at around 4000 BCE. Some scholars consider the Kartli and Kakheti areas as key to forming the earliest phase of the Kura–Araxes culture. To a large extent, this appears as an indigenous culture of Caucasus that

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3486-647: The South Caucasus was usually under the direct rule of the various in-Iran based empires and part of the Iranian world . In the course of the 19th century, Qajar Iran had to irrevocably cede the region (alongside its territories in Dagestan , North Caucasus ) as a result of the two Russo-Persian Wars of that century to Imperial Russia. Ancient kingdoms of the region included Colchis , Urartu , Iberia , Armenia and Albania , among others. These kingdoms were later incorporated into various Iranian empires, including

3569-525: The South Caucasus, contributing to further instability in the region, which is as intricate as the Middle East, due to the complex mix of religions (mainly Muslim and Orthodox Christian) and ethno-linguistic groups. Since their independence, the three countries have had varying degrees of success in their relations with Russia and other countries. In Georgia, after the Rose Revolution in 2004,

3652-556: The Turkish government. Alba Palmieri took over the supervision of the excavation during the 1970s. In the early 21st century, the archaeological investigation was conducted by a Sapienza University of Rome team led by Marcella Frangipane . Beginning in 2008, excavations focused on the Late Bronze and Iron Age areas of the site. A few shards of Halaf period pottery were found and in Level VIII (early 4th millennium BC) there

3735-546: The area of not only military, but also religious convergence, which often led to bitter conflicts with successive Persian empires (and later Muslim-ruled empires) on the one side and the Roman Empire (and later the Byzantine Empire and Russian Empire ) on the other side. The Iranian Parthians established and installed several eponymous branches in the South Caucasus, namely the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia ,

3818-540: The area. This was a mainly pastoralist culture connected with the Caucasus mountains. Settlement in this period appears to have been local in nature but influenced by Kura–Araxes culture. On the other hand, according to Martina Massimino (2023), the connections of this tomb with the Maikop- Novosvobodnaya kurgans are quite clear based on architecture and the metalwork. The exact chronology and sequence of these events still remain to be clarified. In

3901-548: The birthplace of wine production. Archaeological excavations and carbon dating of grape seeds from the area have dated back to 8000–5000 BC. Wine found in Iran has been dated to c.  7400 BC and c.  5000 BC, while wine found in Georgia has been dated to c.  8000 BC. The earliest winery , dated to c.  4000 BC, was found in Armenia. Arslantepe Arslantepe , also known as Melid ,

3984-583: The country, like the Baltic states , began integrating into wider European society by opening up relations with NATO and the European Union . Armenia continues to foster relations with Russia , while also developing ties with the EU . Azerbaijan relies less on Russia, strategically partnering with Turkey and other NATO states. All three South Caucasus countries are members of the Council of Europe ,

4067-588: The county of Surmalu uezd (present-day Iğdır Province ) were also incorporated into the South Caucasus. Nowadays, the region is referred to as the South Caucasus or Southern Caucasia ( Armenian : Հարավային Կովկաս , romanized :  Haravayin Kovkas ; Azerbaijani : Cənubi Qafqaz ; Abkhaz : Агырҭ Кавказ , romanized:  Agyrt Kavkaz ; Georgian : სამხრეთ კავკასია , romanized : samkhret k'avk'asia ; Russian : Южный Кавказ , romanized :  Yuzhnyy Kavkaz ). The former name of

4150-520: The earliest part of the 20th century. It was first investigated by the French archaeologist Louis Delaporte from 1932 to 1939, focusing on the Neo-Hittite remains in the northwest section of the mounds slope. From 1946 to 1951 Claude F.A. Schaeffer focused on site stratigraphy cutting deep trenches across the top of the mound. The results were never published. The first Italian excavations at

4233-628: The earliest secure evidence of copper smelting. The site was built on a small natural outcrop in the flood plain about 40m from the Euphrates River. The earliest habitation at the site dates back to the Chalcolithic period . Arslantepe (VII) became important in this region in the Late Chalcolithic. A monumental area with a huge mudbrick building stood on top of a mound. This large building had wall decorations; its function

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4316-599: The finds near Yerevan and the stone and clay molds found in various ancient sites of Shengavit civilization (Shengavit, Margahovit , etc.). In the Shengavit ancient site, weight standards similar to those used in the Levant were found, which testify the Armenia's involvement in the newly formed international trade relations in the Early Bronze Age . These weapons that are found were arrows, daggers, battle axes, spears and other weapons made of obsidian, flint, bone and bronze. Archaeological evidence of inhabitants of

4399-538: The kingdom of Melid being forced to pay tribute to Assyria. Melid remained able to prosper until the Assyrian king Sargon II (722–705 BC) sacked the city in 712 BC. At the same time, the Cimmerians and Scythians invaded Anatolia and the city declined. Arslantepe covers an area of about 4 hectares and rises to about 30 meters above the plain. The site was visited by Gertrude Bell and Hansen van der Osten in

4482-527: The latter of which may be surrounded by dolmen. This points to a heterogeneous ethno-linguistic population (see section below). Analyzing the situation in the Kura-Araxes period, T. A. Akhundov notes the lack of unity in funerary monuments, which he considers more than strange in the framework of a single culture; for the funeral rites reflect the deep culture-forming foundations and are weakly influenced by external customs. There are non-kurgan and kurgan burials, burials in ground pits, in stone boxes and crypts, in

4565-645: The local phase VI A . Also, 12 spearheads were found. These objects were dated to the period VI A (3400-3200 BC). Phase VI A at Arslantepe ended in destruction—the city was burned. Kfar Monash Hoard was found in 1962 in Israel. Among the many copper objects in it, "Egyptian type" copper axes were found. These axes were made using copper-arsenic-nickel (CuAsNi) alloy that probably originated in Arslantepe area. Objects from Arslantepe using such polymetallic ores are mainly ascribed to Level VIA (3400–3000 BCE), dating to

4648-424: The metal analysis even shows provenance from northern Caucasus. All this indicates that the expansion of Kura–Araxes culture to wider areas may have been prompted in part by a trade of ores and metals. Nevertheless, according to Martina Massimino (2023), the widespread metal trade was rather conducted by the Maikop- Novosvobodnaya kurgans group which constructed the big chiefly tomb at Arslantepe. According to her,

4731-456: The metal and ore trade between the areas north and south. To the north were the metal-rich areas of the Black Sea coast; ores and metals from there were traded to Upper Mesopotamia in the south. Already during the older Arslantepe VII period, metal objects could be found with a signature of ores from near the Black Sea coast. Also some of the metal artefacts from the “Royal Tomb” clearly belong to Kura–Araxes culture manufacturing traditions, and

4814-425: The monotonous clay walls with decoration and with shaped arrangement of bricks of different color and to enlighten the monotonous appearance of the walls with various colors (Shengavit, Mokhrablur in Nakhijevan, Yanik-tepe, etc). At some point the culture's settlements and burial grounds expanded out of lowland river valleys and into highland areas. Although some scholars have suggested that this expansion demonstrates

4897-493: The others (Building III and Building IV) are of unknown functions. Butted metal spearheads were found in Building III. A large number of vases and clay sealings were found in the temples. Most settlements formed as part of the Uruk Expansion, such as Jebel Aruda , Tell Sheikh Hassan , and Habuba Kabira , were abandoned at the end of the Late Chacolothic 5 period and anything of note removed, leaving little for archaeologists but walls and bits of pottery and clay sealings. Arslantepe

4980-405: The present-day Syria ( Amuq valley ), and as far as Israel . Its territory corresponds to large parts of modern Armenia , Azerbaijan , Chechnya , Dagestan , Georgia , Ingushetia , North Ossetia , and parts of Iran and Turkey . At Sos Hoyuk , in Erzurum Province , Turkey, early forms of Kura-Araxes pottery were found in association with local ceramics as early as 3500-3300 BC. During

5063-412: The primary body was buried with high status grave goods, mostly metal but including carnelian and rock crystal beads. Originally considered an isolated exemplar similar related tombs were found at places like Hassek Höyük and Bashur Höyük. The excavators have defined a number of occupation levels and sublevels: Level V1B was radiocarbon dated to 2885 BC. The first swords known so far date to ca.

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5146-431: The region, Transcaucasia, is a Latin rendering of the Russian-language word Zakavkazye ( Закавказье ), meaning "[the area] beyond the Caucasus". This implies a Russian vantage point, and is analogous to similar terms such as Transnistria and Transleithania . Other, rarer forms of this word include Trans-Caucasus and Transcaucasus ( Russian : Транскавказ , romanized :  Transkavkaz ). Herodotus ,

5229-434: The region. It was at this period that the irrigation systems built on the slopes of the Aragats and Geghama mountains were formed and at the sources of canals, artificial water pools and springs, dragon stones (vishapakar) made from one piece basalt were erected. Another prerequisite for unprecedented economic development was copper production. A large number of weapon and tools made of arsenical bronze are attested by both

5312-424: The region. Parts of Iran and Turkey are also included within the region of the South Caucasus. Goods produced in the region include oil , manganese ore , tea , citrus fruits , and wine . It remains one of the most politically tense regions in the post- Soviet area, and contains two heavily disputed areas: Abkhazia and South Ossetia . Between 1878 and 1917, the Russian-controlled province of Kars Oblast and

5395-822: The settlements with an area of 1-10 ha, the central ones were surrounded by fortified walls built of stone (Shengavit, Garni , Persi, Khorenia-Javakhk) and of mud-brick ( Mokhrablur , Goy-tepe, Gudaberteke), with artificial puddles (Norabats, Kvatskhelebi, Khizannat-gora). The Shengavit fortified wall is noteworthy with its stone foundations, reinforced with rectangular masonry walls and a tiled secret passage leading to Hrazdan river . The central urban areas, which are characterized by dense construction (Shengavit, Mokhrablur, etc.), were surrounded by satellite residences. The Kura-Araxes built mud-brick houses, originally round, but later developing into subrectangular designs with structures of just one or two rooms, multiple rooms centered around an open space, or rectilinear designs. The mud-brick

5478-430: The shrine, two clay–packed basins were found, in which the ashes from sacred fires were kept. A phallic pendant-idol was found in the shrine, which was the identifying symbol of the priestess. The adjacent room of the complex reflects household activities of the time. A similar cultic complex was found at the ancient site of Pulur (Sakyol). At the inside of the religious structures, terracotta cult hearths that were unique to

5561-403: The site of Arslantepe started in 1961, and were conducted by a Sapienza University of Rome team under the direction of Professors Piero Meriggi and Salvatore M. Puglisi until 1968. The Hittitologist Meriggi only took part in the first few campaigns and later left the direction to Puglisi, a palaeoethnologist, who expanded and regularly conducted yearly investigations under regular permit from

5644-445: The southern Caucasus Mountains . The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Armenia , Georgia , and Azerbaijan , which are sometimes collectively known as the Caucasian States . The total area of these countries measures about 186,100 square kilometres (71,850 square miles). The South Caucasus and the North Caucasus together comprise the larger Caucasus geographical region that divides Eurasia . The South Caucasus spans

5727-407: The southern portion of the Caucasus Mountains and their lowlands, straddling the border between the continents of Europe and Asia , and extending southwards from the southern part of the Main Caucasian Range of southwestern Russia to the Turkish and Armenian borders, and from the Black Sea in the west to the Caspian Sea coast of Iran in the east. The area includes the southern part of

5810-704: The spheres of religious practice was the burial ritual. Outside the settlements, burial grounds were formed in their immediate vicinity. Both individual tombs with earthen and tiled walls, as well as wide ancestral tombs with stone walls were revealed, in which the deceased (Joghaz) of the upper-class family were sequentially buried. In the final stage of this civilization, collective burials were performed, which included human sacrifices. These tombs contain numerous artifacts that indications of social stratification: gold and silver jewelry, bronze tools and weapons, imported valuable items. Inhumation practices are mixed. Flat graves are found but so are substantial kurgan burials,

5893-474: The time the tomb was built. Building 36 had one meter thick walls on stone foundations and one terracotta cylinder seal and one stone stamp-seal were found, possibly heirlooms and two copper butted spearheads. Pottery in the level was a mix of local and Kura-Araxes traditions. It has been suggested that the tomb was constructed during a period of abandonment at the end of Level VIB1. The tomb contained two adolescent human sacrifices (adorned with metal ornaments) and

5976-412: The underlying ground strata and on top of them; using both the round and rectangular burials; there are also substantial differences in the typical corpse position. Burial complexes of Kura–Araxes culture sometimes also include cremation. Here one can come to the conclusion that the Kura–Araxes culture developed gradually through a synthesis of several cultural traditions, including the ancient cultures of

6059-677: The world has been found at Gadachrili Gora , near the village of Imiri, Marneuli Municipality , in southeastern Republic of Georgia ; carbon-dating points to the date of about 6000 BC. Grape pips dating back to the V-IVth millennia BC were found in Shulaveri; others dating back to the IVth millennium BC were found in Khizanaant Gora—all in this same 'Shulaveri area' of the Republic of Georgia. A theory has been suggested by Stephen Batiuk that

6142-498: Was a modest, village type Late Ubaid settlement. In Level VII (LC 4, Middle Uruk) an isolated monumental building was found and the settlement grew to cover the entire mound. Over time elite residences were build nearby. In Level VIA (LC 5, Late Uruk) four monumental buildings, terraced and largely interconnected, were construct on the site of the Middle Uruk building. Two have been identified as temples (Temple A and Temple B) while

6225-529: Was an ancient city on the Tohma River, a tributary of the upper Euphrates rising in the Taurus Mountains . It has been identified with the modern archaeological site of Arslantepe near Malatya , Turkey . It was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the name Arslantepe Mound on 26 July 2021. Değirmentepe , a site located 24 km northeast of Melid, is notable as the location of

6308-407: Was built and monumental stone sculptures of lions and the ruler erected. In the 12th century, Melid was probably dependent on Karkemiš , where king Kuzi-Tešub ruled. His two grandsons, Runtyas (Runtiya) and Arnuwantis, were at first appointed as “Country Lords” of Melid, but later they also became kings of Melid. The encounter with the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1077 BC) resulted in

6391-457: Was called by archaeologists. He was about 40 years old, and the tomb is radiocarbon dated to 3085–2900 Cal. BC. This “Royal Tomb” dates to the beginning of period VI B2, or perhaps even earlier to period VI B1. There’s a considerable similarity between these two groups of objects in the “hall of weapons”, and in the “Royal Tomb”, and the times of manufacture of some of them must have been pretty close together. Arslantepe probably participated in

6474-496: Was characterized by an agricultural sedentary economy with more than a thousand settlements covering the fertile riverside valleys, high plateaus and high mountain zones of the Armenian highlands and neighboring regions. The Early Bronze Age artificial hill-settlements were characterized by multiple cultural layers, which in some places spread to tens of meters (Mokhrablur of Nakhijevan , Norsun-Tepe ). The formative processes of

6557-406: Was formed over a long period, and at the same time incorporating foreign influences. There are some indications (such as at Arslantepe ) of the overlapping in time of the Kura-Araxes and Uruk cultures ; such contacts may go back even to the Middle Uruk period. Some scholars have suggested that the earliest manifestation of the Kura-Araxes phenomenon should be dated at least to the last quarter of

6640-483: Was inhabited from approximately 3200 BC cal to 2500 BC cal. Later on, in the Middle Bronze Age, it was used irregularly until 2200 BC cal. The town occupied an area of six hectares, which is large for Kura-Araxes sites. In the earliest phase of the Kura–Araxes culture, metal was scarce. In comparison, the preceding Leilatepe culture 's metalwork tradition was far more sophisticated. Especially after 3000 BC,

6723-421: Was made from sandy clay with the help of mold forms and dried in the sun. It was the main building material from which 10 to 11 walls, temples, residential and economic buildings and hydro-engineering structures were built. The foundations of the houses were made of river stones, cracked or unprocessed basalt (Shengavit, Harich, Karaz, Amiranis-gora, etc.), on which mud-brick walls were raised. Round buildings with

6806-740: Was then conquered by the Seljuk , Mongol , Turkic , Safavid , Ottoman , Afsharid and Qajar dynasties. After two wars in the first half of the 19th century, namely the Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) and the Russo-Persian War (1826-1828) , the Russian Empire conquered most of the South Caucasus (and Dagestan in the North Caucasus ) from the Iranian Qajar dynasty , severing historic regional ties with Iran. By

6889-490: Was violently destroyed at the end of LC 5 leaving a number of small finds in situ. As at other middle and late Uruk period sites, despite extensive excavation no Uruk period burials were found. In Level VIB1, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, a large cist burial was found, traditionally called the "Royal Tomb" amongst an otherwise low level settlement consisting of light wooden structures along with one mudbrick structure (Building 36) which appeared to be out of use at

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