89-689: The Kāpiti Coast District (officially the Kapiti Coast District ), is a local government district of the Wellington Region in the lower North Island of New Zealand, 50 km (31 mi) north of Wellington City . The district is named after Kapiti Island , a prominent island 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) offshore. The population of the district is concentrated in the chain of coastal settlements along State Highway One : Ōtaki , Te Horo , Waikanae , Paraparaumu , Raumati Beach , Raumati South , and Paekākāriki . Paraparaumu
178-573: A higher total efficiency. Electricity for electric rail systems can also come from renewable energy , nuclear power , or other low-carbon sources, which do not emit pollution or emissions. Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. ' ICE TD ') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all high speed trains are electric. The high power of electric locomotives also gives them
267-467: A historical concern for double-stack rail transport regarding clearances with overhead lines but it is no longer universally true as of 2022 , with both Indian Railways and China Railway regularly operating electric double-stack cargo trains under overhead lines. Railway electrification has constantly increased in the past decades, and as of 2022, electrified tracks account for nearly one-third of total tracks globally. Railway electrification
356-677: A mayor and 10 councillors. Two councillors are elected for the Paraparaumu ward, one each for the Ōtaki, Paekākāriki-Raumati and Waikanae wards, and five are elected at-large. Kapiti Island is part of the Paraparaumu ward. The Kāpiti Coast District Council has created five local community boards , under the provisions of Part 4 of the Local Government Act 2002 , covering the district: Community boards are primarily advocates for their local area, and they also administer community grant funding. Greater Wellington Regional Council
445-537: A number of European countries, India, Saudi Arabia, eastern Japan, countries that used to be part of the Soviet Union, on high-speed lines in much of Western Europe (including countries that still run conventional railways under DC but not in countries using 16.7 Hz, see above). Most systems like this operate at 25 kV, although 12.5 kV sections exist in the United States, and 20 kV
534-457: A power grid that is delivered to a locomotive, and within the locomotive, transformed and rectified to a lower DC voltage in preparation for use by traction motors. These motors may either be DC motors which directly use the DC or they may be three-phase AC motors which require further conversion of the DC to variable frequency three-phase AC (using power electronics). Thus both systems are faced with
623-498: A relative lack of flexibility (since electric trains need third rails or overhead wires), and a vulnerability to power interruptions. Electro-diesel locomotives and electro-diesel multiple units mitigate these problems somewhat as they are capable of running on diesel power during an outage or on non-electrified routes. Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service and requiring greater complexity of locomotive power. There used to be
712-626: A result of the local government reforms in 1989 . There are 53 districts in New Zealand , and they do not include the 12 city councils , the Auckland Council , and the Chatham Islands Council . District councils serve a combination of rural and urban communities, while city councils administer the larger urban areas . Three districts ( Gisborne , Tasman , and Marlborough ) are unitary authorities also performing
801-481: A separate fourth rail for this purpose. In comparison to the principal alternative, the diesel engine , electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency , lower emissions , and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesel. They have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems provide regenerative braking that turns
890-418: A third rail. The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running rail carries any current. This scheme was introduced because of the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by the earthed (grounded) running rail, flowing through the iron tunnel linings instead. This can cause electrolytic damage and even arcing if the tunnel segments are not electrically bonded together. The problem
979-411: Is derived by using resistors which ensures that stray earth currents are kept to manageable levels. Power-only rails can be mounted on strongly insulating ceramic chairs to minimise current leak, but this is not possible for running rails, which have to be seated on stronger metal chairs to carry the weight of trains. However, elastomeric rubber pads placed between the rails and chairs can now solve part of
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#17327809142641068-451: Is effected by one contact shoe each that slide on top of each one of the running rails . This and all other rubber-tyred metros that have a 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge track between the roll ways operate in the same manner. Railways and electrical utilities use AC as opposed to DC for the same reason: to use transformers , which require AC, to produce higher voltages. The higher
1157-526: Is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand for container traffic, which is more efficient when utilizing the double-stack car , also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost. A problem specifically related to electrified lines are gaps in
1246-486: Is limited and losses are significantly higher. However, the higher voltages used in many AC electrification systems reduce transmission losses over longer distances, allowing for fewer substations or more powerful locomotives to be used. Also, the energy used to blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware must be accounted for. Standard AC electrification systems use much higher voltages than standard DC systems. One of
1335-778: Is no longer exactly one-third of the grid frequency. This solved overheating problems with the rotary converters used to generate some of this power from the grid supply. In the US , the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad , the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Philadelphia and Reading Railway adopted 11 kV 25 Hz single-phase AC. Parts of the original electrified network still operate at 25 Hz, with voltage boosted to 12 kV, while others were converted to 12.5 or 25 kV 60 Hz. In
1424-550: Is on the North Island Main Trunk railway line (NIMT) and served as far north as Waikanae by suburban passenger trains on the Kapiti Line , one of Wellington's three Metlink commuter rail links. There are also commuter bus services. The small Kapiti Coast Airport is sandwiched between Paraparaumu (to the north) and Raumati (to the south). With three runways (one of which is now closed), it once served as
1513-443: Is responsible for regional governance of the district and the wider region, including public transport, water and environmental management. Kāpiti Coast District covers 731.52 km (282.44 sq mi) and had an estimated population of 57,800 as of June 2024, with a population density of 79 people per km. Kāpiti Coast District had a population of 55,914 in the 2023 New Zealand census , an increase of 2,241 people (4.2%) since
1602-447: Is sufficient traffic, the reduced track and especially the lower engine maintenance and running costs exceed the costs of this maintenance significantly. Newly electrified lines often show a "sparks effect", whereby electrification in passenger rail systems leads to significant jumps in patronage / revenue. The reasons may include electric trains being seen as more modern and attractive to ride, faster, quieter and smoother service, and
1691-436: Is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous conductor running along the track that usually takes one of two forms: an overhead line , suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings, or a third rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding " pickup shoe ". Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor, but some systems use
1780-410: Is that the power-wasting resistors used in DC locomotives for speed control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the transformer can supply a range of voltages. Separate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary machinery. More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the classic DC motor to be largely replaced with
1869-894: Is the countrywide system. 3 kV DC is used in Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Chile, the northern portion of the Czech Republic, the former republics of the Soviet Union , and in the Netherlands on a few kilometers between Maastricht and Belgium. It was formerly used by the Milwaukee Road from Harlowton, Montana , to Seattle, across the Continental Divide and including extensive branch and loop lines in Montana, and by
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#17327809142641958-580: Is the development of powering trains and locomotives using electricity instead of diesel or steam power . The history of railway electrification dates back to the late 19th century when the first electric tramways were introduced in cities like Berlin , London , and New York City . In 1881, the first permanent railway electrification in the world was the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway in Berlin , Germany. Overhead line electrification
2047-575: Is the most populous of these towns and the commercial and administrative centre. Much of the rural land is given over to horticulture; market gardens are common along the highway between the settlements. The area available for agriculture and settlement is narrow and coastal. Much of the eastern part of the district is within the Tararua Forest Park, which covers the rugged Tararua Range , with peaks rising to over 1,500 m (4,900 ft). The Kāpiti Coast District stretches from Ōtaki in
2136-649: Is the use of electric power for the propulsion of rail transport . Electric railways use either electric locomotives (hauling passengers or freight in separate cars), electric multiple units ( passenger cars with their own motors) or both. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations , transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines , but most purchase power from an electric utility . The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches, and transformers . Power
2225-838: Is used on some narrow-gauge lines in Japan. On "French system" HSLs, the overhead line and a "sleeper" feeder line each carry 25 kV in relation to the rails, but in opposite phase so they are at 50 kV from each other; autotransformers equalize the tension at regular intervals. Various railway electrification systems in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries utilised three-phase , rather than single-phase electric power delivery due to ease of design of both power supply and locomotives. These systems could either use standard network frequency and three power cables, or reduced frequency, which allowed for return-phase line to be third rail, rather than an additional overhead wire. The majority of modern electrification systems take AC energy from
2314-811: Is well known for its cheeses and other products from Lindale . Light industry is focused in Paraparaumu and Ōtaki, with small clusters in Waikanae and Raumati. Many of the Kāpiti Coast's residents are not employed in the area. Instead, they commute to jobs in Wellington. Transdev operates electric commuter trains along a portion of the North Island Main Trunk Railway referred to as the Kapiti Line on behalf of Metlink (the Greater Wellington public transport brand), and
2403-797: The 2018 census , and an increase of 6,810 people (13.9%) since the 2013 census . There were 26,523 males, 29,139 females and 252 people of other genders in 23,097 dwellings. 3.7% of people identified as LGBTIQ+ . The median age was 48.8 years (compared with 38.1 years nationally). There were 9,057 people (16.2%) aged under 15 years, 7,659 (13.7%) aged 15 to 29, 24,282 (43.4%) aged 30 to 64, and 14,916 (26.7%) aged 65 or older. People could identify as more than one ethnicity. The results were 86.6% European ( Pākehā ); 15.8% Māori ; 3.8% Pasifika ; 6.2% Asian ; 1.0% Middle Eastern, Latin American and African New Zealanders (MELAA); and 2.7% other, which includes people giving their ethnicity as "New Zealander". English
2492-656: The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad (now New Jersey Transit , converted to 25 kV AC) in the United States, and the Kolkata suburban railway (Bardhaman Main Line) in India, before it was converted to 25 kV 50 Hz. DC voltages between 600 V and 750 V are used by most tramways and trolleybus networks, as well as some metro systems as the traction motors accept this voltage without
2581-711: The HSL-Zuid and Betuwelijn , and 3,000 V south of Maastricht . In Portugal, it is used in the Cascais Line and in Denmark on the suburban S-train system (1650 V DC). In the United Kingdom, 1,500 V DC was used in 1954 for the Woodhead trans-Pennine route (now closed); the system used regenerative braking , allowing for transfer of energy between climbing and descending trains on
2670-701: The Innovia ART system. While part of the SkyTrain network, the Canada Line does not use this system and instead uses more traditional motors attached to the wheels and third-rail electrification. A few lines of the Paris Métro in France operate on a four-rail power system. The trains move on rubber tyres which roll on a pair of narrow roll ways made of steel and, in some places, of concrete . Since
2759-495: The KiwiRail Capital Connection commuter train from Palmerston North to Wellington provides a service for commuters north of the electric terminus in Waikanae. Metlink also provides regular local bus services throughout the Kāpiti Coast, operated by Uzabus . In February 2017, an 18 km (11 mi) long expressway diversion from Mackays Crossing north of Paekākāriki to just north of Peka Peka ,
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2848-636: The Southern Railway serving Coulsdon North and Sutton railway station . The lines were electrified at 6.7 kV 25 Hz. It was announced in 1926 that all lines were to be converted to DC third rail and the last overhead-powered electric service ran in September 1929. AC power is used at 60 Hz in North America (excluding the aforementioned 25 Hz network), western Japan, South Korea and Taiwan; and at 50 Hz in
2937-461: The United States , the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad was one of the first major railways to be electrified. Railway electrification continued to expand throughout the 20th century, with technological improvements and the development of high-speed trains and commuters . Today, many countries have extensive electrified railway networks with 375 000 km of standard lines in
3026-637: The Wellington metropolitan area, being distant from Wellington City, Porirua and the Hutt Valley , which make up the nucleus of the area. Still, Waikanae is considered by many to be the absolute northernmost point Wellington can be considered to reach as a city. Many residents travel into Wellington each day for work, and the district is a popular weekend destination for the people of the Wellington Region. The town of Paraparaumu, considered
3115-472: The 1990s and 2000s. Although "Kapiti Coast District" is the official name of the district, the council uses the spelling "Kāpiti" for its name. Despite sharing the same spelling, the name is unrelated to the Māori word for "cabbage" ( Māori : kāpiti ). In April 2010 the council starting using macrons in the spelling of Kāpiti, Ōtaki and Paekākāriki in council papers, publications, maps and signage. Despite this,
3204-681: The Kapiti Bears – Kapiti Coast Rugby League Club Inc., which was founded in the 1970s and was the home of Kiwi and Melbourne Storm player Stephen Kearney . The Kapiti Bears operate out of Matthews Park, Menin Road, and are affiliated with the Wellington Rugby League Association. In association football, Kapiti is represented by Kapiti Coast United , who play at Weka Park in Raumati Beach . The club
3293-717: The Netherlands, New Zealand ( Wellington ), Singapore (on the North East MRT line ), the United States ( Chicago area on the Metra Electric district and the South Shore Line interurban line and Link light rail in Seattle , Washington). In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a cog railway ). In the Netherlands it is used on the main system, alongside 25 kV on
3382-709: The Rings: The Return of the King were shot in part at Queen Elizabeth Park. Kapiti Island figured in King Kong , with the scenes approaching the lost island of King Kong shot in the waters between Raumati Beach and the island. Rugby union clubs based in the area include Paraparaumu RFC, Waikanae RFC, Rahui RFC, and Toa RFC. Horowhenua Kapiti represent the district in the Heartland Championship . Kapiti has been represented in rugby league by
3471-745: The UK, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway pioneered overhead electrification of its suburban lines in London, London Bridge to Victoria being opened to traffic on 1 December 1909. Victoria to Crystal Palace via Balham and West Norwood opened in May 1911. Peckham Rye to West Norwood opened in June 1912. Further extensions were not made owing to the First World War. Two lines opened in 1925 under
3560-698: The WMR was purchased by the New Zealand Railways Department , who incorporated the line into the North Island Main Trunk railway. In June 1940, the Wellington-Paekākāriki section was electrified as electric locomotives provided better motive power. This meant trains would swap from steam (and later diesel-electric ) to electric traction in Paekākāriki, and it retained its status as a significant locomotive depot. It also became
3649-494: The ability to pull freight at higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if train weights are to be increased on a system. On the other hand, electrification may not be suitable for lines with low frequency of traffic, because lower running cost of trains may be outweighed by
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3738-561: The administration of many environmental and public transport matters, while the district councils administer local roads and reserves, sewerage, building consents, the land use and subdivision aspects of resource management, and other local matters. Some activities are delegated to council-controlled organisations . There are currently 53 districts in New Zealand . The North Island comprises 34 districts. The South Island and Stewart Island comprise 19 districts. Notes: Railway electrification system Railway electrification
3827-516: The advantages of raising the voltage is that, to transmit certain level of power, lower current is necessary ( P = V × I ). Lowering the current reduces the ohmic losses and allows for less bulky, lighter overhead line equipment and more spacing between traction substations, while maintaining power capacity of the system. On the other hand, the higher voltage requires larger isolation gaps, requiring some elements of infrastructure to be larger. The standard-frequency AC system may introduce imbalance to
3916-604: The airport, and it is used for flight training and for private and hobby flights. Attractions in the Kāpiti Coast region include: Film director Peter Jackson is from Pukerua Bay and went to high school at Kāpiti College in Raumati Beach. Scenes from his movies Lord of the Rings and King Kong were filmed on the Kāpiti Coast. Some of the seminal battle scenes in the fields in front of Minas Tirith in The Lord of
4005-585: The camps in 1942–44 prior to being sent into combat in the Pacific Ocean theatre . After World War II, Wellington's Rongotai Airport was closed due to safety reasons in 1947 and Kapiti Coast Airport became the main airport for the Wellington Region . In 1949, it was New Zealand's busiest airport and helped to stimulate growth on the Kāpiti Coast. The Wellington International Airport was opened in 1959 and Paraparaumu Airport never regained its status, with some of its land sold for residential development in
4094-422: The census question. Of those at least 15 years old, 9,516 (20.3%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, 24,621 (52.5%) had a post-high school certificate or diploma, and 9,537 (20.4%) people exclusively held high school qualifications. The median income was $ 39,100, compared with $ 41,500 nationally. 6,636 people (14.2%) earned over $ 100,000 compared to 12.1% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15
4183-581: The council did not make an application to the New Zealand Geographic Board to add a macron to the name of the district as the macron is used to aid pronunciation rather than spelling. In a back and forth manner, vandals have repeatedly added and removed macrons from signage in the district. The parts of the district south of the Waikanae River were originally part of the now defunct Hutt County . The Kapiti Borough Council
4272-410: The distance they could transmit power. However, in the early 20th century, alternating current (AC) power systems were developed, which allowed for more efficient power transmission over longer distances. In the 1920s and 1930s, many countries worldwide began to electrify their railways. In Europe, Switzerland , Sweden , France , and Italy were among the early adopters of railway electrification. In
4361-714: The early 19th century. Around this time, Europeans began whaling in the area, and on 16 October 1839, William Wakefield of the New Zealand Company arrived in the Kapiti region to purchase land for permanent European settlement. Te Rauparaha sold him land in the Nelson and Golden Bay area. European settlement of the Kāpiti Coast only took place on a significant scale after the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company (WMR) opened its railway line from Wellington to Longburn , just south of Palmerston North . The line
4450-448: The electrification. Electric vehicles, especially locomotives, lose power when traversing gaps in the supply, such as phase change gaps in overhead systems, and gaps over points in third rail systems. These become a nuisance if the locomotive stops with its collector on a dead gap, in which case there is no power to restart. This is less of a problem in trains consisting of two or more multiple units coupled together, since in that case if
4539-404: The end of funding. Most electrification systems use overhead wires, but third rail is an option up to 1,500 V. Third rail systems almost exclusively use DC distribution. The use of AC is usually not feasible due to the dimensions of a third rail being physically very large compared with the skin depth that AC penetrates to 0.3 millimetres or 0.012 inches in a steel rail. This effect makes
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#17327809142644628-591: The experiment was curtailed. In 1970 the Ural Electromechanical Institute of Railway Engineers carried out calculations for railway electrification at 12 kV DC , showing that the equivalent loss levels for a 25 kV AC system could be achieved with DC voltage between 11 and 16 kV. In the 1980s and 1990s 12 kV DC was being tested on the October Railway near Leningrad (now Petersburg ). The experiments ended in 1995 due to
4717-500: The fact that electrification often goes hand in hand with a general infrastructure and rolling stock overhaul / replacement, which leads to better service quality (in a way that theoretically could also be achieved by doing similar upgrades yet without electrification). Whatever the causes of the sparks effect, it is well established for numerous routes that have electrified over decades. This also applies when bus routes with diesel buses are replaced by trolleybuses. The overhead wires make
4806-407: The functions of a regional council. Districts are not subdivisions of regions, and some of them fall within more than one region. Taupō District has the distinction of straddling the boundaries of four different regions. Regional council areas are based on water catchment areas, whereas district council areas are based on community of interest and road access. Regional councils are responsible for
4895-1012: The general power grid. This is especially useful in mountainous areas where heavily loaded trains must descend long grades. Central station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation are roughly the same in the nominal regime, diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal regimes at low power while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency. The electric train can save energy (as compared to diesel) by regenerative braking and by not needing to consume energy by idling as diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy. Large fossil fuel power stations operate at high efficiency, and can be used for district heating or to produce district cooling , leading to
4984-411: The high cost of the electrification infrastructure. Therefore, most long-distance lines in developing or sparsely populated countries are not electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains. Network effects are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been removed because of
5073-497: The losses (saving 2 GWh per year per 100 route-km; equalling about €150,000 p.a.). The line chosen is one of the lines, totalling 6000 km, that are in need of renewal. In the 1960s the Soviets experimented with boosting the overhead voltage from 3 to 6 kV. DC rolling stock was equipped with ignitron -based converters to lower the supply voltage to 3 kV. The converters turned out to be unreliable and
5162-484: The main airport of the Wellington region, but was until recently used mainly by aeroclubs. In 2011 scheduled commercial flights from Kapiti to Auckland resumed. It also has daily scheduled flights across Cook Strait to Nelson and Blenheim . After Air New Zealand withdrew air services in April 2018, Air Chathams announced that they would be launching flights to Auckland from August 2018. Sounds Air also operates from
5251-422: The maximum power that can be transmitted, also can be responsible for electrochemical corrosion due to stray DC currents. Electric trains need not carry the weight of prime movers , transmission and fuel. This is partly offset by the weight of electrical equipment. Regenerative braking returns power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere, by other trains on the same system or returned to
5340-402: The need for overhead wires between those stations. Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased by electrification, but many systems claim lower costs due to reduced wear-and-tear on the track from lighter rolling stock. There are some additional maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment around the track, such as power sub-stations and the catenary wire itself, but, if there
5429-534: The north to Paekākāriki in the south. It includes the towns of Te Horo , Waikanae , Paraparaumu , Raumati Beach , Raumati South , and smaller localities such as Maungakotukutuku , Otaihanga , and Peka Peka . It extends from the Tasman Sea coast to the top of the Tararua Range. Kapiti Island , a prominent offshore feature, is part of the district. The district is not generally considered part of
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#17327809142645518-432: The northern terminus of the Wellington commuter railway network until 8 May 1983, when it was extended to Paraparaumu. In February 2011, electrification reached Waikanae, which became the new terminus. During World War II , Queen Elizabeth Park – a large tract of parkland between Raumati South and Paekākāriki – was the location of two United States Army and Marines camps, McKay and Russell. US troops were stationed at
5607-505: The phase separation between the electrified sections powered from different phases, whereas high voltage would make the transmission more efficient. UIC conducted a case study for the conversion of the Bordeaux-Hendaye railway line (France), currently electrified at 1.5 kV DC, to 9 kV DC and found that the conversion would allow to use less bulky overhead wires (saving €20 million per 100 route-km) and lower
5696-473: The pivot of the district, is located about 55 km north of Wellington. The area has an oceanic climate with moderate temperature swings between seasons, resulting in warm summers and mild winters without any severe heat waves or cold spells. Māori chief Te Rauparaha established a base on Kapiti Island, and from this position, he was able to launch attacks on other tribes during the Musket Wars of
5785-508: The problem by insulating the running rails from the current return should there be a leakage through the running rails. The Expo and Millennium Line of the Vancouver SkyTrain use side-contact fourth-rail systems for their 650 V DC supply. Both are located to the side of the train, as the space between the running rails is occupied by an aluminum plate, as part of stator of the linear induction propulsion system used on
5874-465: The resistance per unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC. Third rail is more compact than overhead wires and can be used in smaller-diameter tunnels, an important factor for subway systems. The London Underground in England is one of few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third-rail and overhead networks, is provided by
5963-570: The revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation. Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for European and international standardisation. Some of these are independent of the contact system used, so that, for example, 750 V DC may be used with either third rail or overhead lines. There are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around
6052-498: The running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at +420 V DC , and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at −210 V DC , which combine to provide a traction voltage of 630 V DC . The same system was used for Milan 's earliest underground line, Milan Metro 's line 1 , whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or
6141-467: The same task: converting and transporting high-voltage AC from the power grid to low-voltage DC in the locomotive. The difference between AC and DC electrification systems lies in where the AC is converted to DC: at the substation or on the train. Energy efficiency and infrastructure costs determine which of these is used on a network, although this is often fixed due to pre-existing electrification systems. Both
6230-407: The steep approaches to the tunnel. The system was also used for suburban electrification in East London and Manchester , now converted to 25 kV AC. It is now only used for the Tyne and Wear Metro . In India, 1,500 V DC was the first electrification system launched in 1925 in Mumbai area. Between 2012 and 2016, the electrification was converted to 25 kV 50 Hz, which
6319-443: The supply grid, requiring careful planning and design (as at each substation power is drawn from two out of three phases). The low-frequency AC system may be powered by separate generation and distribution network or a network of converter substations, adding the expense, also low-frequency transformers, used both at the substations and on the rolling stock, are particularly bulky and heavy. The DC system, apart from being limited as to
6408-694: The three-phase induction motor fed by a variable frequency drive , a special inverter that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor speed. These drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify cross-border operation. Five European countries – Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden – have standardized on 15 kV 16 + 2 ⁄ 3 Hz (the 50 Hz mains frequency divided by three) single-phase AC. On 16 October 1995, Germany, Austria and Switzerland changed from 16 + 2 ⁄ 3 Hz to 16.7 Hz which
6497-575: The through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any benefit, time-consuming engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive dual mode engines must be used. This is mostly an issue for long-distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it can be too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network
6586-466: The train stops with one collector in a dead gap, another multiple unit can push or pull the disconnected unit until it can again draw power. The same applies to the kind of push-pull trains which have a locomotive at each end. Power gaps can be overcome in single-collector trains by on-board batteries or motor-flywheel-generator systems. In 2014, progress is being made in the use of large capacitors to power electric vehicles between stations, and so avoid
6675-713: The train's kinetic energy back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn petroleum products, electricity can be generated from diverse sources, including renewable energy . Historically, concerns of resource independence have played a role in the decision to electrify railway lines. The landlocked Swiss confederation which almost completely lacks oil or coal deposits but has plentiful hydropower electrified its network in part in reaction to supply issues during both World Wars. Disadvantages of electric traction include: high capital costs that may be uneconomic on lightly trafficked routes,
6764-413: The transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). Power conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard the locomotive where space
6853-470: The tyres do not conduct the return current, the two guide bars provided outside the running ' roll ways ' become, in a sense, a third and fourth rail which each provide 750 V DC , so at least electrically it is a four-rail system. Each wheel set of a powered bogie carries one traction motor . A side sliding (side running) contact shoe picks up the current from the vertical face of each guide bar. The return of each traction motor, as well as each wagon ,
6942-432: The voltage, the lower the current for the same power (because power is current multiplied by voltage), and power loss is proportional to the current squared. The lower current reduces line loss, thus allowing higher power to be delivered. As alternating current is used with high voltages. Inside the locomotive, a transformer steps the voltage down for use by the traction motors and auxiliary loads. An early advantage of AC
7031-405: The weight of an on-board transformer. Increasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC. The use of medium-voltage DC electrification (MVDC) would solve some of the issues associated with standard-frequency AC electrification systems, especially possible supply grid load imbalance and
7120-532: The world, and the list of railway electrification systems covers both standard voltage and non-standard voltage systems. The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in standards BS EN 50163 and IEC 60850. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation. 1,500 V DC is used in Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong (parts), Ireland, Australia (parts), France (also using 25 kV 50 Hz AC ) ,
7209-534: The world, including China , India , Japan , France , Germany , and the United Kingdom . Electrification is seen as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to diesel or steam power and is an important part of many countries' transportation infrastructure. Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters: Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to
7298-583: Was carved from it in 1973. In New Zealand's local government reforms of 1989 , the borough council was replaced by the Kapiti Coast District Council , and the area under its jurisdiction expanded northwards to include Waikanae and Ōtaki, which had been part of the Horowhenua County. The council, now styled Kāpiti Coast District Council , is a territorial authority elected by residents every three years . It consists of
7387-437: Was exacerbated because the return current also had a tendency to flow through nearby iron pipes forming the water and gas mains. Some of these, particularly Victorian mains that predated London's underground railways, were not constructed to carry currents and had no adequate electrical bonding between pipe segments. The four-rail system solves the problem. Although the supply has an artificially created earth point, this connection
7476-553: Was first applied successfully by Frank Sprague in Richmond, Virginia in 1887-1888, and led to the electrification of hundreds of additional street railway systems by the early 1890s. The first electrification of a mainline railway was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Baltimore Belt Line in the United States in 1895–96. The early electrification of railways used direct current (DC) power systems, which were limited in terms of
7565-604: Was formed by the merger of Raumati Hearts and Paraparaumu United in 2003. Paraparaumu Track and Field Club is the athletics club based in Paraparaumu, with facilities at the Paraparaumu Domain. Four news media are based in the district. Districts of New Zealand A district in New Zealand is a territorial authority area governed by a district council as a second-tier of local government in New Zealand , below regional councils . They were formed as
7654-444: Was opened in 1886, with the final spike driven in on the Kāpiti Coast at Otaihanga. Paekākāriki was quickly established as a significant steam locomotive depot due to the need to swap locomotives at the location; powerful, heavy locomotives were required to handle trains over the rugged section from Wellington to Paekākāriki, while lighter, faster locomotives were more suited to the relatively flat terrain north of Paekākāriki. In 1908,
7743-548: Was opened to enable State Highway 1 to bypass developed urban areas. An extension to just north of Ōtaki opened in December 2022. State Highway One connects the Kāpiti Coast to Wellington. Before the long-mooted Transmission Gully Motorway opened in March 2022, the road (now re-designated State Highway 59 ) was a narrow, highly congested coastal highway and has been subject to occasional closure due to landslides. The district
7832-557: Was spoken by 97.6%, Māori language by 4.7%, Samoan by 0.5% and other languages by 10.0%. No language could be spoken by 1.6% (e.g. too young to talk). New Zealand Sign Language was known by 0.6%. The percentage of people born overseas was 23.5, compared with 28.8% nationally. Religious affiliations were 31.3% Christian , 0.8% Hindu , 0.3% Islam , 0.6% Māori religious beliefs , 0.6% Buddhist , 0.6% New Age , 0.1% Jewish , and 1.3% other religions. People who answered that they had no religion were 57.5%, and 7.1% of people did not answer
7921-420: Was that 20,856 (44.5%) people were employed full-time, 6,711 (14.3%) were part-time, and 1,080 (2.3%) were unemployed. Many of the residents work in Wellington. The population of the district has grown rapidly since the 1980s, fuelled in large part by Wellingtonians moving there to retire. Kāpiti Coast District consists of the following towns, localities, settlements and communities: The Kāpiti Coast
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