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65-405: Ông Trời is referred to by many names depending on the religious circumstances. In South Vietnam, he is often called Ông Thiên. In Đạo Mẫu , he is called the Vua Cha Ngọc Hoàng, (Monarchical Father Ngọc Hoàng), as he is the father of Liễu Hạnh . In Vietnamese Buddhism , he is frequently identified with Śakra (Đế Thích Thiên). Later, due the influence of Chinese Taoism, he is also identified with

130-437: A logographic script using Chinese characters ( chữ Hán ) to represent Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and some native Vietnamese words, together with many locally invented characters representing other words. Early linguistic work in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ( Logan 1852, Forbes 1881, Müller 1888, Kuhn 1889, Schmidt 1905, Przyluski 1924, and Benedict 1942) classified Vietnamese as belonging to

195-636: A minor syllable occurred). These fricatives were not present in Proto-Viet–Muong, as indicated by their absence in Mường , but were evidently present in the later Proto-Vietnamese stage. Subsequent loss of the minor-syllable prefixes phonemicized the fricatives. Ferlus 1992 proposes that originally there were both voiced and voiceless fricatives, corresponding to original voiced or voiceless stops, but Ferlus 2009 appears to have abandoned that hypothesis, suggesting that stops were softened and voiced at approximately

260-447: A main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel offglide /j/ or /w/ . There are restrictions on the high offglides: /j/ cannot occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and /w/ cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus. The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide /j/ is usually written as i ; however, it may also be represented with y . In addition, in

325-448: A paper published in 1856. Later, in 1920, French-Polish linguist Jean Przyluski found that Mường is more closely related to Vietnamese than other Mon–Khmer languages, and a Viet–Muong subgrouping was established, also including Thavung , Chut , Cuoi , etc. The term "Vietic" was proposed by Hayes (1992), who proposed to redefine Viet–Muong as referring to a subbranch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and Mường . The term " Vietic "

390-546: A process of tonogenesis , in which distinctions formerly expressed by final consonants became phonemic tonal distinctions when those consonants disappeared. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, Tsat (a member of the Malayo-Polynesian group within Austronesian ), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. After

455-642: A representative on the Government Council for Nationalities, an advisory body of the Czech Government for matters of policy towards national minorities and their members. It also grants the community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and in courts anywhere in the country. Vietnamese is taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam, a large part contributed by its diaspora . In countries with Vietnamese-speaking communities Vietnamese language education largely serves as

520-540: A role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. In neighboring countries and vicinities near Vietnam such as Southern China, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, Vietnamese as a foreign language is largely due to trade, as well as recovery and growth of the Vietnamese economy. Since the 1980s, Vietnamese language schools ( trường Việt ngữ/ trường ngôn ngữ Tiếng Việt ) have been established for youth in many Vietnamese-speaking communities around

585-464: A son named Mai Thanh Cổn (later worshipped as Cậu bé Đồi Ngang in Đạo Mẫu), Sinh becoming a great scholar. Eventually it was time for Liễu Hạnh to return to Heaven, and she sadly left her family to return to Heaven. On her second return to Heaven the princess again pleaded with the emperor to return to earth, and this time returned with two other fairies—Quế and Thị. The princess blessed those who were good, and brought destruction on those who were not, so

650-519: A stage commonly termed Middle Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt trung đại ). The pronunciation of the "rime" of the syllable, i.e. all parts other than the initial consonant (optional /w/ glide, vowel nucleus, tone and final consonant), appears nearly identical between Middle Vietnamese and modern Hanoi pronunciation. On the other hand, the Middle Vietnamese pronunciation of the initial consonant differs greatly from all modern dialects, and in fact

715-552: A third of the Vietnamese lexicon in all realms, and may account for as much as 60% of the vocabulary used in formal texts. Vietic languages were confined to the northern third of modern Vietnam until the "southward advance" ( Nam tiến ) from the late 15th century. The conquest of the ancient nation of Champa and the conquest of the Mekong Delta led to an expansion of the Vietnamese people and language, with distinctive local variations emerging. After France invaded Vietnam in

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780-423: Is a woman of outstanding beauty, with three blue birds specializing in finding food for Vương Mẫu, turning into a flock of beautiful and graceful maids. The Ngọc Hoàng is always dressed in imperial attire, a shirt embroidered with a golden dragon, a hat with red tassels on his head, leading thirteen five-colored pearls, and holding hốt in hand. The Ngọc Hoàng sits on the throne to touch the dragon each time he meets

845-527: Is also spoken by the Jing people traditionally residing on three islands (now joined to the mainland) off Dongxing in southern Guangxi Province , China . A large number of Vietnamese speakers also reside in neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos . In the United States, Vietnamese is the sixth most spoken language , with over 1.5 million speakers, who are concentrated in a handful of states. It

910-523: Is an Austroasiatic language spoken primarily in Vietnam where it is the official language . Vietnamese is spoken natively by around 85 million people, several times as many as the rest of the Austroasiatic family combined. It is the native language of ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh), as well as the second or first language for other ethnicities of Vietnam , and used by Vietnamese diaspora in

975-411: Is angry with humans for making mistakes in the world, natural disasters will be sent: storms, floods, droughts... He is the first god of heaven who created mankind. The Ngọc Hoàng used the residue left in heaven and earth to mold all kinds of animals, from the big ones to the small ones like bugs. After that, Trời decanted the clean substance to mold human. Therefore, humans are wiser than animals. Later,

1040-401: Is not agreed upon, according to one of the most popular stories recounted that: Once upon a time, before all things, there was a god. Trời is an incomparable power above, making everything: the earth, the mountains, the rivers, the sea, the rain, and the sun. Trời gave birth to all human beings, animals, and plants... Trời sees everything and knows everything that happens in the world. Trời is

1105-415: Is notated i or y (with the difference between the two often indicating differences in the quality or length of the preceding vowel), and after /ð/ and /β/ , where it is notated ĕ . This ĕ , and the /j/ it notated, have disappeared from the modern language. Note that b [ɓ] and p [p] never contrast in any position, suggesting that they are allophones. The language also has three clusters at

1170-534: Is often mistaken for a tilde in modern reproductions of early Vietnamese writing. As a result of emigration , Vietnamese speakers are also found in other parts of Southeast Asia , East Asia , North America , Europe , and Australia . Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the Czech Republic . As the national language, Vietnamese is the lingua franca in Vietnam. It

1235-410: Is significantly closer to the modern Saigon dialect than the modern Hanoi dialect. The following diagram shows the orthography and pronunciation of Middle Vietnamese: ^1 [p] occurs only at the end of a syllable. ^2 This letter, ⟨ ꞗ ⟩ , is no longer used. ^3 [j] does not occur at the beginning of a syllable, but can occur at the end of a syllable, where it

1300-466: Is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's ethnic minority groups . In the Czech Republic , Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants the Vietnamese community in the country

1365-653: Is the third-most spoken language in Texas and Washington; fourth-most in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia; and fifth-most in Arkansas and California. Vietnamese is the third most spoken language in Australia other than English, after Mandarin and Arabic. In France, it is the most spoken Asian language and the eighth most spoken immigrant language at home. Vietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It

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1430-413: Is used, among others, by Gérard Diffloth , with a slightly different proposal on subclassification, within which the term "Viet–Muong" refers to a lower subgrouping (within an eastern Vietic branch) consisting of Vietnamese dialects, Mường dialects, and Nguồn (of Quảng Bình Province ). Austroasiatic is believed to have dispersed around 2000 BC. The arrival of the agricultural Phùng Nguyên culture in

1495-446: Is written with two Chinese characters or in a composite character made of two different characters. This conveys the transformation of the Vietnamese lexicon from sesquisyllabic to fully monosyllabic under the pressure of Chinese linguistic influence, characterized by linguistic phenomena such as the reduction of minor syllables; loss of affixal morphology drifting towards analytical grammar; simplification of major syllable segments, and

1560-535: The Jade Emperor and sometimes used the same names of him, such as Ngọc Hoàng, a shorter version of Hạo Ngọc Hoàng Thượng Đế, and Ngọc Hoàng Đại Đế. Generally, these names refer to the Jade Emperor rather than Ông Trời. Ông Trời was originally a Vietnamese god, but due to later influence by Taoism from China, this god was identified and linked with the Jade Emperor (Ngọc Hoàng). The origin of this god

1625-988: The Mon–Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family (which also includes the Khmer language spoken in Cambodia , as well as various smaller and/or regional languages , such as the Munda and Khasi languages spoken in eastern India, and others in Laos , southern China and parts of Thailand). In 1850, British lawyer James Richardson Logan detected striking similarities between the Korku language in Central India and Vietnamese. He suggested that Korku , Mon , and Vietnamese were part of what he termed "Mon–Annam languages" in

1690-542: The Red River Delta at that time may correspond to the Vietic branch. This ancestral Vietic was typologically very different from later Vietnamese. It was polysyllabic, or rather sesquisyllabic , with roots consisting of a reduced syllable followed by a full syllable, and featured many consonant clusters. Both of these features are found elsewhere in Austroasiatic and in modern conservative Vietic languages south of

1755-597: The Vietnamese orthography with the phonetic pronunciation to the right. Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a digraph (like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q"). In some cases, they are based on their Middle Vietnamese pronunciation; since that period, ph and kh (but not th ) have evolved from aspirated stops into fricatives (like Greek phi and chi ), while d and gi have collapsed and converged together (into /z/ in

1820-565: The French colonial era. The following diagram shows the phonology of Proto–Viet–Muong (the nearest ancestor of Vietnamese and the closely related Mường language ), along with the outcomes in the modern language: ^1 According to Ferlus, * /tʃ/ and * /ʄ/ are not accepted by all researchers. Ferlus 1992 also had additional phonemes * /dʒ/ and * /ɕ/ . ^2 The fricatives indicated above in parentheses developed as allophones of stop consonants occurring between vowels (i.e. when

1885-556: The Heavenly Palace of the Ngọc Hoàng and witnessed Quỳnh Nương drop the jade cup, for which the Ngọc Hoàng expelled Quỳnh Nương from heaven. When Thái Công regained consciousness his wife had given birth to a girl, whom they named Lê Thị Thắng, Art name "Giáng Tiên"(Descending Fairy ). After living a righteous life of 23 years, marrying Trần Đào (because he was found under a peach (Đào) tree and adopted by Trần family) - whom she

1950-727: The Red River Delta and into the adjacent uplands, possibly to escape Chinese encroachment. The oldest layer of loans from Chinese into northern Vietic (which would become the Viet–Muong subbranch) date from this period. The northern Vietic varieties thus became part of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , in which languages from genetically unrelated families converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and similar syllable structure. Many languages in this area, including Viet–Muong, underwent

2015-527: The Red River area. The language was non-tonal, but featured glottal stop and voiceless fricative codas. Borrowed vocabulary indicates early contact with speakers of Tai languages in the last millennium BC, which is consistent with genetic evidence from Dong Son culture sites. Extensive contact with Chinese began from the Han dynasty (2nd century BC). At this time, Vietic groups began to expand south from

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2080-475: The beginning of syllables, which have since disappeared: Most of the unusual correspondences between spelling and modern pronunciation are explained by Middle Vietnamese. Note in particular: De Rhodes's orthography also made use of an apex diacritic, as in o᷄ and u᷄ , to indicate a final labial-velar nasal /ŋ͡m/ , an allophone of /ŋ/ that is peculiar to the Hanoi dialect to the present day. This diacritic

2145-498: The change of suprasegment instruments. For example, the modern Vietnamese word "trời" (heaven) was read as *plời in Old/Ancient Vietnamese and as blời in Middle Vietnamese. The writing system used for Vietnamese is based closely on the system developed by Alexandre de Rhodes for his 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum . It reflects the pronunciation of the Vietnamese of Hanoi at that time,

2210-426: The cult has been regaining popularity steadily. The most widespread knowledge of her is because of Đoàn Thị Điểm Vân Cát Thần Nữ truyện (c.1730). Born as the daughter of Ngọc Hoàng , Quỳnh Nương had always been the troublemaker of the family. A righteous man, Lê Thái Công, was knocked unconscious during his wife (Trần Thị Phúc)'s pregnancy by a Taoist with his jade hammer. While unconscious, Thái Công arrived at

2275-466: The daughter languages from distinctions in the initial and final consonants. Vietnamese tones developed as follows: Glottal-ending syllables ended with a glottal stop /ʔ/ , while fricative-ending syllables ended with /s/ or /h/ . Both types of syllables could co-occur with a resonant (e.g. /m/ or /n/ ). At some point, a tone split occurred, as in many other mainland Southeast Asian languages . Essentially, an allophonic distinction developed in

2340-442: The diphthongs [āj] and [āːj] the letters y and i also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ă + /j/ , ai = a + /j/ . Thus, tay "hand" is [tāj] while tai "ear" is [tāːj] . Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ă + /w/ , ao = a + /w/ . Thus, thau "brass" is [tʰāw] while thao "raw silk" is [tʰāːw] . The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in

2405-407: The dynasty, and deals with things in heaven or on earth. On the left and right sides of Ngọc Hoàng, there are gods of heaven waiting for the Ngọc Hoàng to command. Heaven is divided into nine levels, some say it's thirty-three, and the gods are more or less related to each other according to their titles and relationships. Ngọc Hoàng is the highest rank, on the first floor. Some other versions say that

2470-613: The epidemic. The government built the new temple in Phố Cát Mountain, and proclaimed her "Mã Hoàng Công Chúa" (Golden Princess to Whom Sacrifices Are Made as to the God of War). Đạo Mẫu practitioners maintain both public and private temples, engaging in worship and spirit possession. The first temple devoted to Lieu Hanh has traditionally been considered Phu Van temple in Van Cat which was originally constructed in 1642. The next to appear

2535-464: The father of all things, considering all things, rewards and punishments do not leave anyone, no one escapes the net of heaven, everything is determined by heaven. Therefore, people believe in heaven's way, and often say that creation was born and raised by Trời, and when a person dies, they return to heaven. Ông Trời also has a wife, called Bà Trời (or Tây Vương Mẫu ), and every time they get angry at each other, it's both sunny and rainy. Every time Trời

2600-418: The god, Thần Trụ Trời and Ông Trời are one. He is worshiped all over Vietnam; there are many temples and shrines dedicated to him. In South and Central Vietnam, families often worship him at an outdoor altar called Bàn Thiên. Television program An interjection used in Vietnamese " Trời ơi! " ( hey heavenly (lord) ) is often translated into English as " for goodness' sake! " or " dear God! " or " what

2665-477: The gods of heaven, the army of Trời to punish the rebellious gods. Ngọc Hoàng also has a family, a wife, and children. Ngọc Hoàng's wife is Tây Vương Mẫu, in Côn Lôn mountain, the world of fairies, with a herd of fairies. Tây Vương Mẫu has a garden of Bàn Đào, the fruit ripens once every three thousand years when eaten, it gives birth to immortality, often used to prepare feasts for the gods in heaven. Tây Vương Mẫu

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2730-600: The hell! ". Counterparts of Ông Trời in other cultures Li%E1%BB%85u H%E1%BA%A1nh Princess Liễu Hạnh ( Vietnamese : Liễu Hạnh Công chúa , chữ Hán : 柳杏公主) is one of The Four Immortals in Vietnamese folk religion , and also a leading figure in the Four Palaces belief of the Đạo Mẫu , in which she governs the Earth realm and represents the Heaven realm on behalf of Mẫu Cửu Trùng Thiên. Her personal cult

2795-451: The job of shaping people was assigned by Ngọc Hoàng to twelve Bà mụ . The Trời's country is from the ground up to above, there are nine heavens. The Ngọc Hoàng was in the palace and was imitated by the emperor below. At the door of the palace, there is a god in armor holding a staff to hold the door. Ngọc Hoàng met here, the court was no different from that in the lower world, there were mandarins, martial arts officers, and generals, that is,

2860-446: The late 19th century, French gradually replaced Literary Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as đầm ('dame', from madame ), ga ('train station', from gare ), sơ mi ('shirt', from chemise ), and búp bê ('doll', from poupée ), resulting in a language that was Austroasiatic but with major Sino-influences and some minor French influences from

2925-427: The main syllable). When a minor syllable occurred, the main syllable's initial consonant was intervocalic and as a result suffered lenition , becoming a voiced fricative. The minor syllables were eventually lost, but not until the tone split had occurred. As a result, words in modern Vietnamese with voiced fricatives occur in all six tones, and the tonal register reflects the voicing of the minor-syllable prefix and not

2990-465: The majority of Vietnamese vocabulary are disyllabic and trisyllabic words. Vietnamese is written using the Vietnamese alphabet ( chữ Quốc ngữ ). The alphabet is based on the Latin script and was officially adopted in the early 20th century during French rule of Vietnam . It uses digraphs and diacritics to mark tones and some phonemes . Vietnamese was historically written using chữ Nôm ,

3055-497: The north and /j/ in the south). Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written language). See the language variation section for further elaboration. Syllable-final orthographic ch and nh in Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final ch , nh as being phonemes /c/, /ɲ/ contrasting with syllable-final t , c /t/, /k/ and n , ng /n/, /ŋ/ and identifies final ch with

3120-427: The people built a temple out of fear. The Cảnh Trị government heard she was an evil spirit and sent the military to burn down the temple. When her temple was burnt down, all the animals in the area died from a mysterious disease, so the villagers built a platform to send her offerings. The princess appeared on the platform, declaring she was from Heaven, and demanded that the government build a new temple for her to stop

3185-405: The plain-voiced stops became voiceless and the allotones became new phonemic tones. The implosive stops were unaffected, and in fact developed tonally as if they were unvoiced. (This behavior is common to all East Asian languages with implosive stops.) As noted above, Proto-Viet–Muong had sesquisyllabic words with an initial minor syllable (in addition to, and independent of, initial clusters in

3250-546: The same except that ơ [əː] is of normal length while â [ə] is short – the same applies to the vowels long a [aː] and short ă [a] . The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ư, u). They are generally spelled as ia, ưa, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, ươ, uô, respectively, when they are followed by a consonant. In addition to single vowels (or monophthongs ) and centering diphthongs, Vietnamese has closing diphthongs and triphthongs . The closing diphthongs and triphthongs consist of

3315-473: The same time, according to the following pattern: ^3 In Middle Vietnamese , the outcome of these sounds was written with a hooked b (ꞗ), representing a /β/ that was still distinct from v (then pronounced /w/ ). See below. ^4 It is unclear what this sound was. According to Ferlus 1992, in the Archaic Vietnamese period (c. 10th century AD, when Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary

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3380-425: The sky. She wandered the world as either an old woman or a beautiful lady playing the flute, punishing those who teased her and blessing those who gave her offerings. Long after her family died, she visited a temple and met Phùng Khắc Khoan , a famous scholar, who attempted to compliment the princess. However, she had disappeared before he had the chance, leaving a stick inscribed with her name. Years later Phùng, who

3445-542: The split from Muong around the end of the first millennium AD, the following stages of Vietnamese are commonly identified: After expelling the Chinese at the beginning of the 10th century, the Ngô dynasty adopted Classical Chinese as the formal medium of government, scholarship and literature. With the dominance of Chinese came wholesale importation of Chinese vocabulary. The resulting Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary makes up about

3510-505: The syllable-initial ch /c/ . The other analysis has final ch and nh as predictable allophonic variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /ŋ/ that occur after the upper front vowels i /i/ and ê /e/ ; although they also occur after a , but in such cases are believed to have resulted from an earlier e /ɛ/ which diphthongized to ai (cf. ach from aic , anh from aing ). (See Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final ch , nh for further details.) Each Vietnamese syllable

3575-579: The tones, whereby the tones in syllables with voiced initials were pronounced differently from those with voiceless initials. (Approximately speaking, the voiced allotones were pronounced with additional breathy voice or creaky voice and with lowered pitch. The quality difference predominates in today's northern varieties, e.g. in Hanoi , while in the southern varieties the pitch difference predominates, as in Ho Chi Minh City .) Subsequent to this,

3640-422: The voicing of the main-syllable stop in Proto-Viet–Muong that produced the fricative. For similar reasons, words beginning with /l/ and /ŋ/ occur in both registers. (Thompson 1976 reconstructed voiceless resonants to account for outcomes where resonants occur with a first-register tone, but this is no longer considered necessary, at least by Ferlus.) Old Vietnamese/Ancient Vietnamese was a Vietic language which

3705-452: The world such as in the United States , Germany and France . Vietnamese has a large number of vowels . Below is a vowel diagram of Vietnamese from Hanoi (including centering diphthongs ): Front and central vowels (i, ê, e, ư, â, ơ, ă, a) are unrounded , whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â [ə] and ă [a] are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ơ and â are basically pronounced

3770-604: The world. Like many languages in Southeast Asia and East Asia , Vietnamese is highly analytic and is tonal . It has head-initial directionality, with subject–verb–object order and modifiers following the words they modify. It also uses noun classifiers . Its vocabulary has had significant influence from Middle Chinese and loanwords from French . Although it is often mistakenly thought as being an monosyllabic language, Vietnamese words typically consist of from one to many as eight individual morphemes or syllables;

3835-473: Was betrothed by her family, and giving birth to two children, Nhân for the son and Hòa for the daughter, Giáng Tiên died on the third day of the third month. When Giáng Tiên died she ascended to Heaven and was granted the title of Princess Liễu Hạnh, and was permitted to return to earth on the second anniversary of her death. On her return she visited her family and told her husband that they would reunite again, and disappeared leaving nothing behind but clouds in

3900-494: Was borrowed) it was * r̝ , distinct at that time from * r . The following initial clusters occurred, with outcomes indicated: A large number of words were borrowed from Middle Chinese , forming part of the Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary . These caused the original introduction of the retroflex sounds /ʂ/ and /ʈ/ (modern s , tr ) into the language. Proto-Viet–Muong did not have tones. Tones developed later in some of

3965-516: Was created by women in Nam Định Province , in the village of Van Cat. It is believed that the cult was created by rice farmers in need of land and water, and at its peak was extremely popular. The cult was mostly suppressed during the Communist Party of Vietnam 's early reign, as worship was considered to be Taoist in nature, and was a tool of oppression. However, after Doi Moi (begun 1986)

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4030-432: Was in the 1880s by A. Landes, a French colonialist. He places her appearance at sometime between 1428 and 1433. However, the vast majority of stories claim her birth to be the year 1557, including Đoàn Thị Điểm. In 1750 Adriano di St. Thecla, an Italian missionary both commented on the popularity of the cult, and that Liễu Hạnh had indeed been a historical person. Vietnamese language Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt )

4095-686: Was now a high-ranking official, visited a tavern in West Lake which was owned by Liễu Hạnh. After poetry and discussion, Phùng left the tavern, but when he returned it had mysteriously disappeared. Leaving West Lake, the princess reincarnated to the Hoàng family in Nghệ An , where she met a student named Mai Thanh Lâm, also called Mai Sinh ("Sinh" means "student"), whom she thought to be an incarnation of her husband. After leaving poetry for him, Sinh sought her out and confessed his love to her. They married and had

4160-837: Was separated from Viet–Muong around the 9th century, and evolved into Middle Vietnamese by 16th century. The sources for the reconstruction of Old Vietnamese are Nom texts, such as the 12th-century/1486 Buddhist scripture Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh ("Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents"), old inscriptions, and a late 13th-century (possibly 1293) Annan Jishi glossary by Chinese diplomat Chen Fu (c. 1259 – 1309). Old Vietnamese used Chinese characters phonetically where each word, monosyllabic in Modern Vietnamese,

4225-511: Was the Tien Huong temple sometime between 1643 and 1649, which would come to be the main center for Lieu Hanh's cult. Temples to Lieu Hanh are known to have many wooden sculptures, and the temples themselves have intricate designs carved into the framework. Whether or not Liễu Hạnh was a historical person is a subject of debate, as accounts for her life are difficult to match to a proper timeline. The earliest written account for her existence

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