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80-564: The Taupō Rift is the seismically active rift valley containing the Taupō Volcanic Zone , central North Island of New Zealand . The Taupō Rift ( Taupo Rift ) is a 300 km (190 mi) intra-arc continental rift resulting from an oblique convergence in the Hikurangi subduction zone . The present young, modern Taupō Rift is defined by events between 25,000 and 350,000 years and the old Taupō Rift system, which can be defined by

160-601: A basement of Mesozoic greywacke overlain by a thin layer of sediments of the Wanganui Basin , composed of sands, silts, shell beds, and limestone . It has not been clearly established when Ruapehu first began erupting, only that eruptions began at least 250,000 years ago and possibly as early as 340,000 years ago. Ruapehu has been built in four distinct stages of relatively intense eruptive activity followed by periods of relative quiet. Each of these four stages of activity has left behind distinct rock formations, named

240-651: A triple junction , although there are three, the East African Rift , Rio Grande rift and the Baikal Rift Zone , which are currently active, as well as a fourth which may be, the West Antarctic Rift System . In these instances, not only the crust but entire tectonic plates are in the process of breaking apart forming new plates. If they continue, continental rifts will eventually become oceanic rifts. Other rift valleys are

320-604: A 22-year-old primary school teacher, had a leg pinned and crushed by a boulder as the water subsided. A rescue operation was mounted after his companion, who was unable to free him, went down the mountain for help. The eruption initiated lahars down the Whangaehu valley and the Whakapapa skifield . ERLAWS detected the lahars in the Whangaehu valley. A snow groomer on the Whakapapa skifield narrowly avoided being caught in

400-553: A club Tukino field on the east of the mountain. The commercial developments have not been a consistent success, with at least two business failures by 2023. While as of 2001, Mount Ruapehu had the largest total ski area in New Zealand, developments in the South Island may see by 2025 the establishment there of the largest single commercial ski area in New Zealand. A 60-year concession for commercial ski field operation

480-431: A crater wall collapse and alert the relevant authorities. It began operating in 2002. The lake gradually filled with snowmelt and had reached the level of the hard rock rim by January 2005. The lahar finally occurred on 18 March 2007 (see below). Ruapehu erupted at 10:24 p.m. on 4 October 2006. The small eruption was marked by a magnitude 2.9 volcanic earthquake and sent waves 4–5 m (16 ft) tall crashing into

560-491: A gravity anomaly, is now located more to the north being created between 350,000 and 2 million years and is about 70 kilometres (43 mi) wide. Consensus does not yet exist with regard to the cause of the Taupō Rift's extension or the exceptional volcanic productivity of the associated Taupō Volcanic Zone . Its geology and landforms are of worldwide interest, and it contains multiple significant faults and volcanoes, with some of

640-591: A relatively short geological timeframe. In the Bay of Plenty region the current active faults of the old Taupō Rift can align with those of the modern Taupō Rift. This was illustrated by the Edgecumbe Fault and the off sea White Island Fault in the Whakatāne Graben of the rift. The parallel Tauranga Fault Zone to the north represents a now mainly inactive old Taupō Rift margin. Further south, where more of

720-413: A rift which results from a leftward discontinuity in the left lateral-moving Dead Sea Transform fault. Where a fault breaks into two strands, or two faults run close to each other, crustal extension may also occur between them, as a result of differences in their motions. Both types of fault-caused extension commonly occur on a small scale, producing such features as sag ponds or landslides . Many of

800-590: A significant hazard to surrounding river valleys, particularly the Whangaehu River, which is crossed by national highways, the North Island Main Trunk railway line, and electricity transmission lines. Large, destructive lahars have been observed in the Whangaehu River in 1862, 1895, 1953, 1975, and 2007. GNS Science continuously monitors Ruapehu using a network of seismographs, GPS stations, microphones and webcams. Chemical analysis of

880-494: A week-long storm while undergoing winter survival training in 1990. The same storm also trapped an experienced Japanese mountaineer when the weather unexpectedly closed in on him, but he built a snow cave and sheltered in it until he was rescued days later. Extreme weather conditions have caused visitors to be trapped on the mountain in the past. In 2003, about 350 visitors to Whakapapa skifield and 70 staff had to stay overnight in various lodges at Iwikau village (small village at

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960-614: Is 23 km (14 mi) northeast of Ohakune and 23 km (14 mi) southwest of the southern shore of Lake Taupō , within the Tongariro National Park . The North Island 's major ski resorts and only glaciers are on its slopes. Ruapehu, the largest active volcano in New Zealand, has the highest point in the North Island and has three major peaks: Tahurangi (2,797 m), Te Heuheu (2,755 m) and Paretetaitonga (2,751 m). The deep, active crater

1040-568: Is a prominent example. Charon's Nostromo Chasma is the first confirmed in the Pluto system, however large chasms up to 950 km wide observed on Charon have also been tentatively interpreted by some as giant rifts, and similar formations have also been noted on Pluto. A recent study suggests a complex system of ancient lunar rift valleys, including Vallis Rheita and Vallis Alpes . The Uranus system also has prominent examples, with large 'chasma' believed to be giant rift valley systems, most notably

1120-460: Is believed by planetary geologists to be a large rift system. Some features of Venus, most notably, the 4,000 km Devana Chasma and a part of the western Eistla, and possibly also Alta and Bell Regio have been interpreted by some planetary geologists as rift valleys. Some natural satellites also have prominent rift valleys. The 2,000 km long Ithaca Chasma on Tethys in the Saturn system

1200-629: Is between the peaks and fills with water between major eruptions, being known as Crater Lake ( Māori : Te Wai ā-moe ). The name Ruapehu means "pit of noise" or "exploding pit" in Māori . Ruapehu is located in the centre of the North Island of New Zealand, 23 km (14 mi) northeast of Ohakune , New Zealand and 23 km (14 mi) southwest of the southern shore of Lake Taupō , within Tongariro National Park. Ruapehu

1280-603: Is driven by oral tradition reports of hundreds dying in a relatively recent landslip on the Waihi Fault Zone south of Lake Taupō it may not be true. Certainly in the context that the Taupō Volcano has been responsible for the largest eruption of the last 30,000 years being the Oruanui eruption , and the more recent smaller 232 ± 10 CE Hatepe eruption but both eruptions occurred before human settlement,

1360-614: Is preserved. The modern Taupō Volcanic Zone started forming 61,000 years ago but the modern Taupō Rift appears to only have intra-rift fault activity after the immensely disruptive Oruanui eruption . Earthquake activity in the Taupo Rift exhibits the entire spectrum of behaviour ranging from large, ground rupturing events to swarm activity comprising thousands of small events. In the time since Māori settlement these larger earthquakes can be speculated to have resulted in more indirect loss of life than volcanic activity, although as this

1440-746: Is situated at the southern end of the Summit Plateau, and as the name suggests, is filled with a warm, acidic lake. The lake's outlet is at the head of the Whangaehu Valley, where the Whangaehu River arises. The Whangaehu River is notorious for destructive lahars caused by Ruapehu's eruptions. In historic times, eruptions have built tephra dams across the outlet on several occasions, most recently in 1945 and 1996. These dams failed in 1953 and 2007 respectively, causing an outburst of Crater Lake each time, which sent destructive lahars down

1520-505: Is tectonic. The rift is in that part of the continental Australian Plate associated with the largely underwater Zealandia continental tectonic plate region. The rate of spread of the rift varies from effectively zero, at its southern inland end where the South Wanganui Basin is forming an initial back-arc basin, and volcanic activity has not yet begun, to in the Bay of Plenty as much as 19 mm (0.75 in)/yr. To

1600-414: Is the largest and southernmost volcano in the national park, with an estimated volume of 110 km . The volcano is surrounded by a ring plain of volcanic material, made from lahar deposits, ash fall, and landslide debris. There are three access routes to Ruapehu, and each access route leads to one of the three skifields that are found on its slopes. State Highway 48 leads to Whakapapa Village at

1680-504: The Rangipo Desert to the east of Ruapehu receives slightly more than 1,500 mm of rain annually. Snow falls on average as low as 1,500 m elevation. Weather conditions can be changeable over the day, and mountain visitors are advised to be prepared and carry basic survival equipment. Severe weather has claimed several lives over the years, including a party of five NZ Army soldiers and one RNZN naval rating, caught in

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1760-522: The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt result from a different tectonic process from the more studied intracontinental (intraplate) rifts it has been shown that the Taupō Rift displays all of the three modes of evolution. These are narrowing, lateral migration, and along-strike propagation, as found with intracontinental rifts. The Taupo Rift is widening much faster that other continental intraarc rifts, which might drive this evolution during

1840-551: The Waikato River , which arises as a series of streams on Ruapehu's eastern slopes. On the western side of the mountain, many of the streams that arise there, such as the Whakapapa and Manganui o te Ao rivers, feed the Whanganui River . Ruapehu's glaciers are situated at the northern limit for the formation of permanent ice in New Zealand, and thus they are extremely sensitive to changes in climate. Surveys of

1920-473: The 1492 km long Messina Chasma on Titania, 622 km Kachina Chasmata on Ariel, Verona Rupes on Miranda, and Mommur Chasma on Oberon. Mount Ruapehu Mount Ruapehu ( Māori: [ˈɾʉaˌpɛhʉ] ; English / ˈ r uː ə ˌ p eɪ h uː / ) is an active stratovolcano at the southern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone and North Island volcanic plateau in New Zealand . It

2000-643: The 1945 eruptions collapsed on 24 December 1953, sending a lahar down the Whangaehu River and causing the Tangiwai disaster . 151 people died when the lahar swept away the Tangiwai railway bridge just before an express train crossed it. Another dam was deposited by the 1995–1996 eruptions, which collapsed on 18 March 2007. A warning system, the Eastern Ruapehu Lahar Alarm and Warning System (ERLAWS) system began operation on

2080-806: The Taupō Hatepe eruption in 232 CE. Over this period there are 30 assigned tephra units by composition studies to Ruapehu and in the 370 years before 1950 the mean time between these months of eruptive period was 40 years. In recorded history, these eruptions have occurred about 50 years apart, in 1895 ( lahar ), 1945 and 1995–1996. Minor phreatic or hydrothermal eruptions occur every few years on average, with notable minor eruptions occurring in 1969, 1975, and 2007. More than 600 eruptive events of various sizes have been documented since 1830. Ruapehu entered an eruptive phase in March 1945 after several weeks of volcanic tremors. The first indication of an eruption

2160-717: The Te Herenga Formation (erupted 250,000–180,000 years ago), the Wahianoa Formation (erupted 160,000–115,000 years ago), the Mangawhero Formation (erupted 55,000–15,000 years ago), and the Whakapapa Formation (erupted 15,000–2,000 years ago). Each of these rock formations is composed of lava flows and tuff breccias , and studies of these formations has revealed how volcanic activity at Ruapehu has developed over time. During

2240-447: The Te Herenga Formation, and today these formations be seen at Pinnacle Ridge, Te Herenga Ridge, and Whakapapanui Valley, all on the northwestern slopes of Ruapehu. Approximately 160,000 years ago, cone-building eruptions began again, this time from a crater that is thought to have lain northwest of present-day Mitre Peak (Ringatoto)—southeast of the original Te Herenga vent. Eruptions continued until approximately 115,000 years ago, and

2320-489: The Te Herenga stage of activity, magma rose quickly through the crust during eruptions. However, by 160,000 years ago a complex network of magma dikes and sills had formed in the crust under the volcano, and lava erupted since that time shows signs of extensive mixing between different magma chambers prior to eruptions. In modern times, volcanic activity has been centred on Crater Lake. There are two active vents under

2400-789: The Tongariro Volcanic Centre. Volcanism at Ruapehu is caused by the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Australian Plate at the Hikurangi Trough to the east of the North Island . Ruapehu has erupted from multiple craters over its lifetime, however, only one crater is presently active, a deep crater at the southern end of the summit plateau which is filled with hot, acidic water, dubbed Crater Lake (Te Wai ā-moe). The lake water currently covers separate north and central vents. Ruapehu sits on

2480-583: The aquatic life downstream. Additionally, the lahars damaged ski installations on the Whakapapa ski field, several bridges and hydroelectric tunnel intakes, but no loss of life occurred. Three days later, on the morning of 27 April, Ruapehu erupted again. A series of five eruptions occurred between 7:10 a.m. and 10:18 a.m., sending surges of mud, rocks, and ash northwards across the summit plateau and producing eruption columns up to 500 m high. The 1975 eruptions deepened Crater Lake from 55 to 60 m to more than 90 m. Earthquake swarms to

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2560-559: The base of the mountain, and from there an access road leads up the mountain to Iwikau Village at the base of the Whakapapa skifield on the northwestern bumpy hilly slopes. An access road from Ohakune leads to Turoa skifield on the southwestern slopes, and a four-wheel drive track leads from the Desert Road ( State Highway 1 ) to the Tukino skifield on the eastern slopes. Ruapehu's active crater, dubbed Crater Lake (Te Wai ā-moe),

2640-423: The crater, sent lahars down three valleys, and generated an eruption column 12 km high. Phreatomagmatic eruptions occurred through the rest of the month and throughout October, with some eruptions continuing for hours at a time. Ash fell up to 250 km downwind. Explosive eruptions on 11 October emptied Crater Lake of water. Following this, activity died off until 15 June 1996 when renewed seismic activity

2720-560: The deaths of livestock. Ash in the Tongariro River also damaged the intake turbines at the Rangipo power station, and ash clouds caused airport closures as far away as Auckland and Wellington . The eruptions also caused closures to the three ski fields on the mountain, costing the region an estimated $ 100 million in lost revenue. During the 1995–1996 summer period between the eruptions, Ruapehu Alpine Lifts ran its chairlifts up

2800-711: The early hours of 21 August was heard in Hawkes Bay and the Tararua District , loud enough to awaken people from sleep and cause alarm. Eruptions began declining in December and had ended by January. The eruptions dispersed ash across most of the North Island, and eruption columns could be seen from as far afield as Palmerston North , Whanganui , and Hawkes Bay . Ash caused disruption to several North Island communities, entering houses, causing eye and throat irritation, and damaging paintwork on cars. Crop damage

2880-447: The early hours of 22 June. It was a moderate phreatic eruption, which blasted rocks up to 1 km northwest of the crater and sent lahars down several valleys. The Whakapapa skifield was left covered in mud. This was the largest eruption since 1945. A larger phreatic eruption occurred at 3:59 a.m. on 24 April 1975, blasting rocks up to 1.6 km northwest of the crater, against the wind, and depositing ash more than 100 km to

2960-416: The eruption lasted for less than a minute and blasted ash, mud, and rocks northward, reaching to about 2 km from Crater Lake. Two climbers were caught in the eruption at Dome Shelter, an alpine hut approximately 600 m from the crater, when the hut was struck by the surge. The climbers nearly drowned before the hut floor gave way and the water drained into the basement seismometer vault. One of them,

3040-467: The glaciers undertaken since 1955 have found that the glaciers have all been thinning and retreating, with the exception of the northern crater glacier, which thickened and lengthened after the 1953 outburst of Crater Lake lowered the lake water level. Ruapehu has a polar tundra climate ( Köppen : ET ) on the upper slopes, with average temperatures ranging from −4–15 °C in summer and −7–7 °C in winter, depending on elevation and cloudiness. On

3120-483: The ice on Ruapehu is contained in only three of its glaciers: the Whangaehu, Summit Plateau, and Mangatoetoenui glaciers. The Summit Plateau glacier is not a glacier in the true sense, but rather an ice field that fills an extinct volcanic crater, and the ice there reaches more than 130 m thick. The Whangaehu glacier feeds the Whangaehu River, and the Mangatoetoenui glacier is one of the principal sources of

3200-553: The lahar there. Only one eruptive event has been recorded at Ruapehu since the 2007 eruption—a minor event on 13 July 2009 when a small volcanic earthquake beneath Crater Lake caused the lake water level to rise 15 cm and triggered a snow slurry lahar in the upper Whangaehu valley. Since then, Crater Lake has continued its regular cycle of heating and increased gas emissions, although with periods of sustained high temperatures that occurred in 2011, 2016 and 2019. Eruptions at Ruapehu are expected to continue much as they have for

3280-647: The lake, dubbed North Vent and Central Vent. Activity is characterized by cyclic heating and cooling of the lake over periods of 6–12 months. Each heating cycle is marked by increased seismic activity under the crater and is accompanied by increased emission of volcanic gases , indicating that the vents under Crater Lake are open to gas escape. Evidence suggests that an open-vent system such as this has been in place throughout Ruapehu's 250,000 year history. This prevents build-up of pressure and results in relatively small, frequent eruptions (every 20–30 years on average) at Ruapehu compared to other andesitic volcanoes around

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3360-677: The largest freshwater lake by area, lies in the ancient and dormant Midcontinent Rift . The largest subglacial lake, Lake Vostok , may also lie in an ancient rift valley. Lake Nipissing and Lake Timiskaming in Ontario and Quebec , Canada lie inside a rift valley called the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben . Þingvallavatn , Iceland's largest natural lake, is also an example of a rift lake. Rift valleys are also known to occur on other terrestrial planets and natural satellites. The 4,000 km long Valles Marineris on Mars

3440-399: The lava erupted during this period is known as the Wahianoa Formation. This formation has also been heavily eroded by glacial activity, and it now forms the southeastern flanks of modern Ruapehu. The formation consists of lava flows and tuff breccias . Beginning approximately 55,000 years ago, a third phase of cone-building eruptions began, creating the Mangawhero Formation. This formation

3520-508: The loss of 151 lives when the Tangiwai railway bridge across the Whangaehu River collapsed while the lahar was in full flood, just before an express train crossed it. Ruapehu saw a period of heightened activity between 1966 and 1982, with multiple small eruptions occurring in Crater Lake and two larger eruptions in 1969 and 1975, which ejected rocks across the summit region and produced significant lahars. The eruption in 1969 occurred in

3600-451: The lower slopes, Ruapehu has a subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfc ). The prevalent wind direction in the region is westerly or northwesterly, and gale force conditions (i.e. wind speeds higher than 33 kn (61 km/h)) are common on the mountain. Rainfall is higher on the western flanks of Ruapehu than the eastern flanks due to the rain shadow effect. Whakapapa Village receives an average of 2,200 mm of rain per year, whereas

3680-465: The mountain and organised guided tours to within 500 metres of the crater. Hundreds of tourists visited, even though the volcano was still emitting steam and toxic sulphur gas and the Department of Conservation was warning that further eruptions were possible. Both the 1995 and 1996 eruptions were filmed and streamed to the internet via a custom-built 'volcano-cam', possibly the first such camera in

3760-478: The mountain in 2002 to detect such a collapse and alert the relevant authorities. The ERLAWS system detected the 2007 lahar, and roads were closed and railway traffic stopped until the lahar had subsided. The earliest known volcanic activity in Tongariro National Park was approximately 933,000 ± 46,000 years ago at Hauhungatahi , northwest of Ruapehu. Subsequently, andesitic clasts found 100 km southwest of Ruapehu, near Whanganui , demonstrate that volcanism

3840-421: The mountain was sacred, and said: "as far as we are concerned if these things [lahars] do happen well we step aside. Let them go past". Other plans considered were building a stop bank on the Desert Road, or creating an early-warning system, which would be much more expensive than digging a trench. In 2001, the Eastern Ruapehu Lahar Alarm and Warning System (ERLAWS) system was installed on the mountain to detect

3920-461: The mountain's high peaks as well as the Turoa skifield . Medium size tephra eruptions of Ruapehu since the 232 CE Taupo eruption Lava flows that have been erupted from Ruapehu since the last glacial maximum are called the Whakapapa Formation. These flows all erupted between 15,000 and 2,000 years ago from a number of different craters on the summit of Ruapehu as well as from craters on

4000-436: The north but in the south increase to up to 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) separation. There are breaks in the intra-rift fault systems in the recently active central rhyolitic caldera segments at the Taupō Volcano and Ōkataina Caldera. In the later case, the strike of the basaltic dyke of the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera follows that of faults to the south and north, confirming other hints that orientation of volcanism

4080-476: The north east it is related tectonically to the Havre Trough off the continental shelf which is also an active rift structure. The spread of the rift is associated with the basement graywacke rocks subsiding between the rift walls, so creating grabens infilled with volcanic deposits, sometimes from much higher volcanic mountains than the rift walls. Between 2016 and 2020 there was low volcanic activity in

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4160-579: The northern and southern flanks of the mountain. Rangataua on the southern flanks had a large lava flow between 15,000 and 10,000 years ago. Approximately 10,000 years ago, a series of major eruptions occurred, not just on Ruapehu, but also at the Tama Lakes between Ruapehu and Tongariro volcanoes. This period of intense eruptions is called the Pahoka-Mangamate event and is thought to have lasted between 200 and 400 years. On Ruapehu, lava

4240-411: The northwestern ring plain that can still be seen today. Since then eruptions have been an order of magnitude lower in intensity and volume. Accordingly, most of the 150 km (36 cu mi) cone and 150 km (36 cu mi) ring-plain is older than 10,000 years. Eruptions between 10,000 and 2,500 years ago generated lava flows that all flowed into the Whakapapa amphitheatre and created

4320-528: The old Taupō Rift faults appear to be inactive, the active and very complex Taupō Fault Belt is orientated north-north-east. This is trending with the modern Taupō Rift alignment, which is not always quite parallel with the old rift alignment. Beyond Lake Taupō to the south, there is a relatively narrow rifting segment in the Tongariro graben which considerably widens at the Ruapehu graben. South of Ruapehu

4400-419: The ones in 1995–96 have only occurred within periods of enhanced activity. The main recent volcanic hazard at Ruapehu is from lahars. Two major lahar paths run through the Whakapapa skifield, and in recent times, lahars have travelled through the ski field in 1969, 1975, 1995, and 2007. An eruption warning system operates in the ski field to warn skiers in the event of another eruption. Lahars also represent

4480-488: The past 2,000 years, with frequent minor eruptions and more significant events every 20–30 years, although the possibility of larger events like the Pahoka-Mangamate event cannot be ruled out. The previous activity trend until 10,000 years ago was about 7.5 km (1.8 cu mi) erupted each 10,000 years. Minor eruptions, such as the one in 2007, especially if they are hydrothermal, can occur at any time without warning. However, in historic times, major eruptions such as

4560-560: The relative risk of earthquakes versus volcanoes depends upon time scale considered. Rift valley The most extensive rift valley is located along the crest of the mid-ocean ridge system and is the result of sea floor spreading . Examples of this type of rift include the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise . Many existing continental rift valleys are the result of a failed arm ( aulacogen ) of

4640-475: The result of bends or discontinuities in horizontally-moving (strike-slip) faults. When these bends or discontinuities are in the same direction as the relative motions along the fault, extension occurs. For example, for a right lateral-moving fault, a bend to the right will result in stretching and consequent subsidence in the area of the irregularity. In the view of many geologists today, the Dead Sea lies in

4720-567: The rift except at Whakaari / White Island , and the areas of maximal satellite measured subsidence were confined to a small areas of about 30 mm (1.2 in)/year near the 2012 Te Māri eruptions site, or the rift geothermal power stations, while from Lake Taupō to the coast subsidence more usually peaked at about 15 mm (0.59 in)/year. The majority of the fault activity is normal faulting . While continental intraarc rifts such as this, and those associated with Mount Aso in Japan, and

4800-538: The rift, and its normal faulting, terminates with east to west faulting in the Taupō Rift termination faults . At the scale of the tectonic plate boundary, the rift trends NE-SW (41 ± 2°) but within New Zealand this trend is presently at 30° south of Lake Taupō and is 55° at the Bay of Plenty coast. A significant change in the mean fault strike occurs just south of the Ōkataina Caldera . The normal fault trends range from N20°E in

4880-422: The river. The 1953 lahar was the cause of the Tangiwai disaster , in which 151 people died. Even larger lahars occurred in 1862 and 1895. A total of 18 glaciers have been recognised on Ruapehu, of which six are named. Two glaciers are found in the active crater: one on the north side of the crater under Paretetaitonga Peak and another one to the south, and these are New Zealand's only crater glaciers. Most of

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4960-412: The slopes of the modern skifield. For the past 2,000 years, activity at Ruapehu has been largely focused through a crater lake at the summit. Eruptive activity has typically consisted of relatively small but explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions occurring every few decades and lasting several months each. The eruptive record is only well understood from tephra deposits before 1950 for 1718 years from

5040-457: The south to N45°E in the central and northern sectors. There is good evidence that the orientation of intra-arc strike and extension processes has been maintained for 4 million years in this region of New Zealand. The modern active rift ranges in width from 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) in the northern Bay of Plenty sector, to 40 kilometres (25 mi) beyond Lake Taupō . Significant faults may be separated by as little as 100 metres (330 ft) in

5120-431: The southeast. Nine minutes of seismic activity preceded the eruption, but crater dilation had been measured two weeks earlier. Nearly half of the water in Crater Lake was erupted into the air, which subsequently rained down onto the summit, generating lahars down several river valleys. Lahars which travelled down the Whakapapa and Manganui o te Ao rivers entered the Whanganui River and poisoned it, which affected much of

5200-423: The top of mountain road) after a snow storm made the road too dangerous to descend. In 2008 extreme weather resulted in about 2000 visitors being evacuated from Whakapapa skifield, with cars being led down the mountain in groups of five. About 100 cars were left at the skifield overnight. Ruapehu is a composite andesitic stratovolcano located at the southern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone and forming part of

5280-492: The volcanoes having potential for worldwide impact. The recent volcanism of the Taupō Volcanic Zone has been divided into three segments, with a central rhyolitic segment, dominated by explosive caldera associated with more typical Island Arc type andesite - dacite stratovolcanoes in either surrounding segment. In the hundreds of faults and their segments, some have associations with volcanism, but most fault activity

5360-539: The wall of the crater. No ash was erupted into the atmosphere, and the eruption is presumed to have occurred entirely underwater. At 11:22 a.m. 18 March 2007, the tephra dam which had been holding back Crater Lake burst, sending a lahar down the mountain. An estimated 1.9–3.8 million cubic metres of mud, rock, and water travelled down the Whangaehu river. ERLAWS activated, sending an alarm to pagers at 11:25 a.m. and automatically activating warning lights and barrier arms to close roads and stop trains. There

5440-462: The walls of the crater and damaged some monitoring equipment there. A second eruption on 29 June destroyed the equipment and produced a lahar. Chemical analysis showed that magma was interacting with water under the lake. The first significant eruption took place at 8:05 a.m. on 18 September 1995, raining tephra onto the summit region and sending lahars down the mountain. On 23 September, an even larger eruption blasted rocks up to 1.5 km from

5520-467: The water in Crater Lake is regularly undertaken along with airborne gas measurements. Live data can be viewed on the GeoNet website . The mountain, as part of Tongariro National Park is host to a wide range of recreational activities. Since the first ski field developments in 1923, Ruapehu has had three ski areas developed, Whakapapa on the north-western side, Tūroa on the south western slopes, and

5600-528: The west of Ruapehu between November 1994 and September 1995 marked the beginning of renewed heightened activity at the volcano. Bursts of earthquake activity immediately preceded rapid rises in the temperature of Crater Lake, with the surface temperature reaching 51.4 °C in January 1995—one of the highest temperatures recorded in 30 years and about 10 °C higher than its usual peak temperature. A minor eruption occurred on 26 April, which sent waves against

5680-611: The world's largest lakes are located in rift valleys. Lake Baikal in Siberia , a World Heritage Site , lies in an active rift valley. Baikal is both the deepest lake in the world and, with 20% of all of the liquid freshwater on earth, has the greatest volume. Lake Tanganyika , second by both measures, is in the Albertine Rift , the westernmost arm of the active East African Rift . Lake Superior in North America ,

5760-477: The world. Crater Lake is emptied by major eruptions, such as the ones in 1945 and 1995–1996, but refills after eruptions subside, fed by melting snow and vented steam. In historic times, major eruptions have deposited a tephra dam across the lake's outlet, preventing lake overflow into the Whangaehu valley. The dam collapses after several years causing a large lahar down the valley. The tephra dam created by

5840-477: The world. The website hosting the feed during the 1996 eruption received up to 4000 hits an hour. After the 1996 eruption it was recognised that a catastrophic lahar could again occur when Crater Lake burst the volcanic ash dam blocking the lake outlet as it did in 1953. In 1997, the government proposed digging a trench through the blockage in the wall of Crater Lake, but this was plan was opposed by conservation groups and Māori. A Ngāti Rangi spokesman noted that

5920-437: Was erupted from Saddle Cone—a flank crater on the northern slopes—and from another crater on the southern slopes. This southern crater erupted three times, and lava flows from this crater travelled nearly 14 km to the south. There is evidence that a sector collapse on the northwestern slopes about 9,400 years ago formed the amphitheatre that now comprises the Whakapapa skifield and left an extensive avalanche deposit on

6000-492: Was erupted onto the eroded Wahianoa Formation in two phases: the first occurring 55,000–45,000 years ago and the second 30,000–15,000 years ago. Multiple summit craters were active during this period, all lying between Tahurangi and the northern summit plateau. Parasitic eruptions also occurred at Pukeonake, a scoria cone to the north-west of Ruapehu and at several isolated craters near Ohakune . The Mangawhero Formation can be found over most of modern Ruapehu, and it forms most of

6080-505: Was likely present in the Ruapehu area 340,000 years ago. However, the oldest rocks on Ruapehu itself are approximately 250,000 years old. Eruptions during this period are believed to have built a steep volcanic cone around a central crater, which would have been located somewhere near the present-day upper Pinnacle Ridge. Cone-building eruptions ceased about 180,000 years ago, and the cone began to be eroded away by glacial action. Rock formations that date to this period are collectively named

6160-460: Was no serious damage and no injuries. A toilet block at the Tangiwai memorial was destroyed, but the memorial had already been closed due to the lahar threat. One family was trapped for around 24 hours after the lahar swept away the access route to their home. At 8:16 p.m. on 25 September 2007, volcanic tremor was detected underneath Ruapehu, which was followed at 8:26 p.m. by an explosive surtseyan eruption. The explosive phase of

6240-437: Was recorded. This was followed by eruptions on 17 and 18 June which once again emptied the partially refilled Crater Lake of water. Strombolian eruptions occurred on 27 June and throughout July and August, producing eruption columns more than 10 km high and shooting rocks 1.4 km from the crater. These eruptions produced more than 7 million tonnes of ash, which contaminated water supplies, destroyed crops, and lead to

6320-482: Was reported in Ohakune, and the water supply at Taumarunui was disrupted. After eruptions subsided in late December, Crater Lake slowly began refilling, with a "boiling lake" already filling the bottom of the crater by mid-January. A tephra dam had formed at the lake's normal outlet during the eruptions, which eventually collapsed on 24 December 1953 causing a lahar that led to the Tangiwai disaster with

6400-481: Was reported on 8 March, with ashfall seen on the eastern slopes. A lava dome was observed in Crater Lake on 19 March but was destroyed in a series of explosive eruptions over the following week. A second, larger lava dome appeared in May, which continued to grow over the following months and had emptied Crater Lake of water by July. Eruptions increased from August through November. A particularly powerful eruption in

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