111-467: The Holmestrand–Hvittingfoss Line ( Norwegian : Holmestrand–Hvittingfossbanen ) or HVB is an abandoned railway between Holmestrand to Hvittingfoss in Norway . It consisted of two sections: a 13.4-kilometer (8.3 mi) line from Holmestrand to Hillestad and a 10.4-kilometer (6.5 mi) section from Hof to Hvittingfoss . The two parts were connected by a 6 kilometers (4 mi) section of
222-488: A break of gauge in Holmestrand, but the committee argued that nearly all traffic would be transferred to boats at Holmestrand, so this would not incur much costs. Hvittingfoss Brug supported the narrower gauge, and offered to purchase shares forth NOK 100,000 if this was chosen. The committee further proposed shortening the line by building part of it as a rack railway , allowing for steeper gradients. The railway
333-431: A railcar , and borrowed one from NSB, but found it was not powerful enough to get up the steep gradients. Instead the company bought a bus in 1925, which was to operate a single daily round service between Hvittingfoss and Holmestrand. By 1927 the company's deficit was increasing. The state guaranteed for NOK 18,000, but demanded that the remaining loss be covered by the municipalities. Costs were proposed cut by closing
444-559: A building permit was rejected he instead chose to burn them down. A representative traveled to Sweden, where he was able to purchase narrow-gauge rolling stock. Clearing of the line at Hillestad started in May 1968 and station building at Kleppen was attempted transported up to Hillestad. However, the truck carrying the building had an accident and the building was smashed. The heritage enthusiasm died out. Norwegian language Norwegian ( endonym : norsk [ˈnɔʂːk] )
555-508: A concurrency, HVB's gauge was therefore changed to 3 ft 6 in ( 1,067 mm ) gauge. The alternative was to build the section with dual gauge . The issue resulted in disagreements between the parties, but in the end the pulp mill agreed to maintain their financing despite the gauge change. A proposal to electrify the railway was proposed, but the NOK ;250,000 cost was not found to pay off and therefore scrapped. The line
666-435: A distinct dialect at the level of farm clusters. Dialects are in some cases so dissimilar as to be unintelligible to unfamiliar listeners. Many linguists note a trend toward regionalization of dialects that diminishes the differences at such local levels; there is, however, a renewed interest in preserving dialects. Norwegian nouns are inflected for number (singular/plural) and for definiteness (indefinite/definite). In
777-548: A few dialects, definite nouns are also inflected for the dative case . Norwegian nouns belong to three noun classes (genders): masculine, feminine and neuter. All feminine nouns can optionally be inflected using masculine noun class morphology in Bokmål due to its Danish heritage. In comparison, the use of all three genders (including the feminine) is mandatory in Nynorsk. All Norwegian dialects have traditionally retained all
888-399: A fire, and the wharfs in Holmestrand collapsed because it could not support the amount of pulp being stored there. Freight traffic continued to fall in the following years. Patronage until the late 1920s, when between 20,000 and 30,000 passengers per year were transported. A bus service through Lågendalen started in 1910, providing services from Vittingfoss to Kongsberg and Larvik . In 1923
999-432: A good location in relation to power and access to lumber, its interior location made transport of the pulp difficult. It bought a steam tractor in 1874, but the poor road quality made it difficult to use and it was soon abandoned. The company therefore started arguing that it needed a railway. Handeborg lost most of his fortune in the stock market crash of 1899 and the mill was taken over by the banks. In 1902 they sold it to
1110-403: A mechanical mill. The conditions of the chemical treatment are much less vigorous (lower temperature, shorter time, less extreme pH) than in a chemical pulping process, since the goal is to make the fibers easier to refine, not to remove lignin as in a fully chemical process. Pulps made using these hybrid processes are known as Chemi-thermomechanical pulps (CTMP). Sometimes a CTMP mill is located on
1221-479: A mechanical treatment to separate the fibers. These hybrid methods include thermomechanical pulping (TMP) and Chemi-thermomechanical pulping (CTMP). The chemical and thermal treatments reduce the amount of energy subsequently required by the mechanical treatment, and also reduce the amount of strength loss suffered by the fibers. The earliest known methods for preparing pulp for paper making were water-powered, in 8th-century Samarkand , Abbasid Caliphate . Much of
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#17328023635931332-441: A new Norwegian language at the age of 22. He traveled around the country collecting words and examples of grammar from the dialects and comparing the dialects among the different regions. He examined the development of Icelandic , which had largely escaped the influences under which Norwegian had come. He called his work, which was published in several books from 1848 to 1873, Landsmål , meaning 'national language'. The name Landsmål
1443-468: A new connection track being built. The new section also served Nordisk Aluminium . In 1907 HVB transshipped 114 tonnes of express cargo and 13,553 tonnes of regular cargo to NSB. HVB's cars drove a combined 8,042-kilometer (4,997 mi) on NSB lines. The annual amounts varied, with the express cargo following to 20 tonnes and regular cargo 878 tonnes by 1911. Then traffic rose, reaching 140 and 5,600 tonnes, respectively, in 1920. A peak cargo of 73,196 tonnes
1554-612: A new locomotive was built by Thune . Delivered in October 1904, it was also named Holmestrand , and was identical to a class being built for the Lier Line . Thune delivered the railway's fourth locomotive in 1909. By then the railway had 53 freight cars. The company had a profit of NOK 29,714 in 1910. Transshipment between HVB and NSB initially cost HVB NOK 38.25 per car. The track arrangement from Gausen to Holmestrand Station caused operational difficulties for NSB, resulting in
1665-501: A noun, unlike English which has a separate article, the , to indicate the same. In general, almost all nouns in Bokmål follow these patterns (like the words in the examples above): In contrast, almost all nouns in Nynorsk follow these patterns (the noun gender system is more pronounced than in Bokmål): There is in general no way to infer what grammatical gender a specific noun has, but there are some patterns of nouns where
1776-436: A raise of NOK 30,000 on 20 May 1902. These increased fundings were met with equal increased local funding. A fatal accident occurred on 1 October 1902, when the final inspection was being carried out. The inspector had not been informed of an extra maintenance of way train, and he was run down while on the tracks. The official opening took place the following day, on 2 October 1902. HVB and TEB signed an agreement concerning
1887-467: A single decisive vote the municipal council voted in favor of a NOK 150,000 grant of the total NOK 1.4 million in estimated construction costs. However, it met little support in other political bodies and was soon scrapped. Instead a shorter line from Holmestrand to Hvittingfoss was favored. The main incentive to build a railway was caused by Vittingfoss Brug. The pulp mill had been established by Andrers Olai Handeborg in 1872. Although located in
1998-432: A steep climb from Holmestrand to Hvittingfoss. It had a maximum gradient of 2.5 percent, a minimum curve radius of 100 metres (330 ft) and a track weight of 17.5 kilograms per metre (35 lb/yd). At Holmestrand, the line followed a zig-zag pattern up the hill, forcing the trains to back into Holmestand Station. Located up from Holmestrand is a 300 metres (980 ft)—the only on the line. From Holmestrand to Hillestad,
2109-512: A thick fiber board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical, or fully chemical methods ( kraft and sulfite processes). The finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water): cellulose fibres (desired for papermaking ), lignin (a three-dimensional polymer that binds
2220-470: A thick porridge-like consistency and is "blown" or squeezed from the outlet of the digester through an airlock. The sudden change in pressure results in a rapid expansion of the fibers, separating the fibers even more. The resulting fiber suspension in water solution is called "brown stock". Brown stock washers, using countercurrent flow, remove the spent cooking chemicals and degraded lignin and hemicellulose. The extracted liquid, known as black liquor in
2331-413: Is Bokmål will study Nynorsk as a mandatory subject throughout both elementary and high school. A 2005 poll indicates that 86.3% use primarily Bokmål as their daily written language, 5.5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7.5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing
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#17328023635932442-529: Is a North Germanic language from the Indo-European language family spoken mainly in Norway , where it is an official language. Along with Swedish and Danish , Norwegian forms a dialect continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional varieties; some Norwegian and Swedish dialects , in particular, are very close. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as some extinct languages , constitute
2553-440: Is a pitch-accent language with two distinct pitch patterns, like Swedish. They are used to differentiate two-syllable words with otherwise identical pronunciation. For example, in many East Norwegian dialects, the word bønder ('farmers') is pronounced using the simpler tone 1, while bønner ('beans' or 'prayers') uses the more complex tone 2. Though spelling differences occasionally differentiate written words, in most cases
2664-411: Is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The now-abandoned official policy to merge Bokmål and Nynorsk into one common language called Samnorsk through a series of spelling reforms has created a wide spectrum of varieties of both Bokmål and Nynorsk. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål and is far closer to Danish while
2775-736: Is comparable with that of French on English after the Norman conquest . In the late Middle Ages, dialects began to develop in Scandinavia because the population was rural and little travel occurred. When the Reformation came from Germany, Martin Luther 's High German translation of the Bible was quickly translated into Swedish, Danish, and Icelandic. Norway entered a union with Denmark in 1397 and Danish, over time, replaced Middle Norwegian as
2886-416: Is even more difficult to remove. In chemical pulp mills, the bark introduces unwanted contaminants such as calcium , silica , and aluminum that cause scaling and give an extra loading for the chemical recovery system. Birchbark contains betulin , a terpenoid that easily creates deposits in a pulp mill. The earliest mills used sandstone grinding rollers to break up small wood logs called "bolts", but
2997-445: Is mixed with an aqueous solution of the pulping chemicals, then heated with steam. In the kraft process the pulping chemicals are sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide and the solution is known as white liquor. In the sulfite process the pulping chemical is a mixture of metal (sodium, magnesium, potassium, or calcium) and ammonium sulfite or sulfite. After several hours in the digester, the chips or cut plant material breaks down into
3108-423: Is now considered their classic forms after a reform in 1917. Riksmål was, in 1929, officially renamed Bokmål (literally 'book language'), and Landsmål to Nynorsk (literally 'new Norwegian'). A proposition to substitute Danish-Norwegian ( dansk-norsk ) for Bokmål lost in parliament by a single vote. The name Nynorsk , the linguistic term for modern Norwegian , was chosen to contrast with Danish and emphasise
3219-609: Is regulated by the Norwegian Academy , which determines acceptable spelling, grammar, and vocabulary. There is also an unofficial form of Nynorsk, called Høgnorsk , discarding the post-1917 reforms, and thus close to Ivar Aasen's original Landsmål. It is supported by Ivar Aasen-sambandet , but has found no widespread use. In 2010, 86.5% of the pupils in the primary and lower secondary schools in Norway receive education in Bokmål, while 13.0% receive education in Nynorsk. From
3330-402: Is removed by pressing the sheet of fibers, and the sheet is then dried. At this point the sheets of pulp are several millimeters thick and have a coarse surface: it is not yet paper. The dried pulp is cut, stacked, bailed and shipped to another facility for whatever further process is needed. Bleached kraft pulp and bleached sulfite pulp are used to make high quality, white printing paper. One of
3441-754: Is rising in the first syllable and falling in the second syllable or somewhere around the syllable boundary. The pitch accents (as well as the peculiar phrase accent in the low-tone dialects) give the Norwegian language a "singing" quality that makes it easy to distinguish from other languages. Accent 1 generally occurs in words that were monosyllabic in Old Norse , and accent 2 in words that were polysyllabic. The Norwegian alphabet has 29 letters. The letters c , q , w , x and z are only used in loanwords . As loanwords are assimilated into Norwegian, their spelling might change to reflect Norwegian pronunciation and
Holmestrand–Vittingfoss Line - Misplaced Pages Continue
3552-526: Is sometimes interpreted as 'rural language' or 'country language', but this was clearly not Aasen's intended meaning. The name of the Danish language in Norway was a topic of hot dispute throughout the 19th century. Its proponents claimed that it was a language common to Norway and Denmark, and no more Danish than Norwegian. The proponents of Landsmål thought that the Danish character of the language should not be concealed. In 1899, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson proposed
3663-459: Is to write in dialect for informal use. When writing an SMS, Facebook update, or fridge note, many people, especially young ones, write approximations of the way they talk rather than using Bokmål or Nynorsk. There is general agreement that a wide range of differences makes it difficult to estimate the number of different Norwegian dialects. Variations in grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and pronunciation cut across geographical boundaries and can create
3774-534: Is today to a large extent the same language as Bokmål though somewhat closer to the Danish language. It is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy , which translates the name as 'Standard Norwegian'. The other is Høgnorsk ('High Norwegian'), a more purist form of Nynorsk, which maintains the language in an original form as given by Ivar Aasen and rejects most of the reforms from the 20th century; this form has limited use. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, but not for how to speak
3885-496: Is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, and also in the upper parts of mountain valleys in the southern and eastern parts of Norway. Examples are Setesdal , the western part of Telemark county ( fylke ) and several municipalities in Hallingdal , Valdres , and Gudbrandsdalen . It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in many rural parts of Trøndelag (mid-Norway) and
3996-634: The British Isles , France ( Normandy ), North America, and Kievan Rus . In all of these places except Iceland and the Faroes, Old Norse speakers went extinct or were absorbed into the local population. Around 1030, Christianity came to Scandinavia , bringing with it an influx of Latin borrowings and the Roman alphabet . These new words were related to church practices and ceremonies, although many other loanwords related to general culture also entered
4107-613: The Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Age . Today there are two official forms of written Norwegian, Bokmål (Riksmål) and Nynorsk (Landsmål), each with its own variants. Bokmål developed from the Dano-Norwegian language that replaced Middle Norwegian as the elite language after the union of Denmark–Norway in the 16th and 17th centuries and then evolved in Norway, while Nynorsk
4218-602: The Tønsberg–Eidsfoss Line . At Holmestrand Station , the line connected to the Vestfold Line of the Norwegian State Railways . HVB was opened on 30 September 1902 and closed on 1 June 1938. The main purpose of the line was the transport of wood pulp at Hvittingfoss, although it was also used for passenger transport until 1931. The 30-kilometre (19 mi) narrow gauge railway executed
4329-429: The cellulose fibres together) and hemicelluloses , (shorter branched carbohydrate polymers). The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fiber source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibers. Chemical pulping achieves this by degrading the lignin and hemicellulose into small, water-soluble molecules that can be washed away from the cellulose fibers without depolymerizing
4440-428: The pulp and paper industry for two primary reasons, to avoid iron contamination of the product and their corrosion resistance to the various chemicals used in the papermaking process. A wide range of stainless steels are used throughout the pulp making process. For example, duplex stainless steels are being used in digesters to convert wood chips into wood pulp and 6% Mo super austenitic stainless steels are used in
4551-574: The 1959 standard. Therefore, a small minority of Nynorsk enthusiasts use a more conservative standard called Høgnorsk . The Samnorsk policy had little influence after 1960, and was officially abandoned in 2002. While the sound systems of Norwegian and Swedish are similar, considerable variation exists among the dialects. The retroflex consonants only appear in East Norwegian dialects as a result of sandhi , combining / ɾ / with / d / , / l / , / n / , / s / , and / t / . The realization of
Holmestrand–Vittingfoss Line - Misplaced Pages Continue
4662-475: The 20th century, being used by large newspapers, encyclopedias, and a significant proportion of the population of the capital Oslo, surrounding areas, and other urban areas, as well as much of the literary tradition. Since the reforms of 1981 and 2003 (effective in 2005), the official Bokmål can be adapted to be almost identical with modern Riksmål. The differences between written Riksmål and Bokmål are comparable to American and British English differences . Riksmål
4773-731: The British publisher Edward Lloyd and the company took the name Vittingfoss Bruk. Demands for a railway to Hvittingfoss came as a response to the planning of the Tønsberg–Eidsfoss Line. From the point of view of interests from Holmestrand, they were worried that the town would lose its surrounding area to Tønsberg, and hence its basis for trade. A committee was created, consisting of Birch, N. G. Berg and Chr. Bettum. They concluded that they railway should be built as cheap as possible, and proposed that 750 mm ( 2 ft 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) gauge be used. This would cause
4884-501: The Dano-Norwegian koiné , known as "cultivated everyday speech." A small adjustment in this direction was implemented in the first official reform of the Danish language in Norway in 1862 and more extensively after his death in two official reforms in 1907 and 1917. Meanwhile, a nationalistic movement strove for the development of a new written Norwegian. Ivar Aasen , a botanist and self-taught linguist, began his work to create
4995-455: The Ministry of Culture, official spelling, grammar, and vocabulary for the Norwegian language. The board's work has been subject to considerable controversy throughout the years. Both Nynorsk and Bokmål have a great variety of optional forms. The Bokmål that uses the forms that are close to Riksmål is called moderate or conservative , depending on one's viewpoint, while the Bokmål that uses
5106-479: The North Germanic languages. Faroese and Icelandic are not mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them. While the two Germanic languages with the greatest numbers of speakers, English and German, have close similarities with Norwegian, neither is mutually intelligible with it. Norwegian is a descendant of Old Norse , the common language of
5217-487: The additional necessary funding. One of the major delays during construction was the Innlofjellet Tunnel, which suffered several landslides, one which partially flooded the town. Five alternatives were proposed in Holmestrand, which variously included sharing NSB's Holmestrand Station or building a separate station. The municipal council supported on 20 November 1900 an alternative with a separate station at
5328-501: The cellulose fibers (chemically depolymerizing the cellulose weakens the fibers). The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood (GW) and refiner mechanical (RMP) pulping, physically tear the cellulose fibers one from another. Much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibers. Strength is impaired because the fibers may be cut. Related hybrid pulping methods use a combination of chemical and thermal treatment to begin an abbreviated chemical pulping process, followed immediately by
5439-414: The chips are just ground up with the plates, the pulp is called "refiner mechanical" pulp (RMP), if the chips are steamed while being refined the pulp is called "thermomechanical" pulp (TMP). Steam treatment significantly reduces the total energy needed to make the pulp and decreases the damage (cutting) to fibers. Mechanical pulp mills use large amounts of energy, mostly electricity to power motors which turn
5550-487: The coastal towns, but many farmers lost and important supplementary income after they were no longer needed to perform transport services for Vittingfoss Bruk. The first full operation year, in 1903, resulted in 19,446 passengers and a profit of NOK 1,556.71. The following year ridership increased dramatically, to 45,418. Also freight increased, from 10,887 to 25,820 tonnes. This caused additional rolling stock to be procured. New freight cars were built at Eidsfoss Verk and
5661-644: The eighth grade onwards, pupils are required to learn both. Out of the 431 municipalities in Norway, 161 have declared that they wish to communicate with the central authorities in Bokmål, 116 (representing 12% of the population) in Nynorsk, while 156 are neutral. Of 4,549 state publications in 2000, 8% were in Nynorsk, and 92% in Bokmål. The large national newspapers ( Aftenposten , Dagbladet , and VG ) are published in Bokmål or Riksmål. Some major regional newspapers (including Bergens Tidende and Stavanger Aftenblad ), many political journals, and many local newspapers use both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A newer trend
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#17328023635935772-485: The first centuries AD in what is today Southern Sweden. It is the earliest stage of a characteristically North Germanic language, and the language attested in the Elder Futhark inscriptions, the oldest form of the runic alphabets . A number of inscriptions are memorials to the dead, while others are magical in content. The oldest are carved on loose objects, while later ones are chiseled in runestones . They are
5883-413: The following year and to 21,157 in 1930. HVB attempted to increase their traffic by reducing their fares, both for passengers and freight. The company also experienced that many shippers overloaded the cars. In addition to the loss of revenue, if the car was to continue with NSB, it was often required to be transshipped, at the cost of HVB. This was particularly a problem with lumber. An easy way to measure
5994-501: The forms that are close to Nynorsk is called radical . Nynorsk has forms that are close to the original Landsmål and forms that are close to Bokmål. Opponents of the spelling reforms aimed at bringing Bokmål closer to Nynorsk have retained the name Riksmål and employ spelling and grammar that predate the Samnorsk movement. Riksmål and conservative versions of Bokmål have been the de facto standard written language of Norway for most of
6105-403: The gender can be inferred. For instance, all nouns ending in - nad will be masculine in both Bokmål and Nynorsk (for instance the noun jobbsøknad , which means 'job application'). Most nouns ending in - ing will be feminine, like the noun forventning ('expectation'). Pulp mill A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fiber sources into
6216-549: The goal of cheap construction, resulting in it being designed with sharp curves and steep gradients. The basis at Skoppum allowed the shortest distance to a coastal station. The line was proposed run along Undrumsdal, Fosaas, through Fossan , Firing, Holt, Sjuve, Vivestad and Vassås before reaching Svarstad. IT would then have run north through Lågendalen to Hvittingfoss. This gave a not too complicated construction, allowing costs to be low. The line received support in Horten, and with
6327-411: The government decided to take over the route, in part as a compensation for the valley not receiving a railway. The responsibility was given to NSB, whose bus division started a route from Larvik via Svarstad to Kongsberg. The main challenge was finding a suitable vehicle to operate the service during winter. The service included one daily route to Vittingfoss, which corresponded with the train. The route
6438-411: The grinders. A rough estimate of the electrical energy needed is 10,000 mega joules (MJ) per tonne of pulp (2,750 kWh per tonne ) Chemical pulping processes such as the kraft (or sulfate) process and the sulfite process remove much of the hemicelluloses and lignin. The kraft process does less damage to the cellulose fibers than the sulfite process , thereby producing stronger fibers, but
6549-472: The head office being located in Tønsberg and decided to not buy shares in the company. This further relegated their influence over the line and operations. Vestfold Privatbaner had a troubled economy, as Hvittingfoss Bruk repeatedly shut down production. The railway company's director thus in 1936 started the process of closing the segment from Hillestad to Holmestrand, and from 1936 only irregular trains ran on
6660-417: The historical connection to Old Norwegian. Today, this meaning is often lost, and it is commonly mistaken as a "new" Norwegian in contrast to the "real" Norwegian Bokmål. Bokmål and Nynorsk were made closer by a reform in 1938. This was a result of a state policy to merge Nynorsk and Bokmål into a single language, to be called Samnorsk . A 1946 poll showed that this policy was supported by 79% of Norwegians at
6771-495: The information about the technology in following subsections is from the book by C.J. Biermann. The chemistry of the various pulping processes can be found in Sjöström's book. The most common fiber source for pulp mills is pulpwood . Other common sources are bagasse and fibre crops. The first step in all mills using wood (trees) as the fiber source is to remove the bark . Bark contains relatively few usable fibers and darkens
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#17328023635936882-432: The intention of establishing a heritage railway . It first attempted to establish itself at Kopstad Station, but instead settled for Kleppen Station. It was at the time intact with a full inventory, including such items as a complete storage of unused tickets. Several of the railway carriages were identified, most of them used as cabins. One person offered to donate two carriages, with original interior and coloring, but after
6993-445: The kraft process, and red or brown liquor in the sulfite processes, is concentrated, burned and the sodium and sulfur compounds recycled in the recovery process. Lignosulphonates is a useful byproduct recovered from the spent liquor in the sulfite process. The clean pulp (stock) can be bleached in the bleach plant or left unbleached, depending on the end-use. The stock is sprayed onto the pulp machine wire, water drains off, more water
7104-467: The language of the elite, the church, literature, and the law. When the union with Denmark ended in 1814, the Dano-Norwegian koiné had become the mother tongue of around 1% of the population. From the 1840s, some writers experimented with a Norwegianised Danish by incorporating words that were descriptive of Norwegian scenery and folk life, and adopting a more Norwegian syntax. Knud Knudsen proposed to change spelling and inflection in accordance with
7215-610: The language. The Scandinavian languages at this time are not considered to be separate languages, although there were minor differences among what are customarily called Old Icelandic, Old Norwegian , Old Gutnish , Old Danish, and Old Swedish . The economic and political dominance of the Hanseatic League between 1250 and 1450 in the main Scandinavian cities brought large Middle Low German –speaking populations to Norway. The influence of their language on Scandinavian
7326-555: The language. No standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in many other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect, whether it coincides with the written norms or not, is accepted as correct spoken Norwegian. However, in areas where East Norwegian dialects are used, a tendency exists to accept a de facto spoken standard for this particular regional dialect, Urban East Norwegian or Standard East Norwegian (Norwegian: Standard østnorsk ), in which
7437-531: The languages in Europe, Norwegian derives from Proto-Indo-European . As early Indo-Europeans spread across Europe, they became isolated from each other and new languages developed. In northwest Europe, the Germanic languages evolved, further branching off into the North Germanic languages , of which Norwegian is one. Proto-Norse is thought to have evolved as a northern dialect of Proto-Germanic during
7548-405: The line and a merger with TEB. NSB carried out a survey to look into the future of HVB and TEB. The report recommended that both the branch from Eidsfoss and Hvittingfoss run to Holmestrand and that the section from Hillestad to Tønsberg. By then Hvittingfoss Bruk had been bought by Tønsberg Municipality, and to retain the transshipment jobs at the town's port, the municipal council insisted on that
7659-518: The line is 13.4 kilometers (8.3 mi). There, it runs concurrently with the Tønsberg–Eidsfoss Line for 6 kilometers (4 mi), before splitting again at Hof and running 10.4 kilometers (6.5 mi) to Hvittingfoss. In Holmestrand there was a spur to Nordisk Aluminium, which remained in use as a branch of the Vestfold Line until 1984. In Holmestrand, the locomotive shed is still in use, although urban growth has removed all other remnants of
7770-475: The line to run through an area with good access to lumber, which the railway would aid export. The main disadvantage was that the route was 20 kilometers (12 mi) longer than via the coast. Other minor plans included a Svarstad Line which would have run from Horten via Skoppum and Svarstad to Hvittingfoss. It was mostly seen as a supplement to the Lågendal Line, should it have been built. The issue
7881-403: The line. The right-of-way out of town is used as a suburban street. The tunnel has fallen into disuse, but from there the right-of-way is used as a trail. Towards Hillestad the railway ran in agricultural land, which has been reclaimed. The last few kilometers towards Hillestad, the route is used as a forestry road. From Hof, the right-of-way is gone, but along the last section down to Hvittingfoss,
7992-502: The minimal pairs are written alike, since written Norwegian has no explicit accent marks. In most eastern low-tone dialects, accent 1 uses a low flat pitch in the first syllable, while accent 2 uses a high, sharply falling pitch in the first syllable and a low pitch in the beginning of the second syllable. In both accents, these pitch movements are followed by a rise of intonational nature (phrase accent)—the size (and presence) of which signals emphasis or focus, and corresponds in function to
8103-579: The most visible uses for unbleached kraft pulp is to make brown paper shopping bags and wrapping paper where strength is particularly important. A special grade of bleached sulfite pulp, known as dissolving pulp, is used to make cellulose derivatives such as methylcellulose which are used in a wide range of everyday products from laxatives to baked goods to wallpaper paste . Some mills pretreat wood chips or other plant material like straw with sodium carbonate , sodium hydroxide , sodium sulfite , and other chemical prior to refining with equipment similar to
8214-430: The neutral name Riksmål , meaning 'national language' like Landsmål , and this was officially adopted along with the 1907 spelling reform. The name Riksmål is sometimes interpreted as 'state language', but this meaning is secondary at best. (Compare to Danish rigsmål from where the name was borrowed.) After the personal union with Sweden was dissolved in 1905, both languages were developed further and reached what
8325-414: The normal accent in languages that lack lexical tone , such as English. That rise culminates in the final syllable of an accentual phrase, while the utterance-final fall common in most languages is either very small or absent. There are significant variations in pitch accent between dialects. Thus, in most of western and northern Norway (the so-called high-pitch dialects) accent 1 is falling, while accent 2
8436-591: The number of daily services from Hillestad to Holmestrand from two to four. The proposals was rejected by the municipal councils in Tønsberg Municipality , Våle Municipality , and Ramnes Municipality , which had major ownership stakes in TEB. The passenger transport from Hvittingfoss increased until the 1910s, when it stabilized at about 50,000 passengers per year, before peaking at 90,910 in 1918. However, high coal prices drew up operating costs, even though
8547-430: The number of employees at intermediate stations from thirty to seven. The company would expand its bus service, which it expected to make a profit from. The trains could be optimized for freight timetables, giving additional cost savings. The bus was not delivered until September, postponing the termination of passenger operations to 27 September. The company was able to make a profit of NOK 157 in 1932. The closing of
8658-654: The number of trains and the revenue from the concurrent section. Any upgrades to the section would be split between the two companies. Operational costs were split based on the ratios of the number of trains and the number of axles. If the two companies could not agree on the calculation, NSB's district chief in Drammen would arbitrate. HVB bought tis first two steam locomotives from Krauss & Co. of Germany. They were numbered 1 and 2, and named Holmestrand and Vittingfoss . The company also bought three two-axle passenger cars and twenty-four freight cars. In 1902, Holmestrand
8769-584: The oldest written record of any Germanic language. East Germanic languages West Germanic languages Icelandic Faroese Norwegian Danish Swedish Around 800 AD, the script was simplified to the Younger Futhark , and inscriptions became more abundant. At the same time, the beginning of the Viking Age led to the spread of Old Norse to Iceland , Greenland , and the Faroe Islands . Viking colonies also existed in parts of
8880-405: The operation of the concurrent section. TEB was given the operational responsibility, although both railways were free to use it. All transshipment was to take place at Hillestad Station . Both companies retained their revenue, while HVB compensated TEB for part of the operating and maintenance costs. This included that the two lines would share a sixth of TEB's administration costs, based jointly on
8991-418: The passenger train service received mixed reactions. On the one hand it was possible to reach Holmestrand up to an hour earlier, but on the other hand the ride was much less comfortable. This was in part caused by the road which had been built being 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) shorter than the railway, as it could allow for steeper climbs. From 1932 Hvittingfoss Bruk started a harder line in their negotiations with
9102-442: The principles of Norwegian orthography, e.g. zebra in Norwegian is written sebra . Due to historical reasons, some otherwise Norwegian family names are also written using these letters. Some letters may be modified by diacritics : é , è , ê , ó , ò , and ô . In Nynorsk, ì and ù and ỳ are occasionally seen as well. The diacritics are not compulsory, but may in a few cases distinguish between different meanings of
9213-407: The probability of a disturbance or breakdown. Each stage also may have different decision variables, such as steam / water / chemical input, etc. Finally, scheduling needs to consider fuel optimization and CO 2 emissions, because part of the energy requirements may be met from fossil-fuel boilers. The overall aim is to maximize production at minimum cost. Stainless steels is used extensively in
9324-421: The pulp mill send its pulp to Tønsberg, rather than the shorter and more economical haul to Holmestrand. This was met with resistance in Holmestrand, as an estimated 44 people would lose their jobs and Viking Melk would possibly have to close down. To rationalize operations, HVB and TEB were merged on 23 August 1934 through the creation of a new railway company, Vestfold Privatbaner. Holmestrand protested against
9435-422: The pulp. The removed bark is burned, along with other unusable plant material, to generate steam to run the mill. Almost all wood is then chipped before being processed further in order to free the fibers. Removal of the bark is done in a barker (or debarker ). The bark adhesion is about 3–5 kg/cm in the growing season (summer) and 2-3 times higher in the dormant season (winter). The bark of frozen logs
9546-405: The pulping liquor to penetrate the pieces completely. In the case of wood, the logs are chipped and the chips screened to ensure that the feed to the digester is of a uniform size. Oversized chips are either used as fuel or run through the chipper again, while sawdust may be burned or collected for sale. The screened chips or cut plant material ( bamboo , kenaf , etc.) goes to the digester where it
9657-429: The railway in part started using wood as fuel. The company had a deficit of NOK 30,293 in 1918. The next two years the ridership fell by a third, while the company's costs for fuel increased to NOK 80,424 to NOK 156,540. The company went with a loss until 1923, when traffic started increasing again. The highest profit, of NOK 61,602, was recorded in 1925. The following year Hasestad Station burned down in
9768-423: The railway. They contracted part of the pulp freighting to truck drivers, and demanded discounts from the railway company. This caused HVB to make a NOK 5,000 loss that year. The following year Hvittingfoss Bruk stopped sending any cargo with HVB, which had a dramatic effect on HVB. The company's board started intense negotiations to find new sources of revenue or areas to cut costs, and proposed both closing down
9879-527: The rhotic / ɾ / depends on the dialect. In Eastern, Central, and Northern Norwegian dialects, it is a flap [ ɾ ] , whereas in Western and Southern Norway, and for some speakers also in Eastern Norway, it is uvular [ ʁ ] or [ χ ] . And in the dialects of North-Western Norway, it is realized as [ r ] , much like the trilled ⟨rr⟩ of Spanish. Norwegian
9990-493: The right-of-way remains as a forestry road. The station and freight house have been preserved. Proposals for a Vestfold Line arose in the late 1860s and accelerated through the 1870s. The county was split in where the line should run, with three major proposals: along the shore of the Oslofjord , along Eikeren to Eidsfoss and through an inland route to Tønsberg, and via Lågendalen to Larvik . The Eidsfoss alternative allowed
10101-472: The same site as a kraft mill so that the effluent from the CTMP mill can be treated in the kraft recovery process to regenerate the inorganic pulping chemicals. The pulping process involves many production stages, usually coupled with intermediate storage tanks. As each stage has a different reliability and bottlenecks may vary from day to day, scheduling a pulp mill needs to take into account these bottlenecks and
10212-412: The segment. A youth fair resulted in several charter trains being run on 13 June 1937. The final revenue train was a series of half-completed freight trains which were being built by Eidsfoss Verk. Because of the uncertain future of the line, they decided to transfer production to Sundland in Drammen and the unfinished cars were sent via HVB. Norsk Privatebane Historisk Selskap was established in 1967 with
10323-606: The southern part of northern Norway ( Nordland county). Today, Nynorsk is the official language of not only four of the nineteen Norwegian counties but also various municipalities in five other counties. NRK , the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all written publications, and Nynorsk in 8% (2000). Like some other European countries, Norway has an official "advisory board"— Språkrådet (Norwegian Language Council)— that determines, after approval from
10434-462: The state paid NOK 364,000. The rest was paid for by municipalities and private individuals and companies. With the increase to 3 ft 6 in ( 1,067 mm ) gauge, a further NOK 100,000 was granted on 28 March 1896. The state increased its investments twice more as costs continued to increase, based on decisions in Parliament for a raise of NOK 74,000 on 29 May 1900 and
10545-417: The sulfite process makes pulp that is easier to bleach. The chemical pulping processes use a combination of high temperature and alkaline (kraft) or acidic (sulfite) chemicals to break the chemical bonds of the lignin. However, atmospheric pollution and contaminants in wastewater effluent in the kraft pulping process has been widely documented The material fed into the digester must be small enough to allow
10656-401: The three grammatical genders from Old Norse to some extent. The only exceptions are the dialect of Bergen and a few upper class sociolects at the west end of Oslo that have completely lost the feminine gender. According to Marit Westergaard , approximately 80% of nouns in Norwegian are masculine. Norwegian and other Scandinavian languages use a suffix to indicate definiteness of
10767-442: The time. However, opponents of the official policy still managed to create a massive protest movement against Samnorsk in the 1950s, fighting in particular the use of "radical" forms in Bokmål text books in schools. In the reform in 1959, the 1938 reform was partially reversed in Bokmål, but Nynorsk was changed further towards Bokmål. Since then Bokmål has reverted even further toward traditional Riksmål, while Nynorsk still adheres to
10878-413: The towns square, with a branch via Gausen to NSB's station. Estimated to cost NOK 43,000, this was the cheapest alternative. NSB opposed this, stating that it could cause operational problems for them at Holmestrand Station, but gave permission for the connection line on 26 August 1902. Laying of the permanent way started on 28 September 1901. The construction cost ended at NOK 881,000, of which
10989-426: The unofficial Høgnorsk is more conservative than Nynorsk and is far closer to Faroese , Icelandic and Old Norse . Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. Each student gets assigned a native form based on which school they go to, whence the other form (known as Sidemål ) will be a mandatory school subject from elementary school through high school. For instance, a Norwegian whose main language form
11100-446: The use of natural stone ended in the 1940s with the introduction of manufactured stones with embedded silicon carbide or aluminum oxide . The pulp made by this process is known as "stone groundwood" pulp (SGW). If the wood is ground in a pressurized, sealed grinder the pulp is classified as "pressure groundwood" (PGW) pulp. Most modern mills use chips rather than logs and ridged metal discs called refiner plates instead of grindstones. If
11211-447: The vocabulary coincides with Bokmål. Outside Eastern Norway , this spoken variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the standard written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism , rural versus urban discourse, and Norway's literary history. Historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk
11322-430: The weight at the small stations was not resolved until it was discovered that a correctly loaded car would just allow a match box to fit between the car's frame and bogie spring. The company therefore announced on 27 January 1931 that it intended to terminate all passenger trains from 1 March. This would give cost savings of NOK 30,000, as all employees who worked with expedition of passengers could be laid off, reducing
11433-568: The word, e.g.: for ('for/to'), fór ('went'), fòr ('furrow') and fôr ('fodder'). Loanwords may be spelled with other diacritics, most notably ï, ü , á and à . The two legally recognized forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål (literally 'book tongue') and Nynorsk ('new Norwegian'), which are regulated by the Language Council of Norway ( Språkrådet ). Two other written forms without official status also exist. One, called Riksmål ('national language'),
11544-452: The workshop in Holmestrand. HVB attempted to secure a deal with NSB in which the latter would effectively subsidize the maintenance, but this was rejected by NSB. The result was that a few jobs were cut in Holmestrand and maintenance continued as before. Additional cost savings were carried out by reducing maintenance of the track to a bare minimum. HVB experienced a sharp increase of ridership to 51,442 in 1928, just to see it fall down to 25,000
11655-428: Was approved by Parliament on 24 July 1896, at the same time as the Tønsberg–Eidsfoss Line. The original budget was NOK 728,000. The line was to be built and operated as a private railway. Construction of the Tønsberg–Eidsfoss Line commenced in 1898, and this line was built with 3 ft 6 in ( 1,067 mm ), the same as the Vestfold Line. Because HVB desired to have the same gauge as TEB to allow for
11766-758: Was developed based upon a collective of spoken Norwegian dialects. Norwegian is one of the two official languages in Norway, along with Sámi , a Finno-Ugric language spoken by less than one percent of the population. Norwegian is one of the working languages of the Nordic Council . Under the Nordic Language Convention , citizens of the Nordic countries who speak Norwegian have the opportunity to use it when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for any interpretation or translation costs. Like most of
11877-430: Was not favorable for the railway company. The bus service gave little new traffic to the railway, while the railway fed considerable traffic to the bus service, although few passengers transferred between the two. All services on the line were mix trains, which resulted in long stops at station to load and unload cargo. Trains would be delayed, causing passengers to instead ride with unscheduled buses. HVB considered buying
11988-600: Was not resolved until Parliament on 8 June 1875 voted in favor of a coastal route. The narrow gauge Vestfold Line, at the time named the Jarlsberg Line, opened in 1881. Engineer C. F. Melby proposed during the 1890s that the Svarstad Line be built. It was proposed to branch from the Vestfold Line at Skoppum Station , the same station the Horten Line branches from. It was proposed as a minor railway with
12099-410: Was sold to TEB, because they had problems with their locomotives. The railway bought three passenger carriages, one which also had a second class compartment. Although it had a standard almost comparable to NSB's first class, it saw little use and nearly all passengers traveled in third class. The railway had a mixed reception in the interior. On the one hand it provided a fast and efficient way to reach
12210-432: Was surveyed twice, with the latter being used for most of the construction. Two major alternatives could be chosen along the common section with TEB, with a line via Østbygden being discarded in favor of one north of Hillestadvannet. There was during the late planning stages a proposal to increase the minimum curve radius from 100 to 150 meters (330 to 490 ft), but this was discarded after the government would not allocate
12321-512: Was transported in 1915. Although HVB was profitable, TEB failed after the initial years to make money on its operation. There therefore arose a proposal for HVB to take over all operations north of Hillestad, and relegate the southern part of TEB to a suburban line for Tønsberg . The proposal came from the HVB's board, who saw the possibility of using existing crew and rolling stock to operate trains from Eidsfoss to Holmestrand. It would have increased
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