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107-598: At the time of its best-known operation, the attack on Pearl Harbor , in December 1941, the 1st Air Fleet was the world's largest fleet of aircraft carriers. In its second generation, 1st Air Fleet was a land-based fleet of "kichi kōkūtai" (base air unit(s)). In 1912, the British Royal Navy had established its own flying branch, the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS). The IJN was modeled on

214-413: A Type A midget submarine for transport to the waters off Oahu. The five I-boats left Kure Naval District on November 25, 1941. On December 6, they came to within 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) of the mouth of Pearl Harbor and launched their midget subs at about 01:00 local time on December 7. At 03:42 Hawaiian time, the minesweeper Condor spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of

321-594: A Japanese task force (the Striking Force ) of six aircraft carriers – Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū , Hiryū , Shōkaku , and Zuikaku  – departed Hittokapu Bay on Etorofu (now Iterup) Island in the Kuril Islands , en route to a position northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its 408 aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor: 360 for the two attack waves and 48 on defensive combat air patrol (CAP), including nine fighters from

428-407: A compromise solution in which the fleet carriers would operate closely together within their carrier divisions but the divisions themselves would operate in loose rectangular formations, with approximately 7,000 metres (7,700 yd) separating the carriers from each other. Although the concentration of so many fleet carriers into a single unit was a new and revolutionary offensive strategic concept,

535-618: A consequence, Japan needed access to strategically important resources (e.g. iron, oil) that could not be extracted at sufficient levels in the home islands. Although Japan had begun to take a hostile stance against the United States after the rejection of the Racial Equality Proposal , the relationship between the two countries was cordial enough that they remained trading partners. Tensions did not seriously grow until Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931 . Over

642-411: A newly assigned officer at the thinly manned Intercept Center, presumed it was the scheduled arrival of six B-17 bombers from California. The Japanese planes were approaching from a direction very close (only a few degrees difference) to the bombers, and while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar, they neglected to tell Tyler of its size. Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell

749-539: A peace compromise. Striking the Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor had two distinct disadvantages: the targeted ships would be in very shallow water, so it would be relatively easy to salvage and possibly repair them, and most of the crews would survive the attack since many would be on shore leave or would be rescued from the harbor. A further important disadvantage was the absence of all three of

856-536: A radio message from a midget submarine at 00:41 on December 8 claiming to have damaged one or more large warships inside Pearl Harbor. In 1992, 2000, and 2001 Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory 's submersibles found the wreck of the fifth midget submarine lying in three parts outside Pearl Harbor. The wreck was in the debris field where much surplus American equipment had been dumped after the war, including vehicles and landing craft. Both of its torpedoes were missing. This correlates with reports of two torpedoes fired at

963-505: A total of 441 planes. The Bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 was the largest single attack ever mounted by a foreign power on Australia. On that day, 242 Japanese aircraft, in two separate raids, attacked the town, ships in Darwin's harbour and the town's two airfields in an attempt to prevent the Allies from using them as bases to contest the invasion of Timor and Java . The town

1070-420: A vigorous debate inside the government over how, and indeed whether, to notify Washington of Japan's intention to break off negotiations and start a war, including a December 7 entry in the war diary saying, "[O]ur deceptive diplomacy is steadily proceeding toward success." Of this, Iguchi said, "The diary shows that the army and navy did not want to give any proper declaration of war, or indeed prior notice even of

1177-437: Is sometimes described as a declaration of war. While it was viewed by a number of senior American government and military officials as a very strong indicator negotiations were likely to be terminated and that war might break out at any moment, it neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations. A declaration of war was printed on the front page of Japan's newspapers in the evening edition of December 8 (late December 7 in

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1284-483: The 1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto intensively. Over the next several months, pilots were trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence was collected. Despite these preparations, Emperor Hirohito did not approve the attack plan until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences called to consider the matter. At first, he hesitated to engage in war but eventually authorized

1391-580: The Battle of the Coral Sea . Imperial lattops Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū , and Hiryū were lost in the Battle of Midway . Each Kōkū Sentai of First Air Fleet tended to include a pair of aircraft carriers, and each included the respective hikōkitai/hikōtai (aircraft/aviation unit(s)) of each aircraft carrier. Each Kōkū Sentai of First Air Fleet was a tactical unit that could be deployed separately or combined with other Kōkū Sentai of First Air Fleet, depending on

1498-601: The Kido Butai ), with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353 Japanese planes reached Oahu in two waves. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked American air bases across Oahu, starting with Hickam Field , the largest, and Wheeler Field , the main United States Army Air Forces fighter base. The 171 planes in

1605-642: The Nanking Massacre swung Western public opinion sharply against Japan. The United States unsuccessfully proposed a joint action with the United Kingdom to blockade Japan. In 1938, following an appeal by President Roosevelt, American companies stopped providing Japan with implements of war. In 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina , attempting to stymie the flow of supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools , and aviation gasoline to Japan, which

1712-641: The Philippines , taking both actions in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. Because the Japanese high command was mistakenly certain any attack on the United Kingdom's Southeast Asian colonies , including Singapore, would bring the United States into the war, a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way to prevent American naval interference. An invasion of

1819-413: The Philippines , which they felt were close to or within their sphere of influence . At the same time, Japanese strategic thinkers believed that Japan needed economic self-sufficiency in order to wage modern war. The experiences of World War I had taught the Japanese that modern wars would be protracted, require total mobilization and create vulnerabilities for trade embargoes and encirclement. As

1926-569: The Tripartite Pact with Japan, Germany and Italy each declared war on the United States, which responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy . While there were historical precedents for the unannounced military action by Japan, the lack of any formal warning, as required by the Hague Convention of 1907 , and the perception that the attack had been unprovoked, led then- President Franklin D. Roosevelt , in

2033-611: The United States Asiatic Fleet , was given orders to that effect. The United States finally ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following the seizure of French Indochina after the Fall of France , in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption. Because of this decision, Japan proceeded with plans to take the oil-rich Dutch East Indies . On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that America

2140-686: The University of Berlin in 1935 to 1936, during which he said: "I saw Hitler operate firsthand and heard him speak a number of times." In 1937 he married Anne Root, a professor's daughter from Iowa City . They had two daughters and a son. They moved to Maryland, where Prange took employment as a history instructor at the University of Maryland. Prange died on May 15, 1980, in Baltimore, Maryland , from cancer, aged 69. 'Prange Park' in Pomeroy

2247-443: The light cruiser St. Louis at 10:04 at the entrance of Pearl Harbor, and a possible torpedo fired at destroyer Helm at 08:21. There is dispute over this official chain of events though. The "torpedo" that St. Louis saw was also reportedly a porpoising minesweeping float being towed by the destroyer Boggs . Some historians and naval architects theorise that a photo taken by a Japanese naval aviator of Battleship Row during

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2354-518: The message —  1:00   p.m. on a Sunday, which was 7:30   a.m. in Hawaii ;—  and attempted to alert Pearl Harbor. But due to communication problems the warning was not delivered before the attack. The first attack wave of 183 airplanes, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida , was launched north of Oahu. Six airplanes failed to launch due to technical difficulties. The first wave included three groups of airplanes: As

2461-539: The 1940 Vinson-Walsh Act erased any chance of victory. Third, to deliver a blow to America's ability to mobilize its forces in the Pacific, battleships were chosen as the main targets, since they were the prestige ships of navies at the time. Finally, it was hoped that the attack would undermine American morale to such an extent that the American government would drop its demands contrary to Japanese interests and seek

2568-492: The 23rd Kuchikutai (Destroyer Unit). Fourth Kōkū Sentai consisted solely of light carrier Ryūjō and her aircraft unit, until two destroyers were added in August. (At its inception, First Air Fleet did not include Third Kōkū Sentai and it did not include it on 7 December 1941. Third Kōkū Sentai (3rd Carrier Division, see table below) was attached to First Fleet, as distinct from First Air Fleet. On 1 April 1942, Third Kōkū Sentai

2675-704: The American-held Philippines , Guam , and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya , Singapore , and Hong Kong . From the Japanese point of view, it was seen as a preemptive strike "before the oil gauge ran empty." Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area", the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally, began early in 1941 under

2782-507: The Americans killed or wounded during the attack were legally non-combatants, given that there was no state of war when the attack occurred. Of the American fatalities, nearly half were due to the explosion of Arizona 's forward magazine after she was hit by a modified 16-inch (410 mm) shell. Author Craig Nelson wrote that the vast majority of the U.S. sailors killed at Pearl Harbor were junior enlisted personnel. "The officers of

2889-669: The Americans, and were not necessary. Fleet composition and preparedness information in Pearl Harbor were already known from the reports of the Japanese spy Takeo Yoshikawa . A report of the absence of the American fleet at Lahaina anchorage off Maui was received from the Tone ' s floatplane and the fleet submarine I-72 . Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Japanese carrier force (the Kidō Butai ) and Niihau , to detect any counterattack. Fleet submarines I-16 , I-18 , I-20 , I-22 , and I-24 each embarked

2996-815: The British fleet, with the sinking of 1 carrier, 2 cruisers, 2 destroyers, and 23 merchant ships for the loss of 20 aircraft. Attacks on the island of Ceylon were also carried out. The 1st Air Fleet dispatched the Fifth Carrier Division in the Coral Sea during the return from the Indian Ocean. On May 7 the USN sighted the Port Moresby invasion force and mistook it for the main carrier force. Admiral Fletcher sent an aircraft strike which sank

3103-542: The First Air Fleet suffered from several defensive deficiencies which gave it, in Mark Peattie 's words, a " ' glass jaw ': it could throw a punch but couldn't take one." Japanese carrier anti-aircraft guns and associated fire control systems had several design and configuration deficiencies which limited their effectiveness. The IJN's fleet combat air patrol (CAP) consisted of too few fighter aircraft and

3210-565: The IJN light carrier Shōhō . After this loss of air cover, the Port Moresby invasion force abandoned its mission and retreated north. On the same day the IJN sighted and sank USN destroyer Sims and oiler Neosho . The primary action took place on 8 May. Both carrier forces sighted and attacked each other. As a result, Lexington was sunk and Yorktown was damaged by a Japanese air strike. USN aircraft managed to damage Shōkaku , meaning that she and her sister ship were unable to participate in

3317-534: The IJN's carrier doctrine. One lesson learned in China was the importance of concentration and mass in projecting naval air power ashore. Therefore, in April 1941 the IJN formed the 1st Air Fleet to combine all of its fleet carriers under a single command. The IJN centered its doctrine on air strikes that combined the air groups within carrier divisions, rather than each individual carrier. When more than one carrier division

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3424-605: The Japanese fleet but scored no hits. On 4 June, due to the poor reconnaissance efforts and tactical mistakes of Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo , USN dive bombers were able to surprise the Japanese carrier force and destroyed three carriers ( Akagi , Kaga and Sōryū ). At the time of the attack the Japanese carriers were in the process of preparing to launch an air strike against the US carriers and their hangars were full of loaded aircraft, bombs and aviation fuel which decisively contributed to their destruction. Carrier Hiryū managed to survive

3531-713: The Japanese military. In response, the Japanese Navy ordered all of the 61st Air Flotilla to the Mariana Islands . Its Number 261 Kaigun Kōkūtai (fighter) advanced to Saipan circa 19–24 February 1944, but attrition in air combats and illness weakened the unit greatly and it played only a minor role in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Elements of No. 263 Kaigun Kōkūtai (fighter) of the 61st Air Flotilla were stationed on Guam from 15 June 1944 and participated in

3638-522: The Navy all lived in houses and the junior people were the ones on the boats, so pretty much all of the people who died in the direct line of the attack were very junior people", Nelson said. "So everyone is about 17 or 18 whose story is told there." Among the notable civilian casualties were nine Honolulu Fire Department firefighters who responded to Hickam Field during the bombing in Honolulu, becoming

3745-556: The Pacific Fleet from interfering with the Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya and enabling Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. The leaders of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) ascribed to Alfred Thayer Mahan 's " decisive battle " doctrine, especially that of destroying the maximum number of battleships. Second, it was hoped to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding authorized by

3852-459: The Pacific Fleet's aircraft carriers ( Enterprise , Lexington , and Saratoga ). Despite these concerns, Yamamoto decided to press ahead. Japanese confidence in their ability to win a short war meant that other targets in the harbor, especially the navy yard, oil tank farms and submarine base, were left unscathed, since by their thinking the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt. On November 26, 1941,

3959-580: The Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted the destroyer Ward . The midget may have entered Pearl Harbor. However, Ward sank another midget submarine at 06:37 in the first American shots in the Pacific Theater. A midget submarine on the north side of Ford Island missed the seaplane tender Curtiss with her first torpedo and missed the attacking destroyer Monaghan with her other one before being sunk by Monaghan at 08:43. A third midget submarine, Ha-19 , grounded twice, once outside

4066-537: The Pearl Harbor strike despite dissent from certain advisors. Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the Hull note would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea". Before the attack, he became more involved in military matters, even joining the Conference of Military Councillors, which

4173-520: The Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. The American War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with an elite force of 40,000 men; this option was never implemented due to opposition from Douglas MacArthur , who felt he would need a force ten times that size. By 1941, American planners expected to have to abandon the Philippines at the outbreak of war. Late that year, Admiral Thomas C. Hart , commander of

4280-689: The Royal Navy and the IJN Admiralty sought establishment of their own Naval Air Service. The IJN had also observed technical developments in other countries and saw military potential of the airplane. In 1913, the IJN seaplane carrier Wakamiya was converted into a seaplane tender and aircraft were purchased. The 1st and 2nd Air Fleet were to be the primary attack force of the IJNAS . The Japanese carriers' experiences off China had helped further develop

4387-665: The United States end its sanctions against Japan , cease aiding China in the Second Sino-Japanese War , and allow Japan to access the resources of the Dutch East Indies . Anticipating a negative response, Japan sent out its naval attack groups in November 1941 just prior to receiving the Hull note —which states the United States desire that Japan withdraw from China and French Indochina . Japan intended

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4494-603: The United States), but not delivered to the American government until the day after the attack. For decades, conventional wisdom held that Japan attacked without first formally breaking diplomatic relations only because of accidents and bumbling that delayed the delivery of a document hinting at war to Washington. In 1999, however, Takeo Iguchi, a professor of law and international relations at International Christian University in Tokyo, discovered documents that pointed to

4601-531: The United States, United Kingdom, and Netherlands supplied one million U.S. gallons (3.8 million liters) of aviation fuel, lifted their sanctions against Japan, and ceased aid to China. The American counter-proposal of November 26 (November 27 in Japan), the Hull note , required Japan to completely evacuate China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers. On November 26 in Japan,

4708-514: The aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to assume CAP duties where needed, especially over American airfields. Before the attack commenced, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched reconnaissance floatplanes from heavy cruisers Chikuma and Tone , to scout Oahu and Lahaina Roads, Maui, respectively, with orders to report on American fleet composition and location. Reconnaissance aircraft flights risked alerting

4815-468: The attack and Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi launched a strike against Yorktown . Aircraft from Hiryū managed to cripple Yorktown , which was later sunk by Japanese submarine  I-168 . In response, the US launched a strike against Hiryū and sank her. That day the Japanese lost four aircraft carriers and much of their experienced aircrew. The US Navy's attack on the Japanese base at Truk (Chuuk) on 17 February 1944 ( Operation Hailstone ) surprised

4922-766: The attack as a preventive action. Its aim was to prevent the United States Pacific Fleet from interfering with its planned military actions in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom , the Netherlands , and the United States. Over the course of seven hours, Japan conducted coordinated attacks on the U.S.-held Philippines , Guam , and Wake Island ; and on the British Empire in Malaya , Singapore , and Hong Kong . The attack on Pearl Harbor started at 7:48   a.m. Hawaiian time (6:18   p.m. GMT). The base

5029-407: The attack on Pearl Harbor that was declassified in the 1990s and publicized in the 2000s to the public, shows the fifth midget submarine firing a torpedo at West Virginia and another at Oklahoma . These torpedoes were twice the size of the aerial torpedoes so it was possible that both torpedoes heavily contributed to the sinkings of both ships and especially helped to capsize Oklahoma as Oklahoma

5136-410: The attack. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to prevent sabotage, guns unmanned (none of the Navy's 5"/38s , only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action). Despite this low alert status , many American military personnel responded effectively during the attack. Ensign Joseph Taussig Jr. , aboard Nevada , commanded

5243-682: The auspices of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , then commanding Japan's Combined Fleet . He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command. Full-scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Rear Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka , with assistance from Commander Minoru Genda and Yamamoto's Deputy Chief of Staff, Captain Kameto Kuroshima. The planners studied

5350-407: The basis for the screenplay of the film Tora! Tora! Tora! , which was produced in 1970, while Prange took a leave of absence from the University of Maryland to serve as the technical consultant during its filming. His extensive research into the attack on Pearl Harbor was the subject of a Public Broadcasting Service television program in 2000, Prange and Pearl Harbor: A Magnificent Obsession , and

5457-609: The battle. After disastrous losses at the Battle of the Philippine Sea , the Japanese carrier force was again practically without aircrew and aircraft. This meant that at the Battle of Leyte Gulf the IJN carrier force was only used as a decoy force where it was ultimately destroyed, the battle that saw the last Kidō Butai survivor, Zuikaku , along with Zuiho , Chiyoda and Chitose succumbing to US air attacks of Admiral William F. Halsey 's Task Force 38 . Attack on Pearl Harbor Japanese victory 1941 1942 Second Sino-Japanese War The attack on Pearl Harbor

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5564-493: The beginning of the Pacific War, First Air Fleet included six fleet carriers : Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū , Hiryū , Shōkaku , and Zuikaku , and two light carriers : Ryūjō and Kasuga Maru (later renamed Taiyō ), as shown in the table below. On 14 July 1942, First Air Fleet was converted into Third Fleet (第三艦隊) and Eighth Fleet (第八艦隊), and 2nd Carrier Division (first generation) and 5th Carrier Division were disbanded. On

5671-701: The commanding officer of one of the submarines, was captured. Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire later that day (December 8 in Tokyo ), but the declarations were not delivered until the following day. The British government declared war on Japan immediately after learning that their territory had also been attacked, while the following day (December 8), the United States Congress declared war on Japan . On December 11, though they had no formal obligation to do so under

5778-436: The day before the note's delivery, the Japanese task force left port for Pearl Harbor . The Japanese intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the United States Pacific Fleet from interfering with their planned military actions in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom , the Netherlands , and the United States. Over the course of seven hours, there were coordinated Japanese attacks on

5885-660: The deadliest event ever recorded in Hawaii. It was also the deadliest foreign attack against the United States in its history until the September 11 attacks of 2001. Important base installations, such as the power station, dry dock , shipyard , maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the intelligence section ) were not attacked. Japanese losses were light: 29 aircraft and five midget submarines were lost, and 129 servicemen killed. Kazuo Sakamaki ,

5992-532: The first target; instead, they expected the Philippines to be attacked first. This presumption was due to the threat that the air bases throughout the country and the naval base at Manila posed to sea lanes, as well as to the shipment of supplies to Japan from territory to the south. They also incorrectly believed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time. The Japanese attack had several major aims. First, it intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing

6099-449: The first wave approached Oahu, it was detected by United States Army SCR-270 radar positioned at Opana Point near the island's northern tip. This post had been in training mode for months, but was not yet operational. The operators, Privates George Elliot Jr. and Joseph Lockard , reported a target to Private Joseph P. McDonald , a private stationed at Fort Shafter 's Intercept Center near Pearl Harbor. Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler ,

6206-536: The first wave began its attack on the US Pacific Fleet based at Pearl Harbor and on outlying airfields. By the end of the day, 21 American ships were either sunk or crippled , 188 aircraft were destroyed, and almost 2,500 Americans were killed. Japan was now formally at war with the United States. For the attack on Pearl Harbor , this fleet had a strength of 103 level bombers , 128 dive bombers , 40 torpedo bombers , 88 fighter planes, plus 91 planes for

6313-476: The first wave. The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to attack carriers as its first objective and cruisers as its second, with battleships as the third target. The first wave carried most of the weapons designed to attack capital ships, mainly specially adapted Type 91 aerial torpedoes which were designed with an anti-roll mechanism and a rudder extension that let them operate in shallow water. The aircrews were ordered to select

6420-624: The following operation. The remaining fleet returned to Japan to prepare for the Midway invasion (Operation MI). Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto planned to lure and destroy USN carriers by attacking the Midway Islands in June 1942. The Japanese were unaware that the United States had broken their naval code . As a result of this, USN carriers were already in the area when the Japanese attacked Midway. On 3 June US land-based bombers from Midway attacked

6527-486: The ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Eight Army Air Forces pilots managed to get airborne during the attack, and six were credited with downing at least one Japanese aircraft during the attack: 1st Lieutenant Lewis M. Sanders and 2nd Lieutenants Philip M. Rasmussen , Kenneth M. Taylor , George S. Welch , Harry W. Brown , and Gordon H. Sterling Jr. Of 33 Consolidated PBY Catalinas in Hawaii, 30 were destroyed, while three on patrol at

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6634-431: The harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8. Ensign Kazuo Sakamaki swam ashore and was captured by Hawaii National Guard Corporal David Akui , becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war . A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and was abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes. It was found outside the harbor in 1960. Japanese forces received

6741-421: The highest-value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers ) or, if these were not present, any other high-value ships (cruisers and destroyers). First-wave dive bombers were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not intercept the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters' fuel got low, they were to refuel aboard

6848-408: The information later being used in the writing of his books. Several became New York Times bestsellers , including At Dawn We Slept, The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor and Miracle at Midway . Prange's 1963 Tora! Tora! Tora! , published in the November and December issues of Reader's Digest , and later expanded into At Dawn We Slept , portrayed the attack on Pearl Harbor , and is credited as

6955-470: The latter perceived as an unfriendly act. The United States did not stop oil exports, however, partly because of the prevailing sentiment in Washington that given Japanese dependence on American oil, such an action was likely to be considered an extreme provocation. In mid-1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet from San Diego to Hawaii. He also ordered a military buildup in

7062-511: The meeting, warning that it was the only way to preserve the conciliatory Konoe government and peace in the Pacific. However, his recommendation was not acted upon. The Konoe government collapsed the following month when the Japanese military rejected a withdrawal of all troops from China. Japan's final proposal, delivered on November 20, offered to withdraw from southern Indochina and to refrain from attacks in Southeast Asia, so long as

7169-399: The message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it at 1:00   p.m. Washington time, as ordered, and consequently the message was not presented until more than one hour after the attack had begun —   but American code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of the message hours before it was scheduled to be delivered. The final part of the message

7276-569: The mission. For example, for operations against New Britain and New Guinea in January 1942, First Kōkū Sentai and Fifth Kōkū Sentai participated. The number (from approximately two dozen up to approximately 80 aircraft) and type of aircraft varied, based on the capacity of the aircraft carrier. The large fleet carriers had three types of aircraft; fighters , level/torpedo bombers , and dive bombers . The smaller carriers tended to have only two types of aircraft, fighters and torpedo bombers. At

7383-474: The next decade, Japan expanded into China , leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and endeavored to secure enough independent resources to attain victory on the mainland. The " Southern Operation " was designed to assist these efforts. Starting in December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay , the Allison incident , and

7490-666: The only fire department members on American soil to be attacked by a foreign power in history. Fireman Harry Tuck Lee Pang of Engine   6 was killed near the hangars by machine-gun fire from a Japanese plane. Captains Thomas Macy and John Carreira of Engine   4 and Engine   1, respectively, died while battling flames inside the hangar after a Japanese bomb crashed through the roof. An additional six firefighters were wounded by Japanese shrapnel. The wounded later received Purple Hearts (originally reserved for service members wounded by enemy action while partaking in armed conflicts) for their peacetime actions that day on June 13, 1944;

7597-546: The opening line of his speech to a Joint Session of Congress the following day, to famously label December 7, 1941, " a date which will live in infamy ". War between the Empire of Japan and the United States was seen as a possibility since the 1920s. Japan had been wary of American territorial and military expansion in the Pacific and Asia since the late 1890s, followed by the annexation of islands, such as Hawaii and

7704-484: The operators of the six B-17s that were due (even though it was widely known). As the first wave approached Oahu, they encountered and shot down several American aircraft. At least one of these radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the Japanese air assault began at 7:48   a.m. Hawaiian time (3:18   a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time , as kept by ships of

7811-557: The organization. It consisted of Japan's six largest carriers, carrying the 1st Air Fleet. This mobile task force was created for the attack on Pearl Harbor under Vice-Admiral Chūichi Nagumo in 1941. For the attack, the Kidō Butai consisted of six aircraft carriers (commanded by Chūichi Nagumo, Tamon Yamaguchi and Chūichi Hara ) with 414 airplanes, two battleships , three cruisers , nine destroyers, eight tankers , 23 submarines , and four midget submarines . However, these escort ships were borrowed from other fleets and squadrons. It

7918-495: The peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost. The Japanese Government regrets to have to notify hereby the American Government that in view of the attitude of the American Government it cannot but consider that it is impossible to reach an agreement through further negotiations. United States naval intelligence officers were alarmed by the unusual timing for delivering

8025-466: The same date, the Japanese Navy's front-line aircraft carriers and their aircraft units came under the command of the 3rd Fleet , which was created in its sixth generation on that date. The Kidō Butai (機動部隊, "Mobile Strike Force") was the Combined Fleet 's tactical designation for its combined carrier battle groups . The title was used as a term of convenience; it was not a formal name for

8132-615: The second wave attacked the Army Air Forces' Bellows Field , near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of P-36 Hawks , P-40 Warhawks and some SBD Dauntless dive bombers from the carrier Enterprise . In the first-wave attack, about eight of the forty-nine 800‑kg (1760   lb) armor-piercing bombs dropped hit their intended battleship targets. At least two of those bombs broke up on impact, another detonated before penetrating an unarmored deck, and one

8239-591: The ship's antiaircraft guns and was severely wounded but remained at his post. Lieutenant Commander F. J. Thomas commanded Nevada in the captain's absence and got her underway until the ship was grounded at 9:10   a.m. One of the destroyers, Aylwin , got underway with only four officers aboard, all ensigns, none with more than a year's sea duty; she operated at sea for 36 hours before her commanding officer managed to get back aboard. Captain Mervyn Bennion , commanding West Virginia , led his men until he

8346-534: The side of the Allies the day following the attack, on December 8, 1941. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI , and as Operation Z during its planning. The Empire of Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor was preceded by months of negotiations between the United States and Japan over the future of the Pacific . Japanese demands included that

8453-530: The termination of negotiations   ... and they clearly prevailed." In any event, even if the Japanese had decoded and delivered the 14-Part Message before the beginning of the attack, it would not have constituted either a formal break of diplomatic relations or a declaration of war. The final two paragraphs of the message read: Thus the earnest hope of the Japanese Government to adjust Japanese-American relations and to preserve and promote

8560-471: The three firefighters killed did not receive theirs until December 7, 1984, on the 43rd anniversary of the attack. This made the nine men the only non-military firefighters to receive such an award in American history. Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire amidships, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way and sustained more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs, which started further fires. She

8667-404: The time of the attack returned undamaged. Friendly fire brought down some American planes on top of that, including four from an inbound flight from Enterprise . Gordon Prange Gordon William Prange ( / p r æ ŋ / ; July 16, 1910 – May 15, 1980) was the author of several World War II historical manuscripts which were published by his co-workers after his death in 1980. Prange

8774-449: Was a dud. Thirteen of the forty torpedoes hit battleships, while four hit other ships. Men aboard the ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire, prompting them to dress as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill.", was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) American servicemen were caught unprepared by

8881-409: Was a major component of the Combined Fleet (Rengō Kantai) . When created on 10 April 1941, it had three kōkū sentai (air flotillas; in the case of aircraft carriers, carrier divisions): On that date, First Kōkū Sentai consisted of Akagi and Kaga and their aircraft units. Later that spring, a number of destroyers were added. On 10 April 1941, Second Kōkū Sentai comprised Sōryū , Hiryū and

8988-586: Was a professor of history at the University of Maryland from 1937 to 1980 with a break of nine years (1942–1951) of military service in the United States Navy during World War II , and in the postwar military occupation of Japan , when he was the Chief Historian on General Douglas MacArthur 's staff. It was during this time that Prange collected material from and interviewed many Japanese military officers, enlisted men, and civilians, with

9095-674: Was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu , Hawaii, the United States, just before 8:00   a.m. (local time) on Sunday, December 7, 1941. At the time, the United States was a neutral country in World War II . The attack on Hawaii and other U.S. territories led the United States to formally enter World War II on

9202-470: Was acclaimed "a definitive book on the event" by The Washington Post . Prange was a popular lecturer at the University of Maryland. The Terrapin , the university's yearbook , said of his World War I and World War II history classes: "Students flock to his class and sit enraptured as he animates the pages of twentieth century European history through his goosesteps, 'Sieg Heils', 'Achtungs', machine gun retorts and frantic gestures". Gordon William Prange

9309-627: Was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese aircraft (including fighters , level and dive bombers , and torpedo bombers ) in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers . Of the eight United States Navy battleships present, all were damaged and four were sunk. All but USS  Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service and went on to fight in the war. The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers , three destroyers , an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer . More than 180 US aircraft were destroyed. A total of 2,393 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded, making it

9416-544: Was born on July 16, 1910, in Pomeroy, Iowa . His parents were Al, a blacksmith and his wife Johanna. He had one older brother Russell. He attended Pomeroy High School, where he excelled in baseball and track athletics. He was also known as the class clown. He graduated from Pomeroy in 1928 and enrolled at the University of Iowa intending to become a coach, but switched to history. He obtained his bachelor's degree, his master's degree in 1934, and doctorate in 1937. He studied at

9523-596: Was considered unusual for him. Additionally, he actively sought more information about the war plans. According to an aide, he openly displayed happiness upon hearing about the success of the surprise attacks. By late 1941, many observers believed that hostilities between the United States and Japan were imminent. A Gallup poll just before the attack on Pearl Harbor found that 52% of Americans expected war with Japan, 27% did not, and 21% had no opinion. While American Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on many occasions, officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be

9630-443: Was created on 1 September 1941 and was added to First Air Fleet The Naval Data Base:航空戦隊. . When the new aircraft carrier Zuikaku was added to Fifth Kōkū Sentai, First Air Fleet consisted of Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū , Hiryū , Ryūjō , Kasuga Maru (renamed Taiyō ca. 31 August 1942), Shōkaku and Zuikaku , along with their aircraft units and a number of destroyers. The Naval Data Base:航空戦隊. On 25 September 1941, Kasuga Maru

9737-552: Was created on the same day as this fleet was). On 30 September 1943, a cabinet meeting planned the Absolute National Defense Zone ( 絶対国防圏 , Zettai Kokubōken ) strategy. The plan intended the Kuril Islands , Bonin Islands , Mariana Islands , Caroline Islands , Biak , Sunda Islands and Burma to be unsinkable aircraft carriers . The 1st Air Fleet became the main force of this plan. However, it

9844-407: Was cut down by fragments from a bomb which hit Tennessee , moored alongside. The second planned wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki . Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties. This wave and its targets also comprised three groups of planes: The second wave was divided into three groups. One

9951-428: Was deliberately beached to avoid risking blocking the harbor entrance if she sank there. California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia was drifted down toward her and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship Utah

10058-402: Was disbanded. Imperial Flattops ) See the table titled "Transition", below. When formed on 10 April 1941, First Air Fleet was a naval battlegroup with the single most powerful concentration of carrier-based aircraft in the world at the time. Military historian Gordon Prange called it "a revolutionary and potentially formidable instrument of sea power." Fifth Kōkū Sentai (5th Carrier Division)

10165-558: Was hampered by an inadequate early warning system, including a lack of radar . Poor radio communications with the fighter aircraft inhibited effective command and control of the CAP. The carriers' escorting warships were deployed as visual scouts in a ring at long range, not as close anti-aircraft escorts, as they lacked training, doctrine, and sufficient anti-aircraft guns. These deficiencies would eventually doom Kaga and other First Air Fleet carriers. The First Air Fleet (Dai-ichi Kōkū Kantai)

10272-413: Was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser Honolulu was damaged but remained in service. The repair vessel Vestal , moored alongside Arizona , was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender Curtiss was also damaged. The destroyer Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine. Of the 402 American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged, 155 of them on

10379-453: Was holed twice by torpedoes. West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor , which caused her to capsize. Maryland was hit by two of the converted 16" shells, but neither caused serious damage. Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser Helena

10486-513: Was made by Japan, but this was not Admiral Yamamoto's intention. He originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that peace negotiations were at an end. However, the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5000-word notification (commonly called the "14-Part Message") in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. Transcribing

10593-608: Was only lightly defended and the Japanese inflicted heavy losses upon the Allied forces at little cost to themselves. The urban areas of Darwin also suffered some damage from the raids and there were a number of civilian casualties. Between 31 March and 10 April 1942 the Japanese conducted a naval sortie against Allied naval forces in the Indian Ocean . The Fast Carrier Task Force ( Kidō Butai ), consisting of six carriers commanded by Admiral Chūichi Nagumo , inflicted heavy losses on

10700-415: Was operating together, the divisions' air groups were combined with each other. This doctrine of combined, massed, carrier air attack groups was the most advanced of its kind of all the world's navies. The IJN, however, remained concerned that concentrating all of its carriers together would render them vulnerable to being wiped out all at once by a massive enemy air or surface strike. Thus, the IJN developed

10807-797: Was prepared to take opposing steps if "neighboring countries" were attacked. Japan and the United States engaged in negotiations during 1941, attempting to improve relations. In the course of these negotiations, Japan offered to withdraw from most of China and Indochina after making peace with the Nationalist government. It also proposed to adopt an independent interpretation of the Tripartite Pact and to refrain from trade discrimination, provided all other nations reciprocated. Washington rejected these proposals. Japanese Prime Minister Konoe then offered to meet with Roosevelt, but Roosevelt insisted on reaching an agreement before any meeting. The American ambassador to Japan repeatedly urged Roosevelt to accept

10914-806: Was soundly beaten in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . The IJN then moved the air fleet to the Philippines to regroup. However, due partly to the aircrews' lack of combat experience, the air fleet suffered severe losses in the Formosa Air Battle . After the battle it had only 41 aircraft. The only tactic left for them was the kamikaze attack . The Kidō Butai (also known as the Carrier Striking Task Force ) set sail from Hitokappu Bay , Japan under Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo on 26 November 1941, arriving in Hawaiian waters on Sunday, 7 December 1941 Hawaiian time. At around 8am,

11021-680: Was tasked to attack Kāneʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously from several directions. Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,008 sailors were killed and 710 others wounded; 218 soldiers and airmen (who were part of the Army prior to the independent United States Air Force in 1947) were killed and 364 wounded; 109 Marines were killed and 69 wounded; and 68 civilians were killed and 35 wounded. In total, 2,403 Americans were killed, and 1,178 were wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships. All of

11128-506: Was the only battleship that day to suffer catastrophic damage to her belt armor at the waterline from a torpedo. Admiral Chester Nimitz, in a report to Congress, confirmed that one midget submarine's torpedo (possibly from the other midget submarine that fired torpedoes but failed to hit a target) which was fired but did not explode was recovered in Pearl Harbor and was much larger than the aerial torpedoes. Others dispute this theory. The attack took place before any formal declaration of war

11235-535: Was the single most powerful naval fleet until four of the six aircraft carriers of the unit were destroyed in the disastrous Battle of Midway . On 1 July 1943, the 1st Air Fleet was recreated as an exclusively land-based air fleet. It was intended to consist of nearly 1,600 aircraft when completed, but the war situation prevented it from reaching that figure, and the second generation of this fleet began with only two Kōkūtai: Dai 261 Kaigun Kōkūtai (a one-month-old Zerosen unit) and Dai 761 Kaigun Kōkūtai (a bomber unit that

11342-438: Was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer Oglala . Two destroyers in dry dock , Cassin and Downes , were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers . The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and both were burned out. Cassin slipped from her keel blocks and rolled against Downes . The light cruiser Raleigh

11449-424: Was transferred from Fifth Kōkū Sentai to Fourth Kōkū Sentai. Imperial Flattops ( Kasuga Maru was used to ferry aircraft to distant Japanese bases and should not be considered a front-line aircraft carrier. The status of any aircraft unit that she may have had is unclear. Imperial Flattops ) Light carrier Shōhō was added to Fourth Kōkū Sentai on 22 December 1941. Imperial lattops She was destroyed on 7 May 1942 in

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